DIMENSIONAL

ANALYSIS
References
White (2002) – Chapter 5
Hamill (2001) – Chapter 10
Chadwick and Morfett (2004) – Chapter 11
Massey (1998) – Chapter 5
DIMENSIONS
Dimensions and Units
 A dimension is the type of physical quantity.
like (L, M, T)
 A unit is a means of assigning a numerical
value to that quantity.
like (m, kg, s)
Primary Dimensions

 In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental

dimensions, together with their SI units are:

 mass M (kilogram, kg)

 length L (metre, m)
 time T (second, s)
 Temperature Θ (Kelvin, K)
 Dimensions of Derived Quantities
 Dimensions of common derived fluid-mechanical quantities are given in the following table.
Working Out Dimensions
 In the following, [ ] means “dimensions of”.

Example
 Alternatively, dimensions may be deduced
indirectly from any known formula involving
that quantity.
 Example
 Since

 is known to be dimensionless, the dimensions

of μ must be the same as those of ρUL; i.e.
Alternative Choices For Primary
Dimensions

 The choice of primary dimensions is not

unique. It is not uncommon – and it may
sometimes be more convenient – to choose
force F as a primary dimension rather than
mass, and have a {FLTΘ} system rather than
{MLTΘ}.
 Objectives
(1) To determine the dimensions of physical
quantities in terms of fundamental dimensions.

(2) Understand the Principle of Dimensional

Homogeneity and its use in checking equations
and reducing physical problems.

(3) To carry out a formal dimensional analysis using

Buckingham’s Pi Theorem.

(4) Understand the requirements of physical modeling

and its limitations.
 WHAT IS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS?
 Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a
physical problem by appealing to dimensional
homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant
variables.
It is particularly useful for:
 presenting and interpreting experimental data;
 attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
 checking equations;
 establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena;
 physical modelling.
 Example
 The drag force F per unit length on a long smooth cylinder is a
function of air speed U, density ρ, diameter D and viscosity μ

However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs portraying

its variation with all combinations of these parameters,
dimensional analysis tells us that the problem can be reduced to a
single dimensionless relationship

cD = f (Re)

 where cD is the drag coefficient and Re is the Reynolds number.

 In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of

relevant variables from 5 to 2 and the experimental data to a
single graph of cD against Re.
 FORMAL PROCEDURE FOR
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Dimensional Homogeneity

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity

 All additive terms in a physical equation must have the same dimensions.
 Examples:
1 2
s ut  at – all terms have the dimensions of length (L)
2

1
p V 2  gz  p 0 – all terms have the dimensions of pressure (ML–1T–2)
2

p V2
  z H – all terms have the dimensions of length (L)
g 2 g
 Dimensional homogeneity is also a useful
tool for checking formulae.

 Note, however, that dimensional analysis

cannot determine numerical factors; e.g. it
cannot distinguish between ½at2 and at2 in
the first formula above.

 Dimensional homogeneity is the basis of the

formal dimensional analysis.
Buckingham’s Pi Theorem
(1) If a problem involves n relevant variables and m independent
dimensions then it can be reduced to a relationship between n – m non-
dimensional parameters

(2) These non-dimensional groups can be constructed as follows.

(i) Choose m dimensionally-distinct variables to act as scales.

In fluid mechanics it is common to choose a geometric
quantity (e.g. a length), a kinematic quantity (e.g. a velocity)
and a property of the fluid (e.g. density).

(ii) For each of the n – m remaining variables construct a non-

dimensional of the form

= (variable)(scale1 )a (scale2 )b (scale3 )c

where a, b, c, ... are chosen so as to make each non-dimensional.

 Applications
Example

Obtain an expression in non-dimensional

form for the pressure gradient in a horizontal
pipe of circular cross-section. Show how this
relates to the familiar expression for frictional
head loss.
Step 1. Identify the relevant variables.
dp/dx, ρ, V, D, ks,μ

Step 2. Write down dimensions.

Step 3. Establish the number of independent
dimensions and non-dimensional groups.

