Introduction to Project

Management
 Project Management Statistics
The U.S. spends $2.3 trillion on projects every year, an
amount equal to one-quarter of the nation’s gross
domestic product.
The world as a whole spends nearly $10 trillion of its
$40.7 trillion gross product on projects of all kinds.
More than sixteen million people regard project
management as their profession; on average, a project
manager earns more than $82,000 per year.*

*PMI, The PMI Project Management Fact Book, Second Edition, 2001
 More Information
on Project Management

More than half a million new information technology

(IT) application development projects were initiated
during 2001, up from 300,000 in 2000.*
Famous business authors and consultants are
stressing the importance of project management. As
Tom Peters writes in his book, Reinventing Work: the
Project 50, “To win today you must master the art of
the project!”

*The Standish Group, “CHAOS 2001: A Recipe for Success”

 Motivation for Studying Information Technology (IT) Project
Management

IT projects have a terrible track record

A 1995 Standish Group study (CHAOS) found that only 16.2%
of IT projects were successful and over 31% were canceled
before completion, costing over $81 B in the U.S. alone
The need for IT projects keeps increasing
In 2000, there were 300,000 new IT projects
In 2001, over 500,000 new IT projects were started
 Advantages of Using Formal Project Management

Better control of financial, physical, and human resources

Improved customer relations
Shorter development times
Lower costs
Higher quality and increased reliability
Higher profit margins
Improved productivity
Better internal coordination
Higher worker morale
What Is a Project?
A project is “a temporary endeavor undertaken to
accomplish a unique product or service”
(PMBOK® Guide 2000, p. 4)
Operations, on the other hand, is work done in
organizations to sustain the busi­ness.
Attributes of projects
Has a unique purpose
Temporary
Developed using progressive elaboration
require resources, often from various areas
should have a primary sponsor and/or customer
involve uncertainty
Samples of IT Projects
 The Triple Constraint
Every project is constrained in different ways by its
Scope goals: What is the project trying to accomplish?
Time goals: How long should it take to complete?
Cost goals: What should it cost?
It is the project manager’s duty to balance these three often
competing goals
The Triple Constraint of Project
Management
 What is Project Management?
 Project management is “the application of
knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project
activities to meet project requirements” (PMI*, Project
Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide),
2000, p. 6)
Project managers must strive not only to meet specific scope,
time, cost, and quality goals of projects, they must also
facilitate the entire process to meet the needs and
expectations of people involved in project activities or
affected by them.
Project Management Framework
 Project Stakeholders
Stakeholders are the people involved in or affected by
project activities
Stakeholders include
the project sponsor and project team
support staff
customers
users
suppliers
opponents to the project
 10 Project Management Knowledge Areas
Knowledge areas describe the key competencies that
project managers must develop
4 core knowledge areas lead to specific project
objectives (scope, time, cost, and quality)
5 facilitating knowledge areas are the means
through which the project objectives are achieved
(human resources, communication, risk, procurement
and stakeholders management)
1 knowledge area (project integration management)
affects and is affected by all of the other knowledge
areas
 Project Management Tools and Techniques
Project management tools and techniques assist project
managers and their teams in various aspects of project
management
Some specific ones include
Project Charter, scope statement, and WBS (scope)
Gantt charts, network diagrams, critical path analysis,
critical chain scheduling (time)
Cost estimates and earned value management (cost)
What helps projects succeed?
 PROGRAM AND PROJECT PORTFOLIO
MANAGEMENT
A program is "a group of related projects managed in a
coordinated way to obtain benefits and control and not
available from managing them individually.”
project portfolio management, in which organizations
group and manage projects and programs as a portfolio
of investments that contribute to the enterprise’s
success. Portfolio managers help the organizations
make wise investment decisions by helping to select
and analyze projects from a strategic perspective.­
Ten most important skills and competencies for project
managers
 How Project Management Relates to Other Disciplines

Much of the knowledge needed to manage projects is

unique to the discipline of project management
Project managers must also have knowledge and
experience in
general management
the application area of the project
 Sample Gantt Chart

The WBS is on the left, and each task’s start and finish date
are shown on the right using a calendar timescale. Early Gantt
Charts, first used in 1917, were drawn by hand.
 Sample Network Diagram

Each box is a project task from the WBS. Arrows show dependencies
between tasks. The bolded tasks are on the critical path. If any tasks on the
critical path take longer than planned, the whole project will slip
unless something is done. Network diagrams were first used in 1958 on the
Navy Polaris project, before project management software was available.
 Sample Enterprise Project Management Tool

In recent years, organizations have been taking advantage of software

to help manage their projects throughout the enterprise.
 The Project Management Profession
The job of IT Project Manager is in the list of the top ten
most in demand IT skills
Professional societies like the Project Management
Institute (PMI) have grown tremendously
Project management research and certification programs
continue to grow
 Project Management Certification
PMI provides certification as a Project Management
Professional (PMP)
A PMP has documented sufficient project experience,
agreed to follow a code of ethics, and passed the PMP
exam
The number of people earning PMP certification is
increasing quickly
PMI and other organizations are offering new
certification programs (see Appendix B)
 Ethics in Project Management
Ethics is an important part of all professions
Project managers often face ethical dilemmas(difficult
situation or problem)
In order to earn PMP certification, applicants must
agree to the PMP code of professional conduct
 You Can Apply Project Management to Many Areas
Project management applies to work as well as
personal projects
Project management applies to many different
disciplines (IT, construction, finance, sports, event
planning, etc.)
Project management skills can help in everyday life
 Projects Cannot Be Run in Isolation
Projects must operate in a broad organizational
environment
Project managers need to take a holistic or systems
view of a project and understand how it is situated
within the larger organization
See example in opening and closing case to illustrate this
concept
 A Systems View of Project Management
A systems approach emerged in the 1950s to describe
a holistic and analytical approach to solving complex
problems that includes using Systems Philosophy,
Systems analysis and Systems management.
Systems philosophy: View things as systems,
interacting components working within an
environment to fulfill some purpose
Systems analysis: problem-solving approach that
requires defining the scope of the system, dividing it
into components, and then identifying and evaluating
its problems, opportunities, constraints, and needs.
Systems management: Address business,
technological, and organizational issues associated
with creating, maintaining and modifying a system.
Three Sphere Model for Systems Management
 Understanding Organizations
Structural frame: Human resources frame:
Focuses on roles and Focuses on providing
responsibilities, harmony between needs of
coordination and control. the organization and needs
Organizational charts help of people.
define this frame.

