DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

TOPIC T3: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Objectives
(1) Be able to determine the dimensions of physical
quantities in terms of fundamental
dimensions.
(2) Understand the Principle of Dimensional
Homogeneity and its use in checking equations
and reducing physical problems.
(3) Be able to carry out a formal dimensional analysis
using Buckingham’s Pi Theorem.
(4) Understand the requirements of physical
modelling and its limitations.
2.2 Primary dimensions

2.3 Dimensions of derived quantities

2.4 Working out dimensions

2.5 Alternative choices for primary dimensions

3. Formal procedure for dimensional analysis

3.1 Dimensional homogeneity

3.2 Buckingham’s Pi theorem

3.3 Applications

4. Physical modelling

4.1 Method

4.2 Incomplete similarity (“scale effects”)

4.3 Froude-number scaling

5. Non-dimensional groups in fluid mechanics

1. WHAT IS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS?
Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing to
dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables.
It is particularly useful for:
•
checking equations;
•
presenting and interpreting experimental data;
•
attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
•
establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena;
•
physical modelling
Example.
The drag force, 𝐹, on a sphere is a function of approach-flow speed, 𝑈, sphere diameter, 𝐷,
fluid density, 𝜌, and viscosity, 𝜇. However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs
portraying its variation with all combinations of these parameters, dimensional analysis will
tell us that the problem can be reduced to a dimensionless relationship between just two
independent variables:
𝑐𝐷 = 𝑓(Re)
where 𝑐𝐷 is the drag coefficient:
𝑐𝐷 ≡
𝐹
1
2
𝜌𝑈2𝐴
(𝐴 =
π𝐷
2
4
)
and Re is the Reynolds number:
Re ≡
𝜌𝑈𝐷
𝜇
In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to
2 and the experimental data to a single graph of 𝑐𝐷 against Re.
2. DIMENSIONS
2.1 Dimensions and Units
A dimension is the type of physical quantity.
A unit is a means of assigning a numerical value to that quantity.
SI units are preferred in scientific work.
2.2 Primary Dimensions
In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units, are:
mass
M
(kilogram, kg)
length
L
(metre, m)
time
T
(second, s)
temperature
Θ
(kelvin, K)
In other areas of physics additional dimensions may be necessary. The complete set specified
by the SI system consists of the above plus
electric current
I
(ampere, A)
luminous intensity
C
(candela, cd)
amount of substance n
(mole, mol)
2.3 Dimensions of Derived Quantities
The dimensions of common derived mechanical quantities are given in the following table
2.4 Working Out Dimensions
In the following, [ ] means “dimensions of”
2.5 Alternative Choices For Primary Dimensions
The choice of primary dimensions is not unique. It is not uncommon – and it may sometimes
be more convenient – to choose force F as a primary dimension rather than mass, and have a
{FLT} rather than {MLT} system.
3. FORMAL PROCEDURE FOR DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
3.1 Dimensional Homogeneity

Dimensional homogeneity is a useful tool for checking formulae. For this reason it is useful
when analysing a physical problem to retain algebraic symbols for as long as possible, only
substituting numbers right at the end. However, dimensional analysis cannot determine
numerical factors; e.g. it cannot distinguish between ½𝑎𝑡
2
and 𝑎𝑡
2
in the first formula above.
Dimensional homogeneity is the basis of the formal dimensional analysis that follows.
3.2 Buckingham’s Pi Theorem
Experienced practitioners can do dimensional analysis by inspection. However, the formal
tool
which they are unconsciously using is Buckingham’s Pi Theorem1
:

