Automotive Mechatronics

Course code: ME (HO) 21004

[Honors in Hybrid and Electrical Vehicles]

Lecture: 03

Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering, Pune (COEP)
UNIT 1:
Introduction, Sensors & Actuators

1. Introduction to mechatronics: Motivation, Structure, Functions &

Components of Mechatronics Systems (Sensing Technologies, Signal- &
Data Processing, Control Systems, Motors, Actors, Valves, Pumps)
2. Sensors: Acceleration, Angular rate, Air flow, Air pressure, Ambient light,
Antennas, Crankshaft/Camshaft position, Distance – Acoustic, Distance –
Optical, Distance – RADAR, Fluid level, Fluid pressure, Force and Load,
Fuel Type, Infrared imaging, Knock sensor, Microphone, Optical imaging,
Oxygen sensor, Position, Rain sensor, Temperature, Torque, Vehicle speed,
Wheel speed
3. Actuators: Airbag inflators, Motors - DC Brushed, DC Brushless, AC,
Stepper, Servo, Spark plugs, Speakers, Solenoids, Engine Control Actuators,
Fuel Injection, Exhaust Gas Recirculation Actuator, Variable Valve Timing,
VVP Mechanism Model, Ignition System, Ignition Coil Operations
 UNIT 1:
Sensors

• A sensor is a device that can

detect a physical quantity and
convert the data into an
electrical signal.
• A transducer is an electronic
device that converts energy
from one form to another.
• A transducer consists of a
sensor/actuator along with
signal conditioning circuits.
• Every transducer is also (or
has) a sensor but every sensor
need not be a transducer.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Analogue Sensors

• Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is

generally proportional to the quantity being measured.

• Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement,

Strain etc are all analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature.

• Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly
and continuously over time.

• These signals tend to be very small in value from a few micro-volts (uV) to
several mili-volts (mV), so some form of amplification is required.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Analogue Sensors

• For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a

thermometer or thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature
changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Digital Sensors

• Digital Sensors produce a discrete digital output signals or voltages that are
a digital representation of the quantity being measured.

• It produce a Binary output signal in the form of a logic “1” or a logic “0”,
(“ON” or “OFF”).

• A digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may

be outputted as a “bit”, or “byte” output.

• As the disc rotates with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor
in turn producing an output pulse representing a logic “1” or logic “0” level.

• These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display
to show the speed or revolutions of the shaft.
 UNIT 1:
Sensors: Digital Sensors

speed of the
rotating shaft

• By increasing the number of slots or “windows” within the disc more output pulses
can be produced for each revolution of the shaft.

• The accuracy of the digital signal is proportional to the number of bits used to
represent the measured quantity. More accuracy as fractions of a revolution can be
detected.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Classification

• RTD, Strain Gauge

• MEMS
Accelerometer
• LVDT, Proximity
• Solar cell
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

• Linear acceleration sensors, also called G-force sensors, are devices that
measure acceleration caused by movement, vibration, collision, etc.

• All acceleration sensors operate based on a simple principle in which

Newton's second law of motion is applied to a spring-mass system.

• A mass is connected to the base of the acceleration sensor through an

equivalent spring.

• Since the force between the mass and base is proportional to the acceleration
of the mass and the relative distance between them has a linear relationship
with the force due to the spring, the acceleration can be calculated from a
measurement of the relative position of the mass or force on the spring as it
varies with time.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

• Generally, the most common types of acceleration sensors include:

piezoelectric, piezoresistive, variable capacitance and variable reluctance.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

Piezoelectric

• A piezoelectric acceleration sensor utilizes the piezoelectric effect to measure

the relative distance between the mass and sensor's base, and then represents
the acceleration in terms of an output voltage.

• Quartz crystals are occasionally used as sensing elements. But usually,

ceramic piezoelectric materials such as barium titanate, lead zirconite titanate
(PZT), and lead metaniobate are used.

• Piezoelectric acceleration sensors are widely used due to their compact size
and light weight, but they cannot be used to measure steady-state
accelerations.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

Piezoresistive

• In a piezoresistive acceleration sensor, a piezoresistive material is positioned

so that it is deformed by the position of the mass changing its resistance.

• This type of acceleration sensor generally has a small size, large signal
amplitude and good linearity, but it can be sensitive to variations in
temperature.

• Piezoresistive sensors can be used to measure both steady-state and dynamic

accelerations.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

Variable Capacitance

• A variable capacitance acceleration sensor uses changes in capacitance caused

by a displacement in the mass to detect its position.

• The sensing element usually used here is an air-damped, opposed plate

capacitor.

• These types of acceleration sensors have good sensitivity, linear output, good
DC response, low power dissipation and low temperature sensitivity.

• One drawback of variable capacitance sensors is that they can be susceptible

to electromagnetic interference.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

Variable Reluctance

• A variable reluctance acceleration sensor uses changes in the inductance of a

coil caused by a displacement in a mass made of magnetic material to detect
the position of the mass.