Political frame: Assumes Symbolic frame: Focuses

organizations are on symbols and meanings
coalitions composed of related to events. Culture
varied individuals and is important.
interest groups. Conflict
and power are key issues.
 Many Organizations Focus on the Structural Frame

Most people understand what organizational charts

are
Many new managers try to change organizational
structure when other changes are needed
3 basic organizational structures
functional
project
matrix
Basic Organizational Structures
 Organizational Structure Influences on Projects

The organizational structure influences the project manager’s authority, but project managers
need to remember to address the human resources, political, and symbolic frames, too.
 Recognize the Importance of Project Stakeholders

 Recall that project stakeholders are the people involved in or

affected by project activities
 Project managers must take time to identify, understand, and
manage relationships with all project stakeholders
 Using the four frames of organizations can help meet
stakeholder needs and expectations
 Senior executives are very important stakeholders
 Need for Top Management Commitment
 Several studies cite top management commitment as one of
the key factors associated with project success
 Top management can help project managers secure adequate
resources, get approval for unique project needs in a timely
manner, receive cooperation from people throughout the
organization, and learn how to be better leaders
 Need for Organizational Commitment to Information Technology (IT)

 If the organization has a negative attitude toward IT, it will be

difficult for an IT project to succeed
 Having a Chief Information Officer (CIO) at a high level in
the organization helps IT projects
 Assigning non-IT people to IT projects also encourages more
commitment
 Need for Organizational Standards
 Standards and guidelines help project managers be more
effective
 Senior management can encourage
 the use of standard forms and software for project
management
 the development and use of guidelines for writing project
plans or providing status information
 the creation of a project management office or center of
excellence
 Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle
A project life cycle is a collection of project
phases.
Project phases vary by project or industry, but
some general phases include
Concept
Development
Implementation
Close out
 Project phases cont.…
Concept ------> Starting the project
 Develop some type of Business cases, which describes the
need for the project and basic underlying concepts.
 Preliminary or rough cost estimate
 An overview of the required work
 Work Break down structure[WBS]
 Competitive analysis of what five similar campuses were doing
 Survey local students, staff and faculty
 Rough assessment of how using more technology would affect
costs and Enrollments
Project Phases cont.…
Development ------> Organizing and preparing
 Project management plan
 Accurate cost Estimates
 Thorough WBS
 Project phases cont..
Implementation ------> Carrying out the project work
 Definitive and very accurate cost estimates
 Delivers the required work
 Provide performance reports to stakeholders
 Eg: Obtain the required hw and sw
o Install the necessary network equipment
o Deliver laptops to students
o Create a process for collecting fee
o Providing training for students, staff and faculty.
 Close-out ------> Finishing the project
Phases of the Project Life Cycle
 Product Life Cycles
 Products also have life cycles(i.e. development , maturity , decline)
 The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a framework
for describing the phases involved in developing and
maintaining information systems
 Systems development projects can follow
predictive models: the scope of the project can be clearly articulated
and the schedule and cost can be predicted
adaptive models: projects are mission driven and component based,
using time-based cycles to meet target date
 Predictive Life Cycle Models
 The waterfall model has well-defined, linear stages of systems
development and support
 The spiral model shows that software is developed using an
iterative or spiral approach rather than a linear approach
 The incremental release model provides for progressive
development of operational software
 The prototyping model is used for developing prototypes to
clarify user requirements (prototype is scale down version of
working system )
 The RAD model is used to produce systems quickly without
sacrificing quality
 Adaptive Life Cycle Models
 Extreme Programming (XP): Developers program in pairs and
must write the tests for their own code. XP teams include
developers, managers, and users
 Scrum: Repetitions of iterative development are referred to as
sprints, which normally last thirty days. Teams often meet every
day for a short meeting, called a scrum, to decide what to
accomplish that day. Works best for object-oriented technology
projects and requires strong leadership to coordinate the work
 Distinguishing Project Life Cycles and Product Life Cycles
 The project life cycle applies to all projects, regardless of the
products being produced
 Product life cycle models vary considerably based on the
nature of the product
 Most large IT systems are developed as a series of projects
 Project management is done in all of the product life cycle
phases
 Why Have Project Phases and
Management Reviews?

 A project should successfully pass through each of the

project phases in order to continue on to the next
 Management reviews (also called phase exits or kill points)
should occur after each phase to evaluate the project’s
progress, likely success, and continued compatibility with
organizational goals
The Context of IT Projects
The nature of IT projects
IT projects can be very diverse. Hardware, software,
networks .
IT project support every possible industry and Business
functions
Characteristics of IT Project team members
Because of the nature of IT projects, the people involved
come from very diverse backgrounds and possess
different skills.
Diverse Technologies
if programmers are limited in their ability to work in
multiple languages, project managers might find it more
difficult to form and lead more versatile project teams.
Another problem with diverse technologies is that many
 RECENT TRENDS AFFECTING
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
Globalization
Outsourcing
Virtual Teams
 Most Significant Characteristics of Effective and
Ineffective Project Managers
Effective Project Managers Ineffective Project Managers
 Lead by example  Set bad examples
 Are visionaries  Are not self-assured
 Are technically competent  Lack technical expertise
 Are decisive  Are poor communicators
 Are good communicators  Are poor motivators
 Are good motivators
 Stand up to upper management
when necessary
 Support team members
 Encourage new ideas
The Project Management Process Groups: A Case Study
 Project Management Process Groups
A process is a series of actions directed toward a
particular result.
Project management process groups progress from
initiating activities to planning activities, executing
activities, monitoring and controlling activities, and
closing activities.
Project management can be viewed as a number of
interlinked processes
The project management process groups include
Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring and
Controlling and
Closing processes
Initiating processes include defining and authorizing a
project or project phase.
Initiating processes take place during each phase of a
project.
Planning processes include devising and maintaining a
workable scheme to ensure that the project addresses the
organization’s needs.
Projects include several plans, such as the scope
management plan, schedule management plan, cost
management plan, and procurement management plan.
These plans define each knowledge area as it relates to
the project at that point in time.
Executing processes include coordinating people and
other resources to carry out the various plans and create
the products, services, or results of the project or phase.
Monitoring and controlling processes include regularly
measuring and monitoring progress to ensure that the
project team meets the project objectives.
The project manager and staff monitor and measure
progress against the plans and take corrective action when
necessary.
A common monitoring and controlling process is
reporting performance.
Closing processes include formalizing acceptance of the
project or project phase and ending it efficiently.
Administrative activities are often involved in this
process group, such as archiving project files, closing out
contracts, documenting lessons learned, and receiving
formal acceptance of the delivered work as part of the
phase or project
Overlap of Process Groups in a Phase
Project management process groups and knowledge
area mapping
Project management process groups and knowledge
area mapping cont.…
 Developing an IT Project Management Methodology

 Just as projects are unique, so are approaches to

project management
 Many organizations develop their own project

management methodologies, especially for IT projects

 Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan used the PMBOK

as a guide in developing their IT project management

methodology
 Developing an IT project Management Methodology

 The PMBOK guide is a standard that describes best

practices for what should be done to manage a project.