Note. In order to ensure dimensional independence in {MLT} systems it is common – but not
obligatory – to choose the scaling variables as: a purely geometric quantity (e.g. a length), a
kinematic (time-, but not mass-containing) quantity (e.g. frequency, velocity or acceleration)
and a dynamic (mass-, or force-containing) quantity (e.g. density).
3.3 Applications
Example.
Obtain an expression in non-dimensional form for the pressure gradient in a
horizontal pipe
of circular cross-section. Show how this relates to the expression for frictional head
loss.
Example.
The drag force on a body in a fluid flow is a function of the body size (expressed via a
characteristic length, 𝐿) and the fluid velocity, 𝑉, density, 𝜌, and viscosity, 𝜇. Perform a
dimensional analysis to reduce this to a single functional dependence
𝑐𝐷 = 𝑓(Re)
where 𝑐𝐷 is a drag coefficient and Re is the Reynolds number.
What additional non-dimensional groups might appear in practice?
Notes.
(1)
Dimensional analysis simply says that there is a relationship; it doesn’t say what the
relationship is. For the specific relationship one must appeal to other theory, simulation,
or experimental data.
(2)
If there is only one Π group … then it can’t be a function of anything else … so it must
be a constant.
(3)
If Π1,Π2,Π3, … are suitable non-dimensional groups then we are liberty to replace some
or all of them by any powers or products with the other Πs, provided that we retain the
same number of independent non-dimensional groups; e.g. Π1
−1
, Π1/Π3
2
etc..
(4)
It is very common in fluid mechanics to find (often after the rearrangement mentioned
in (3)) certain combinations which can be recognised as familiar key parameters; e.g.
Reynolds number (Re = 𝜌𝑈𝐿/𝜇) or Froude number (Fr = 𝑈/√𝑔𝐿).
(5)
Often the hardest part of the dimensional analysis is determining which are the relevant
variables. For example, surface tension is always present in free-surface flows, but can
be neglected if the Weber number We = 𝜌𝑈
2𝐿/𝜎 is large. Similarly, all fluids are
compressible, but compressibility effects on the flow can be ignored if the Mach
number (Ma = 𝑈/𝑐) is small; i.e. velocity is much less than the speed of sound.
(6)
Although certain primary dimensions (e.g. M, L, T) appear when the variables are listed,
they may do not do so independently, in this case, there will be fewer independent
dimensions.
As an example of (6), the following example illustrates a case where M and T always
appear
in the combination MT–2
, giving only one independent dimension
4. PHYSICAL MODELLING
4.1 Method
If a dimensional analysis indicates that a problem is described by a functional
relationship
between non-dimensional parameters Π1,Π2,Π3, … then complete similarity requires
that these
parameters be the same at both full (“prototype”) scale and model scale. i.e.
4.2 Incomplete Similarity (“Scale Effects”)
For a multi-parameter problem it is often not possible to achieve full similarity. In particular,
it is rare to be able to achieve full Reynolds-number scaling when other dimensionless
parameters are also involved. For hydraulic modelling of flows with a free surface the most
important requirement is Froude-number scaling (Section 4.3)
It is common to distinguish three levels of similarity.
Geometric similarity – the ratio of all corresponding lengths in model and prototype are the
same (i.e. they have the same shape).
Kinematic similarity – the ratio of all corresponding lengths and times (and hence the ratios of
all corresponding velocities) in model and prototype are the same.
Dynamic similarity – the ratio of all forces in model and prototype are the same;
e.g. Re = (inertial force) / (viscous force) is the same in both. (“Inertial force”
means “mass × acceleration” – i.e., the sum of all forces.)
Geometric similarity is almost always assumed. However, in some applications – notably river
modelling – it is necessary to distort vertical scales to prevent undue influence of, for example,
surface tension or bed roughness.
Achieving full similarity is particularly a problem with the Reynolds number Re = 𝑈𝐿/ 𝜈.
•
Using the same working fluid would require a velocity ratio inversely proportional to
the length-scale ratio and hence impractically large velocities in the scale model.
•
A velocity scale fixed by, for example, the Froude number (see Section 4.3) means that
the only way to maintain the same Reynolds number is to adjust the kinematic viscosity
(substantially).
In practice, Reynolds-number similarity is unimportant if flows in both model and prototype
are fully turbulent; then momentum transport by viscous stresses is much less than that by
turbulent eddies and so the precise value of molecular viscosity 𝜇 is unimportant. In some cases
this may mean deliberately triggering transition to turbulence in boundary layers (for example
by the use of tripping wires or roughness strips).
Surface effects
Full geometric similarity requires that not only the main dimensions of objects but also the
surface roughness and, for mobile beds, the sediment size be in proportion. This would put
impossible requirements on surface finish or grain size. In practice, it is sufficient that the
surface be aerodynamically rough: 𝑢𝜏𝑘𝑠/𝜈 ≥ 5, where 𝑢𝜏 = √𝜏𝑤/𝜌 is the friction velocity and
𝑘𝑠 a typical height of surface irregularities. This imposes a minimum velocity in model tests.
Other Fluid Phenomena
When scaled down in size, fluid phenomena which were negligible at full scale may become
important in laboratory models. A common example is surface tension
4.3 Froude-Number Scaling
The most important parameter to preserve in hydraulic modelling of free-surface flows driven
by gravity is the Froude number, Fr = 𝑈/√𝑔𝐿. Preserving this parameter between model ( 𝑚)
and prototype (𝑝) dictates the scaling of other variables in terms of the length scale ratio.
5. NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS
Dynamic similarity requires that the ratio of all forces be the same. The ratio of different forces
produces many of the key non-dimensional parameters in fluid mechanics.
(Note that “inertial force” means “mass  acceleration” – i.e. the total force. Each nondimensional
group then involves the ratio of a particular force to the total force. This reflects
the fraction of the total that this particular force is responsible for, so you can see whether its
effect is likely to be small or large.)
These groups occur regularly when dimensional analysis is applied to fluid-dynamical
problems. They can be derived by considering forces on a small volume of fluid. They can also
be derived by non-dimensionalising the differential equations of fluid flow (see White, 2021),
or the online notes for the 4
th
-year Computational Hydraulics unit.