• In most acceleration sensors, the spring is not a coiled wire spring, but it is
something that tends to restore the mass to its initial position. Some sensors
employ pendulums or diaphragms in place of the spring.

• Servo force balance sensors operate in a closed-loop manner. These sensors

monitor the balance of forces between the mass and spring and keep them in
an equilibrium state.

• This mechanism minimizes the errors caused by nonlinearity of the spring but
increases the cost.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

MEMS Acceleration Sensors

• Acceleration sensors based on MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems)

technology are becoming increasingly popular in automotive systems.

• MEMS devices are relatively small and rugged compared to other

technologies.

• They are made by etching tiny mechanical structure in silicon wafers where
they are readily integrated with system electronics.

• In MEMS acceleration sensors, the sensitive element is a comb-like structure

of differential capacitors arranged in parallel on a beam (forming the seismic
mass) supported by springs etched from the silicon substrate.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

MEMS Acceleration Sensors

UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

MEMS Acceleration Sensors

• The differential capacitor forms a capacitive half-bridge driven by a high

frequency square wave generator.

• When acceleration is applied perpendicular to the seismic mass, the

differential capacitor is mismatched and a non-zero voltage appears on the
central plate.

• This signal is preamplified, demodulated, amplified and output as a voltage

proportional to the applied acceleration.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

MEMS Acceleration Sensors

UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

MEMS Acceleration Sensors

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqZgxR6eRjo

UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

Automotive Applications of Acceleration Sensors

• Accident detection and airbag deployment: To measure intensity of collision

and signal to initiate airbag deployment.

• Further reading:

https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/airbags-deploy-fast-car-accident-thr
eshold-working-mechanism-accelerometer-acu-sensor.html

https://www.azosensors.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=196

• Electronics stability programs and control: Measures acceleration along

various axes, (e.g. forward, braking and cornering accelerations, to compute
relative movements and regulate them).
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Acceleration

Automotive Applications of Acceleration Sensors

• Antilock braking systems.

• Further reading: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98DXe3uKwfc

• Active suspension systems: Measures longitudinal and lateral accelerations as

well as vehicle roll characteristics to change damper characteristics
accordingly.

• Further reading: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P7QQLxthHyQ

• Hill descent/hold control: Measures vehicle inclination and speed to regulate

system.

• Monitoring Noise, Vibration and Harshness. Vehicle navigation systems to

determining vehicle location, speed, etc.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

• Angular rate sensors measure a change in angular velocity about an axis in

degrees per second or radians per second.

• These instruments use vibrating structure gyroscopes. The main automotive

application of these sensors is to determine the yaw (vehicle rotation about its
vertical axis) or roll (vehicle rotation about its lengthwise horizontal axis)
angle of the vehicle.

• These sensors play a key role in electronic stability control systems. Two
types of angular rate sensor are used for automotive applications.:
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

Yaw Rate Sensor System

UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

Piezoelectric:

• This type of sensor consists of a tuning fork shaped structure containing four
piezo elements, two on the top and two below, which is driven at a set
frequency by the drive oscillator.

• While driving on a straight path, the upper piezo elements do not generate a
disruption in the frequency because there is no existing Coriolis force.

• When cornering, the orientation movement causes the upper part of the tuning
fork to leave the oscillatory plane, causing a deviation in frequency.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

Piezoelectric:

• The pickup signal is amplified and demodulated to determine the difference

between the oscillation frequency and the frequency at which it is being
driven.

• An additional stage of amplification and processing allows the sensor to

generate a voltage proportional to the yaw rate and oscillatory speed.

• The polarity of the voltage is determined by the cornering direction (left or

right).
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems):

• In this type of sensor, a micro-mechanical capacitive acceleration sensor is

placed on an oscillating element.

• The measured acceleration is proportional to the product of angular rate and

the oscillatory velocity.

• Due to their small size and relative low cost, MEMS devices have dominated
the automotive market in the past few years.

• A third technology known as Fiber Optic Gyro (FOG) rate sensors is used in
aerospace systems, but is currently too expensive for automotive applications.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems):

• FOG rate sensors operate using a fiber optic ring and a solid-state laser to
measure rotation rates using the Sagnac effect, first discovered in 1913.

• Sagnac discovered that light sent around a closed loop, in two different
directions, would show a phase difference between the two beams when the
loop is rotated.

• FOG sensors have no moving parts. They are durable and stable with time and
temperature.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Angular Rate Sensors

MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems):

• FOG rate sensors operate using a fiber optic ring and a solid-state laser to
measure rotation rates using the Sagnac effect.

• Sagnac discovered that light sent around a closed loop, in two different
directions, would show a phase difference between the two beams when the
loop is rotated.

• FOG sensors have no moving parts. They are durable and stable with time and
temperature.

• Further reading:
Bosch Angular-rate Sensor SMG10x for Rollover Application, YouTube,
Mar.22, 2011.
• Yaw-Rate Gyroscopes, YouTube, Sep. 1, 2011.
• Vehicle Yaw Rate Estimation Using a Virtual Sensor, International Journal of
Thank you!