 A methodology describes how things should be done,

and different organizations often have different ways of

doing things.
 Many organizations use other guides or methods, such

as the following:
 IT project Management Methodology cont..

 1. PRojects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2): PRINCE2 defines 45

separate sub processes and organizes them into eight process groups as
follows:
 1. Starting up a project
 2. Planning
 3. Initiating a project
 4. Directing a project
 5. Controlling a stage
 6. Managing product delivery
 7. Managing stage boundaries
 8. Closing a project
 IT project Management Methodology cont..

 2. Agile Methods: All agile methods include an iterative

workflow and incremental delivery of software in short

iterations. Popular agile methods include extreme
programming, Scrum, feature-driven development, lean
software development, Agile Unified Process (AUP),
Crystal, and Dynamic Systems Development Method
(DSDM).
 IT project Management Methodology cont..

 3. Rational Unified process [RUP] Framework:

 An iterative software development process that focuses

on team productivity and delivers software best

practices to all team members.
 “RUP embodies industry-standard management and

technical methods and techniques to provide a software

engineering process particularly suited to creating
and maintaining component-based software system
solutions."
 IT project Management Methodology cont..
 4. Six Sigma methodologies: Two main methodologies are used on

Six Sigma projects:

 DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control) is used

to improve an existing business process, and

 DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Verify) is used to

create new product or process designs to achieve predictable,

defect-free performance.
 Case Study: JWD Consulting’s Project
Management Intranet Site
 This case study provides an example of what’s involved in initiating,

planning, executing, controlling, and closing an IT project

 You can download templates for creating your own project

management documents from the companion Web site for this text
 Note: This case study provides a big picture view of managing a

project. Later chapters provide detailed information on each

knowledge area.
 Pre Initiation Tasks
 Senior managers often perform several tasks, sometimes called

pre-initiation tasks, including the following:

 Determine the scope, time, and cost constraints for the project

 Identify the project sponsor

 Select the project manager

 Develop a business case for a project [TABLE 3-2 JWD Consulting’s

business case]
 Meet with the project manager to review the process and

expectations for managing the project

 Determine if the project should be divided into two or more smaller

projects
Pre initiation cont..
 Notice that the following information is included in this business case:

 Introduction/background

 Business objective

 Current situation and problem/opportunity statement

 Critical assumptions and constraints

 Analysis of options and recommendation

 Preliminary project requirements

 Budget estimate and financial analysis

 Schedule estimate

 Potential risks

 Exhibits
 Project Initiation
 Initiating a project includes recognizing and starting a new project or

project phase.
 The main outputs are:

 Project Charter [TABLE 3-6 Project charter]

 Stackholder register [TABLE 3-4 Stakeholder register]

 Stakeholder management strategy [TABLE 3-5 Stakeholder management

strategy]
 Formal Project kick-off Meeting [FIGURE 3-2 Kick-off meeting agenda]
 Project Planning
Planning is often the most difficult and unappreciated

process in project management. Because planning is not

always used to facilitate action, many people view
planning negatively.
 The main purpose of project plans, however, is to

guide project execution.

To guide execution, plans must be realistic and useful,

so a fair amount of time and effort must go into the

 Table 3-7 lists the project management knowledge areas, processes, and

outputs of project planning according to the PMBOK ® Guide, Fifth

Edition
 Because the project management intranet site project is relatively small,

some of the most important planning documents to focus on are the

following:
Project Planning cont..
 A team contract [TABLE 3-8 Team contract]

 A project scope statement [TABLE 3-9 Scope statement (draft

version)]
 A work breakdown structure (WBS), a key part of the scope baseline

[FIGURE 3-3 JWD Consulting intranet project work breakdown

structure (WBS)]
 A project schedule, in the form of a Gantt chart with all

dependencies and resources entered [FIGURE 3-4 JWD Consulting

intranet site project baseline Gantt chart]
 A list of prioritized risks (part of a risk register) [TABLE 3-10 List of

prioritized risks]
 Project Executing
 Taking the actions necessary to ensure that activities in the project

plan are completed.

 It usually takes the most time and resources to perform project

execution since the products of the project are produced here

 Table 3-11 lists the knowledge areas, executing processes, and outputs of

project execution listed in the PMBOK® Guide, Fifth Edition.

 Table 3-12 shows a sample of a milestone report for the project management

intranet site project that Erica reviewed with Joe in mid-June.

 Project managers must use their leadership skills to handle the many

challenges that occur during project execution.

 Project Controlling
 Controlling involves measuring progress toward project objectives,

monitoring deviation from the plan, and taking corrective actions to

match progress with the plan.
 Controlling affects all other process groups and occurs during all

phases of the project life cycle

 Status and progress reports are important outputs of controlling and

is done throughout the life of a project.

 Table 3-13 lists the knowledge areas, monitoring and controlling

processes, and outputs, according to the PMBOK guide fifth Edition.

 Table 3-14 is an example of one of progress reports.
 Project Closing
 The closing process involves gaining stakeholder and customer

acceptance of the final product and bringing the project, or

project phase, to an orderly end
 Even if projects are not completed, they should be closed out to

learn from the past

 Project archives and lessons learned are important outputs.

Most projects include a final report and presentations

 Table 3-16 lessons-learned report and TABLE 3-17 Final project

report table of contents.

 Project Integration Management

 Project integration management involves coordinating

all of the other project management knowledge areas

throughout a project’s life cycle. This integration ensures
that all the elements of a project come together at the
right times to complete a project successfully.
 Many new project managers have trouble looking at the

“big picture” and want to focus on too many details (See

opening case for a real example)
 Good Project Integration Management cont..
 According to the PMBOK ® Guide, Fifth Edition, six main processes are
involved in project integration management:
 STRATEGIC PLANNING AND PROJECT
SELECTION

Strategic planning: involves determining long-term

objectives by analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of

an organization, studying opportunities and threats in
the business environment, predicting future trends,
projecting the need for new products and services, and
provides important information to help organizations
identify and then select potential projects.
 Many people are familiar with SWOT analysis—analyzing

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats—which is used

to aid in strategic planning.
 Identifying potential projects
In addition to using a SWOT analysis, organizations
often follow a detailed process for project selection.

Planning process for selecting IT projects

 Methods for Selecting Projects
 Many methods exist for selecting projects. Five

common techniques are:

 Focusing on broad organizational needs: determine

whether they first meet three important criteria:

need, funding, and will.
 Categorizing IT projects

 Performing net present value or other financial analyses

 Using a weighted scoring model

 Implementing a balanced scorecard

 Categorizing IT Projects
Another method for selecting projects is based on various
categorizations, such as:
The project’s impetus
 Problem
 Opportunity
 Directive
Time window
General priority
 High
 Medium
 Low
Net present value [NPV] analysis
 A method of calculating the expected net monetary gain or loss

from a project by discounting all expected future cash inflows and

outflows to the present point in time.
 A positive NPV means that the return from a project exceeds the

cost of capital—the return available by investing the capital

elsewhere.
Net present value [NPV] analysis cont..
Net present value [NPV] analysis cont..

Or Calculate the discount factor first and multiply each cost or benefit and
calculate the NPV.
Return on Investment [ROI]
 ROI is the result of subtracting the project costs from the benefits

and then dividing by the costs.

 For example, if you invest $100 today and next year it is worth

$110, your ROI is ($110 - 100)/100 or 0.10 (10 percent). Note that
the ROI is always a percentage. It can be positive or negative. It is
best to consider discounted costs and benefits for multi-year
projects when calculating ROI.

ROI =(total discounted benefits - total discounted costs)/discounted costs

 Payback Analysis
 Is the amount of time it will take to recoup the total birr

invested in a project, in terms of net cash inflows

 Payback analysis determines how much time will elapse

before accrued benefits overtake accrued and continuing

costs.
 Payback occurs when the net cumulative benefits equal

the net cumulative costs, or when the net cumulative

benefits minus costs equal zero.
Using a Weighted Scoring Model
 Is a tool that provides a systematic process for selecting projects

based on many criteria including:

 Supports key business objectives

 Has strong internal sponsor

 Has strong customer support

 Uses realistic level of technology

 Can be implemented in one year or less

 Provides positive NPV

 Has low risk in meeting scope, time, and cost goals

Using a Weighted Scoring Model cont..
 Implementing a Balanced Scorecard
 A balanced scorecard is a methodology that converts an

organization’s value drivers, such as customer service, innovation,

operational efficiency, and financial performance, to a series of
defined metrics.
 Organizations record and analyze these metrics to determine how

well projects help them achieve strategic goals.

Implementing a Balanced Scorecard cont..
 Developing project charter
 The following inputs are helpful in developing a project charter:

 A project statement of work

 A business case

 Agreements

 Enterprise environmental factors

 Organizational process asset

 Tools and Techniques

 Expert judgment and facilitation techniques, such as brainstorming

and meeting management.
 Output --- project charter
 Developing project charter cont..
 Although the format of project charters can vary tremendously, they

should include at least the following basic information:

 The project’s title and date of authorization

 The project manager’s name and contact information

 A summary schedule, including the planned start and finish dates;

 A summary of the project’s budget or reference to budgetary documents

 A brief description of the project objectives, including the business need or

other justification for authorizing the project.

Developing project charter cont..
 Project success criteria, including project approval requirements and who

signs off on the project

 A summary of the planned approach for managing the project, which

should describe stakeholder needs and expectations, important

assumptions, and constraints, and should refer to related documents,
such as a communications management plan, as available
 A roles and responsibilities matrix

 A sign-off section for signatures of key project stakeholders

 A comments section in which stakeholders can provide important

comments related to the project

DEVELOPING A PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
 Is a document used to coordinate all project planning documents and

help guide a project’s execution and control.

 Project management plans also document project planning assumptions

and decisions regarding choices, facilitate communication among

stakeholders, define the content, extent, and timing of key management
reviews, and provide a baseline for progress measurement and project
control.
 The main inputs for developing a project management plan include the

project charter, outputs from planning processes, enterprise environment

factors, and organizational process assets. The main tool and technique is
expert judgment, and the output is a project management plan.
 Project Management Plan Contents
 Most project management plans have common elements. It includes an

introduction or overview of the project, a description of how the project is

organized, the management and technical processes used on the project,
and sections describing the work to be performed, the schedule, and the
budget.
 The introduction or overview of the project at a minimum should include:

 The project name

 A brief description of the project and the need it addresses

 The sponsor’s name

 The names of the project manager and key team members

 Deliverables of the project

 A list of important reference materials

 A list of definitions and acronyms, if appropriate

 Project Management Plan Contents cont..
 Project organization should include:

 Organizational charts

 Project responsibilities

 Other organizational or process-related information

 Management and technical approaches should include:

 Management objectives

 Project controls

 Risk management

 Project staffing

 Technical processes
 Project Management Plan Contents cont..
 The work needed to perform and reference the scope management plan. It

should summarize the following:

 Major work packages

 Key deliverables

 Other work-related information

 The project schedule information section should include:

 Summary schedule

 Detailed schedule

 Other schedule-related information

 The budget section should include:

 Summary budget

 Detailed budget

 Other budget-related information

 DIRECTING AND MANAGING PROJECT WORK

 Involves managing and performing the work described in the

project management plan, one of the main inputs for this process.
Other inputs include approved change requests, enterprise
environmental factors, and organizational process assets.
 A common-sense approach to improving the coordination between

project plan development and execution is to follow this simple

rule: “Those who will do the work should plan the work”.
 Generally Project managers must be dynamic and creative in

dealing with:
 Coordinating Planning and Execution

 Providing Strong Leadership and a Supportive Culture

 Capitalizing on Product, Business, and Application Area Knowledge

 Project Execution Tools and Techniques
 Expert judgment: Project managers should not hesitate to consult

experts on different topics, such as what methodology to follow,

what programming language to use, and what training approach to
follow.
 Meetings

 Project management information systems

 Although project management information systems can aid in

project execution, project managers must remember that positive

leadership and strong teamwork are critical to successful project
management
 MONITORING AND CONTROLLING PROJECT WORK

 On large projects, many project managers say that 90 percent of the job is

communicating and managing changes. Changes are inevitable on most

projects, so it’s important to develop and follow a process to monitor and
control changes.
 Change is unavoidable and often expected on most IT projects.

Technologies change, personnel change, organizational priorities change,

and so on.
 Monitoring project work includes collecting, measuring, and disseminating

performance information.
 The project management plan, schedule and cost forecasts, validated

changes, work performance information, enterprise environmental

factors, and organizational process assets are all important inputs for
monitoring and controlling project work.
 MONITORING AND CONTROLLING PROJECT WORK cont..

 The main purpose of this information is to alert the project manager

and project team about issues that are causing problems or might
cause problems in the future.
 Important outputs of monitoring and controlling project work

include change requests and work performance reports.

 Change requests include recommended corrective, preventive

actions and defect repairs.

 Work performance reports include status reports, progress reports,

memos, and other documents used to communicate performance.

 PERFORMING INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL
 Integrated change control involves identifying, evaluating, and

managing changes throughout the project life cycle. The three main
objectives of integrated change control are:
 Influencing the factors that create changes to ensure that changes are beneficial.

 Determining that a change has occurred

 Managing actual changes as they occur

 Important inputs to the integrated change control process include

the project management plan, work performance information,

change requests, enterprise environmental factors, and
organizational process assets.
 Important outputs include approved change requests, a change log, and

updates to the project management plan and project documents.

 Change Control System

 A formal, documented process that describes when and how

official project documents and work may be changed

 Describes who is authorized to make changes and how to make

them
 Often includes a change control board (CCB), configuration

management, and a process for communicating changes

 Making Timely Changes

 Some CCBs only meet occasionally, so it may take too

long for changes to occur

 Some organizations have policies in place for time-

sensitive changes
 “48-hour policy” allows project team members to make

decisions, then they have 48 hours to reverse the decision

pending senior management approval
 Delegate changes to the lowest level possible, but keep

everyone informed of changes

 Configuration Management
 Ensures that the products and their descriptions are correct and

complete
 Concentrates on the management of technology by identifying and

controlling the functional and physical design characteristics of

products
 Configuration management specialists identify and document

configuration requirements, control changes, record and report

changes, and audit the products to verify conformance to
requirements
 CLOSING PROJECTS OR PHASES
 The last process in project integration management is closing the

project or phase, which requires that you finalize all activities and
transfer the completed or cancelled work to the appropriate people.
 The main inputs to this process are the project management plan,

accepted deliverables, and organizational process assets.

 The main tool and technique is again expert judgment.

 The outputs of closing projects are:

 Final product, service, or result transition

 Organizational process asset updates

Project Scope Management
What is project scope management?
 Project scope management includes the processes involved in defining and controlling what work is

or is not included in a project. The project team and stakeholders must have the same understanding

of what products will be produced as a result of a project and how they’ll be produced.

 Scope refers to all the work involved in creating the products of the project and the processes used to

create them. It defines what is or is not to be done.

 Deliverables are products produced as part of a project, such as hardware or software, planning

documents, or meeting minutes.

 Six main processes are involved in project scope management

 Planning scope management

 Collecting requirements

 Defining scope.

 Creating the WBS

 Validating scope

 Controlling scope
Project scope management cont..

Project scope
management
summary.
 Project scope management cont..
 Scope management plan includes the following information:

 How to prepare a detailed project scope statement

 How to create a WBS

 How to maintain and approve the WBS

 How to obtain formal acceptance of the completed project

deliverables
 How to control requests for changes to the project scope
 Project scope management cont..

 The requirements management plan documents how project

requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed. A

requirements management plan can include the following information
 How to plan, track, and report requirements activities

 How to perform configuration management activities

 How to prioritize requirements

 How to use product metrics

 How to trace and capture attributes of requirements

 COLLECTING REQUIREMENTS

 There are several ways to collect requirements:

Interviewing stakeholders one on one

Holding focus groups and facilitated workshops

Questionnaires and surveys

Observation

Prototyping and document analysis

Benchmarking
 DEFINING SCOPE
 Key inputs for preparing the project scope statement include the

project charter, scope management plan, requirements

documentation, and organizational process assets such as policies
and procedures related to scope statements, as well as project files and
lessons learned from previous, similar projects.
 Although contents vary, project scope statements should include at

least a project justification, brief description of the project’s

products, product user acceptance criteria, a statement of what
determines project success and detailed information on all project
deliverables. It is also helpful to document other scope-related
information, such as the project boundaries, constraints, and
assumptions.
 CREATING THE WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE

 A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a deliverable oriented

grouping of the work involved in a project that defines its total scope.
Because most projects involve many people and many different
deliverables, it is important to organize and divide the work into
logical parts based on how the work will be performed.
 The WBS is a foundation document in project management because it

provides the basis for planning and managing project schedules,

costs, resources, and changes.
 The project scope management plan, scope statement, requirements

documentation, enterprise environmental factors, and

organizational process assets are the primary inputs for creating a
WBS.
 WBS cont..

 The main tool or technique is decomposition—that is, subdividing

project deliverables into smaller pieces.

 The outputs of the process of creating the WBS are the scope

baseline and project documents updates. The scope baseline

includes the approved project scope statement and its associated
WBS and WBS dictionary.
 A project team often organizes the WBS around project products,

project phases, or the project management process groups.

 Tasks that are decomposed into smaller tasks are called summary

tasks.
 A work package is a task at the lowest level of the WBS.
Intranet WBS and Gantt Chart organized by Project phases
Intranet WBS and Gantt Chart Organized by Project
Management Process Groups
 Approaches to Developing WBSs
 Using guidelines: Some organizations, like the DoD, provide

guidelines for preparing WBSs

 The analogy approach: Review WBSs of similar projects and tailor to

your project
 The top-down approach: Start with the largest items of the project and

break them down

 The bottom-up approach: Start with the detailed tasks and roll them

up
 Mind-mapping approach: Write down tasks in a non-linear format

and then create the WBS structure

Sample Mind-Mapping Approach
 Basic Principles for Creating WBSs
1. A unit of work should appear at only one place in the WBS.

2. The work content of a WBS item is the sum of the WBS items below it.

3. A WBS item is the responsibility of only one individual, even though many people
may be working on it.

4. The WBS must be consistent with the way in which work is actually going to be
performed; it should serve the project team first and other purposes only if
practical.

5. Project team members should be involved in developing the WBS to ensure

consistency and buy-in.

6. Each WBS item must be documented to ensure accurate understanding of the

scope of work included and not included in that item.

7. The WBS must be a flexible tool to accommodate inevitable changes while properly
maintaining control of the work content in the project according to the scope statement.
 Scope Verification and Scope Change Control

 It is very difficult to create a good scope statement and WBS for a project

 It is even more difficult to verify project scope and minimize scope

changes
 Many IT projects suffer from scope creep and poor scope verification

 FoxMeyer Drug filed for bankruptcy after scope creep on a robotic warehouse

 Engineers at Grumman called a system “Naziware” and refused to use it

 21st Century Insurance Group wasted a lot of time and money on a project that

could have used off-the-shelf components

Factors Causing IT Project Problems
 Suggestions for Improving User Input
 Develop a good project selection process and insist that sponsors

are from the user organization

 Have users on the project team in important roles

 Have regular meetings

 Deliver something to users and sponsors on a regular basis

 Co-locate users with developers

 Suggestions for Reducing Incomplete and Changing
Requirements

 Develop and follow a requirements management process

 Use techniques like prototyping, use case modeling, and JAD to get

more user involvement

 Put requirements in writing and keep them current

 Provide adequate testing and conduct testing throughout the project life

cycle
 Review changes from a systems perspective

 Emphasize completion dates to help focus on what’s most important

 Allocate resources specifically for handling change

requests/enhancements like NWA did with ResNet

Project Time Management
 Project Time Management Processes
 Project time management involves the processes required to ensure timely

completion of a project.
 Seven main processes are involved in project time management:

1. Planning schedule management

2. Defining activities

3. Sequencing activities

4. Estimating activity resources

5. Estimating activity durations

6. Developing the schedule

7. Controlling the schedule

Project Time Management Processes cont..
 PLANNING SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT
 Involves determining the policies, procedures, and documentation that will

be used for planning, executing, and controlling the project schedule.

 The first step in project time management is planning how the schedule will

be managed throughout the life of the project. Project schedules grow out of
the basic documents that initiate a project. The project charter often
mentions planned project start and end dates, which serve as the starting
points for a more detailed schedule.
 After reviewing the project management plan, project charter, enterprise

environmental factors, and organizational process assets, the project team

uses expert judgment, analytical techniques, and meetings to develop the
schedule management plan.
 PLANNING SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT cont..

 In general, a schedule management plan includes the

following information:
 Project schedule model development

 The scheduling methodology and the scheduling tool to use when

developing the project schedule model

 Level of accuracy and units of measure

 Control thresholds

 Rules of performance measurement

 Reporting formats

 Process descriptions
 DEFINING ACTIVITIES
 Defining activities involves identifying the specific actions that will produce the

project deliverables in enough detail to determine resource and schedule

estimates.
 The activity list is a tabulation of activities to be included on a project schedule.

The list should include the activity name, an activity identifier or number, and
a brief description of the activity.
 The activity attributes provide more schedule-related information about each

activity, such as predecessors, successors, logical relationships, leads and

lags, resource requirements, constraints, imposed dates, and assumptions
related to the activity.
 A milestone on a project is a significant event that normally has no duration. It

often takes several activities and a lot of work to complete a milestone, but the
milestone itself is like a marker to help in identifying necessary activities.
 SEQUENCING ACTIVITIES

 Involves identifying and documenting the relationships between

project activities.

 Sequencing determines activity dependencies.

 Inputs to the activity sequencing process include the schedule

management plan, activity list and attributes, project scope statement,

milestone list, and organizational process assets.

 The sequencing process involves evaluating the reasons for

dependencies and the different types of dependencies.

 Dependencies
 A dependency or relationship pertains to the sequencing of project

activities or tasks.
 There are three basic reasons for creating dependencies among

project activities:
 Mandatory dependencies: inherent in the nature of the work;

hard logic
 Discretionary dependencies: defined by the project team; soft

logic
 External dependencies: involve relationships between project

and non-project activities

 Network Diagrams

 Network diagrams are the preferred technique for showing

activity sequencing.
 A network diagram is a schematic display of the logical

relationships among project activities and their

sequencing.
Sample Activity-on-Arrow (AOA) Network Diagram
for Project X
 Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)

 Also called activity-on-arrow (AOA) project network

diagrams
 Activities are represented by arrows

 Nodes or circles are the starting and ending points of

activities
 Can only show finish-to-start dependencies
 Process for Creating AOA Diagrams
1. Find all of the activities that start at node 1. Draw their finish nodes and draw

arrows between node 1 and those finish nodes. Put the activity letter or name
and duration estimate on the associated arrow

2. Continuing drawing the network diagram, working from left to right. Look
for bursts and merges. Bursts occur when a single node is followed by two or
more activities. A merge occurs when two or more nodes precede a single
node

3. Continue drawing the project network diagram until all activities are included
on the diagram that have dependencies

4. As a rule of thumb, all arrowheads should face toward the right, and no
arrows should cross on an AOA network diagram
Task Dependencies
Sample PDM Network Diagram
 Activity Duration Estimating
 After defining activities and determining their sequence, the next step in time

management is duration estimating

 Duration includes the actual amount of time worked on an activity plus

elapsed time
 Effort is the number of workdays or work hours required to complete a task.

Effort does not equal duration

 People doing the work should help create estimates, and an expert should

review them
 There are several inputs to activity duration estimates, including the schedule

management plan, activity list, activity attributes, activity resource

requirements, resource calendars, project scope statement, risk register,
resource breakdown structure, enterprise environmental factors, and
organizational process assets.
 Activity Duration Estimate cont..
 The outputs of activity duration estimates include the estimates

themselves and project documents updates.

 Duration estimates are often provided as a discrete number, such as

four weeks; as a range, such as three to five weeks; or as a three-

point estimate.
 A three-point estimate includes an optimistic, most likely, and

pessimistic estimate, such as three weeks for the optimistic

scenario, four weeks for the most likely scenario, and five weeks for
the pessimistic estimate.
 A three point estimate is required for performing Program
evaluation and review technique [PERT] estimates.
 Schedule Development
 Schedule development uses results of the other time management

processes to determine the start and end date of the project and its
activities
 Ultimate goal is to create a realistic project schedule that provides a

basis for monitoring project progress for the time dimension of the
project
 The main outputs of this process are the project schedule, a schedule

baseline, schedule data, project calendars, project management plan

updates, and project documents updates.
 Important tools and techniques include Gantt charts, PERT analysis,

critical path analysis, and critical chain scheduling

 Gantt Charts
 Gantt charts provide a standard format for displaying project

schedule information by listing project activities and their

corresponding start and finish dates in a calendar format
 Symbols include:

 A black diamond: milestones or significant events on a project with zero

duration
 Thick black bars: summary tasks

 Lighter horizontal bars: tasks

 Arrows: dependencies between tasks

Gantt Chart for Project X
Gantt Chart for Software Launch Project
 Milestones
 Milestones are significant events on a project that normally have

zero duration
 You can follow the SMART criteria in developing milestones that

are:
 Specific

 Measurable

 Assignable

 Realistic

 Time-framed
Sample Tracking Gantt Chart
 Critical Path Method (CPM)
 CPM is a network diagramming technique used to predict total project

duration.
 This important tool helps you combat project schedule overruns.

 A critical path for a project is the series of activities that determines the

earliest time by which the project can be completed

 The critical path is the longest path through the network diagram and

has the least amount of slack or float.

 Slack or float is the amount of time an activity may be delayed without

delaying a succeeding activity or the project finish date.

 CPM cont..
 A technique that can help project managers make schedule trade-

offs is determining the free slack and total slack for each project
activity.
 Free slack or free float is the amount of time an activity can be

delayed without delaying the early start date of any immediately

following activities. The early start date is the earliest possible time
an activity can start based on the project network logic.
 Total slack or total float is the amount of time an activity can be

delayed from its early start without delaying the planned project
finish date.
 Forward pass
 Project managers calculate free slack and total slack by doing a

forward and backward pass through a network diagram.

 A forward pass determines the early start and early finish dates for

each activity.
 The early start plus the duration of the first activity is equal to the

early finish date of the first activity. It is also equal to the early start
date of each subsequent activity unless an activity has multiple
predecessors.
 When an activity has multiple predecessors, its early start date is

the latest of the early finish dates of those predecessors.

 Backward pass
 A backward pass through the network diagram determines the late

start and late finish dates for each activity in a similar fashion.
 The late start date is the latest possible time an activity might begin

without delaying the project finish date.

 The late finish date is the latest possible time an activity can be

completed without delaying the project finish date.

 Finding the Critical Path
 First develop a good project network diagram

 Add the durations for all activities on each path through the project

network diagram
 The longest path is the critical path
 Simple Example of Determining the Critical Path
 Consider the following project network diagram. Assume all times
are in days.

C=2 4 E=1
A=2 B=5
start 1 2 3 6 finish

D=7 5 F=2

a. How many paths are on this network diagram?

b. How long is each path?
c. Which is the critical path?
d. What is the shortest amount of time needed to complete this project?
Determining the Critical Path for Project X
Calculating Early and Late Start and Finish Dates
Schedule Table View Showing Free and Total Slack
Calculate Free and total slack
 Controlling the Schedule
 The goal of schedule control is to know the status of the schedule,

influence the factors that cause schedule changes, determine that the
schedule has changed, and manage changes when they occur.
 Some of the tools and techniques include:

 Performance reviews, where progress reports are often provided

 A schedule change control system

 A scheduling tool and/or project management software

 Variance analysis, such as analyzing float or slack and using earned value

 What-if scenario analysis, which can be done manually or with the aid of software

 Adjusting leads and lags

 Schedule compression, such as crashing and fast tracking

 Resource optimization techniques, such as resource leveling

 Controlling Changes to the Project Schedule

 Perform reality checks on schedules

 Allow for contingencies

 Don’t plan for everyone to work at 100% capacity all the time

 Hold progress meetings with stakeholders and be clear and

honest in communicating schedule issues

 Working with People Issues

 Strong leadership helps projects succeed more than good

PERT charts
 Project managers should use

 empowerment

 incentives

 discipline

 negotiation
Project Cost Management
 What is Cost and Project Cost Management?

 Cost is a resource sacrificed or foregone to achieve a specific objective

or something given up in exchange

 Costs are usually measured in monetary units like dollars

 Project cost management includes the processes required to ensure

that the project is completed within an approved budget

 Project Cost Management Processes

There are four processes for project cost management:

Planning cost management

Estimating costs

Determining the budget

Controlling costs
Project cost management process cont..

Project cost management summary

 Basic Principles of Cost Management
 Most CEOs and boards know a lot more about finance than IT, so IT

project managers must speak their language.

 Profits are revenues minus expenses. You cannot measure the potential

benefits of the application without knowing the profit margin.

 Profit margin is the ratio of revenues to profits.

 Life cycle costing is estimating the cost of a project plus the maintenance

costs of the products it produces

 Cash flow analysis is a method for determining the estimated annual

costs and benefits for a project

 Basic Principles of Cost Management cont..

 Tangible costs or benefits can easily be measured in dollars.

 Intangible costs or benefits are difficult to measure in monetary

terms and often include items like goodwill, prestige, and general
statements of improved productivity that an organization cannot
easily translate into dollar amounts.
 Direct costs can be directly related to creating the products and

services of the project. Example salaries of Employee and HW

purchase cost.
 Basic Principles of Cost Management cont..

 Indirect costs are not directly related to the products or services of

the project, but are indirectly related to performing the project.

Example cost of electricity, paper towels, and other necessities in a
large building that houses 1,000 employees who work on many
projects.
 Sunk cost is money that has been spent in the past. Consider it gone,

like a sunken ship that can never be raised and should not be a
criteria in project selection
 Basic Principles of Cost Management cont..

 Learning curve theory states that when many items are produced

repetitively, the unit cost of those items decreases in a regular

pattern as more units are produced.
 Reserves are dollar amounts included in a cost estimate to mitigate

cost risk by allowing for future situations that are difficult to

predict.
 Contingency reserves allow for future situations that may be

partially planned for (sometimes called known unknowns) and are

included in the project cost baseline.
 PLANNING COST MANAGEMENT

 Cost management plan includes the following information:

 Level of accuracy

 Units of measure

 Organizational procedures links

 Control thresholds

 Rules of performance measurement

 Reporting formats

 Process descriptions
 ESTIMATING COSTS

 After developing a good resource requirements list, project

managers and their project teams must develop several

estimates of the costs for these resources.
 An important output of project cost management is a cost

estimate
 There are several types of cost estimates and tools and

techniques to help create them

 It is also important to develop a cost management plan that

describes how cost variances will be managed on the project

 Types of Cost Estimates

Type of Estimate When Done Why Done How Accurate

Rough Order of Very early in the Provides rough –25%, +75%
Magnitude (ROM) project life cycle, estimate of cost for
often 3–5 years selection decisions
before project
completion
Budgetary Early, 1–2 years out Puts dollars in the –10%, +25%
budget plans
Definitive Later in the poject, < Provides details for –5%, +10%
1 year out purchases, estimate
actual costs
 Cost Estimation Tools and Techniques
 4 basic tools and techniques for cost estimates:

 analogous or top-down: use the actual cost of a previous, similar

project as the basis for the new estimate

 bottom-up: estimate individual work items and sum them to get a

total estimate
 Three-point: estimates involve estimating the most likely, optimistic,

and pessimistic costs for items. Next, project teams use a formula like
the PERT weighted average.
 parametric: use project characteristics in a mathematical model to

estimate costs
E.g. Parameters include source lines of code or function points
 Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO)
 Barry Boehm helped develop the COCOMO models for estimating

software development costs

 Parameters include source lines of code or function points

 COCOMO II is a computerized model available on the Web

 Boehm suggests that only parametric models do not suffer from the

limits of human decision-making

 Typical Problems with IT Cost Estimates

 Developing an estimate for a large software project is a

complex task requiring a significant amount of effort.

 Four reasons for cost estimate inaccuracies

Estimates are done too quickly

People lack estimating experience

Human beings are biased toward underestimation

Management desires accuracy.

Sample cost estimate
Sample cost estimate cont..
 Determine the Budgeting
 Cost budgeting involves allocating the project cost estimate

to individual work items and providing a cost baseline.

 The main goal of the cost budgeting process is to produce a

cost baseline for measuring project performance and to

determine project funding requirements.
 The process may also result in project documents updates,

such as items being added, removed, or modified in the

scope statement or project schedule.
Determine Budget cont..
 Cost Control
 Project cost control includes

 monitoring cost performance

 ensuring that only appropriate project changes are included in a revised

cost baseline
 informing project stakeholders of authorized changes to the project that

will affect costs

 The project management plan, project funding requirements, work

performance data, and organizational process assets are inputs for

controlling costs.
 Outputs of this process are work performance information, cost forecasts,

change requests, project management plan updates, project documents

updates, and organizational process asset updates.
 Earned Value Management (EVM)
 EVM is a project performance measurement technique that integrates

scope, time, and cost data.

 Given a baseline (original plan plus approved changes), you can

determine how well the project is meeting its goals

 You must enter actual information periodically to use EVM.

 Negative numbers for cost and schedule variance indicate problems

in those areas. The project is costing more than planned or taking

longer than planned
 CPI and SPI less than 100% indicate problems
 Earned Value Management Terms
 The planned value (PV), formerly called the budgeted cost of work

scheduled (BCWS), also called the budget, is that portion of the

approved total cost estimate planned to be spent on an activity
during a given period
 Actual cost (AC), formerly called actual cost of work performed

(ACWP), is the total of direct and indirect costs incurred in

accomplishing work on an activity during a given period
 The earned value (EV), formerly called the budgeted cost of work

performed (BCWP), is an estimate of the value of the physical work

actually completed
Earned Value Calculations
Earned Value Formulas
Earned Value Calculations for a One-Year
Project After Five Months
Earned Value Chart
Project Quality Management
 What Is Quality?
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines quality

as the totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to

satisfy stated or implied needs
 Other experts define quality based on

 conformance to requirements: meeting written specifications

 fitness for use: ensuring a product can be used as it was intended (planned)
 Project Quality Management Processes

 Project quality management involves three main processes:

Quality planning: identifying which quality standards are

relevant to the project and how to satisfy them

Quality assurance: evaluating overall project performance to

ensure the project will satisfy the relevant quality standards

Quality control: monitoring specific project results to ensure

that they comply with the relevant quality standards while

identifying ways to improve overall quality
Project Quality Management Summary
 Quality Planning
 It is important to design in quality and communicate important

factors that directly contribute to meeting the customer’s

requirements
 Design of experiments helps identify which variables have the most

influence on the overall outcome of a process

 Many scope aspects of IT projects affect quality like functionality,

features, system outputs, performance, reliability, and

maintainability.
 Quality Assurance
 Quality assurance includes all the activities related to

satisfying the relevant quality standards for a project

 Another goal of quality assurance is continuous quality

improvement
 Benchmarking can be used to generate ideas for quality

improvements
 Quality audits help identify lessons learned that can

improve performance on current or future projects

 Quality Control
 The main outputs of quality control are

 acceptance decisions

 rework

 process adjustments

 Some tools and techniques include

 Pareto analysis

 statistical sampling

 Six Sigma

 quality control charts

 Pareto Analysis

 Pareto analysis involves identifying the vital few contributors that

account for the most quality problems in a system

 Also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80% of problems are often

due to 20% of the causes

 Pareto diagrams are histograms that help identify and prioritize

problem areas
 Testing
Many IT professionals think of testing as a stage

that comes near the end of IT product development

Testing should be done during almost every phase

of the IT product development life cycle

 Types of Tests
 A unit test is done to test each individual component (often

a program) to ensure it is as defect free as possible

 Integration testing occurs between unit and system testing

to test functionally grouped components

 System testing tests the entire system as one entity

 User acceptance testing is an independent test performed

by the end user prior to accepting the delivered system

Gantt Chart for Building Testing into a Systems Development Project Plan
 Modern Quality Management
Modern quality management
requires customer satisfaction
prefers prevention to inspection
recognizes management responsibility for quality
Note worthy quality experts include Deming, Juran,
Crosby, Ishikawa, Taguchi, and Feigenbaum
 Quality Experts
Deming was famous for his work in rebuilding Japan and
his 14 points
Juran wrote the Quality Control Handbook and 10 steps
to quality improvement
Crosby wrote Quality is Free and suggested that
organizations strive for zero defects
Ishikawa developed the concept of quality circles and
pioneered the use of Fishbone diagrams
Taguchi developed methods for optimizing the process of
engineering experimentation
Feigenbaum developed the concept of total quality
control
Sample Fishbone or Ishikawa Diagram
 Improving Information Technology Project Quality
Several suggestions for improving quality for IT projects
include
Leadership that promotes quality
Understanding the cost of quality
Focusing on organizational influences and workplace
factors that affect quality
Following maturity models to improve quality
 Leadership
“It is most important that top management be quality-
minded. In the absence of sincere manifestation of
interest at the top, little will happen below.” (Juran, 1945)
A large percentage of quality problems are associated
with management, not technical issues
 The Cost of Quality
The cost of quality is
the cost of conformance or delivering products that meet
requirements and fitness for use
the cost of nonconformance or taking responsibility for
failures or not meeting quality expectations
 Five Cost Categories Related to Quality
 Prevention cost: the cost of planning and executing a project
so it is error-free or within an acceptable error range
 Appraisal cost: the cost of evaluating processes and their
outputs to ensure quality- a cost to detect a defect in its
product.
 Internal failure cost: cost incurred to correct an identified
defect before the customer receives the product
 External failure cost: cost that relates to all errors not detected
and corrected before delivery to the customer
 Measurement and test equipment costs: capital cost of
equipment used to perform prevention and appraisal activities
 Organization Influences, Workplace Factors, and Quality

 A study by DeMarco and Lister showed that organizational

issues had a much greater influence on programmer productivity

than the technical environment or programming languages
 Programmer productivity varied by a factor of one to ten across

organizations, but only by 21% within the same organization

 The study found no correlation between productivity and

programming language, years of experience, or salary

 A dedicated workspace and a quiet work environment were key

factors to improving programmer productivity

 Maturity Models
Maturity models are frameworks for helping organization
improve their processes and systems
Software Quality Function Deployment model focuses on
defining user requirements and planning software projects
The Software Engineering Institute’s Capability Maturity
Model provides a generic path to process improvement for
software development
Several groups are working on project management maturity
models, such as PMI’s Organizational Project Management
Maturity Model (OPM3)
 Project Management Maturity Model
1. Ad-Hoc: The project management process is described as disorganized, and
occasionally even chaotic. The organization has not defined systems and
processes, and project success depends on individual effort. There are chronic
cost and schedule problems.
2. Abbreviated: There are some project management processes and systems in place
to track cost, schedule, and scope. Project success is largely unpredictable and
cost and schedule problems are common.
3. Organized: There are standardized, documented project management processes
and systems that are integrated into the rest of the organization. Project success is
more predictable, and cost and schedule performance is improved.
4. Managed: Management collects and uses detailed measures of the effectiveness of
project management. Project success is more uniform, and cost and schedule
performance conforms to plan.
5. Adaptive: Feedback from the project management process and from piloting
innovative ideas and technologies enables continuous improvement. Project
success is the norm, and cost and schedule performance is continuously
improving.
 Using Software to Assist in Project Quality Management

 Spreadsheet and charting software helps create Pareto

diagrams, Fishbone diagrams, etc.

 Statistical software packages help perform statistical analysis

 Specialized software products help manage Six Sigma projects

or create quality control charts.

 Project management software helps create Gantt charts and

other tools to help plan and track work related to quality

management.