 Number of relevant variables: n=6

 Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T)
 Number of non-dimensional groups ( s): n – m = 3

Step 4. Choose m (=3) dimensionally-independent

scaling variables.

e.g. geometric (D), kinematic (V), property of fluid (ρ).

 Step 5. Create the Πs by non-dimensionalising
the remaining variables dp/dx, ks and

Considering the dimensions of both sides:

M0L0T0 = (ML-2T-2 )(L)a (LT-1 )b (ML-3 )c

Equate powers of primary dimensions. Since M

only appears in [ρ] and T only appears in [V] it is
advantageous to do these first.
M: 0=1+c → c = –1
T: 0 = –2 – b → b = –2
L: 0 = –2 + a + b –3c → a = 2 – b + 3c = 1

 Hence,

(Check: OK – ratio of two pressures)

(by inspection, since ks is a length)

 In terms of dimensions:
M0L0T0 = (ML-1T-1 )(L)a (LT-1 )b (ML-3 )c

Equating exponents:
M: 0=1+c → c = –1
T: 0 = –1 – b → b = –1
L: 0 = –1 + a + b –3c → a = 1 – b + 3c = –1
Hence,

(Check: OK –
this is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number)
 Step 6. Set out the non-dimensional
relationship.

or

(*)
Step 7. Rearrange (if required) for convenience.

We are free to replace any of the Πs by a power of that

Π, or by a product with the other Πs, provided we retain
the same number of independent dimensionless
groups.
In this case we recognise that Π3 is the reciprocal of the
Reynolds number, so it looks better to use Π3’ =(Π3)-1
=Re as the third non-dimensional group. We can also
write the pressure gradient in terms of head loss:
 With these two modifications the non-
dimensional relationship (*) then becomes

 or
 Since numerical factors can be absorbed into
the non-specified function, this can easily be
identified with the Darcy-Weisbach equation

 where λ is a function of relative roughness ks/D

and Reynolds number Re – a function given by
the Colebrook-White equation (pipe flow).
 Notes
(a) Dimensional analysis simply says that there is
a relationship; it doesn’t say what the
relationship is. For the specific relationship one
must appeal to theory or, more commonly,
experimental data.
(b) If Π1, Π2, Π3, ….. are suitable non-dimensional
groups then we are liberty to replace some or all
of them by any powers or products with the other
Πs, provided that we retain the same number of
independent non-dimensional groups;
e.g. (Π1)–1, (Π2)2, Π1(Π3)–2.
(c) It is extremely common in fluid mechanics to
find (often after the rearrangement mentioned
in (b)) certain combinations which can be
recognised as key parameters such as the
Reynolds number ( Re = ρUL/μ ) or Froude
number ( Fr =U/(gL)1/2 ).
(d) Often the hardest part of the dimensional analysis is
determining which are the relevant variables.

For example, surface tension is always present in

free-surface flows, but can be neglected if the Weber
number We = ρU2L/σ is large.

Similarly, all fluids are compressible, but

compressibility effects on the flow can be ignored if
the Mach number (Ma = U/c) is small; i.e. velocity is
much less than the speed of sound.
PHYSICAL MODELLING
Method

etc.
 It is common to distinguish three
levels of similarity.
 Geometric similarity – the ratio of all corresponding
lengths in model and prototype are the same (i.e.
they have the same shape).
 Kinematic similarity – the ratio of all corresponding
lengths and times (and hence the ratios of all
corresponding velocities) in model and prototype
are the same.
 Dynamic similarity – the ratio of all forces in model
and prototype are the same; e.g. Re = (inertial
force) / (viscous force) is the same in both.
Example
A prototype gate valve which will control the flow in
a pipe system conveying paraffin is to be studied in
a model. List the significant variables on which the
pressure drop across the valve would depend.

Perform dimensional analysis to obtain the relevant

non-dimensional groups.

A 1/5 scale model is built to determine the pressure

drop across the valve with water as the working
fluid.
(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of
paraffin in the prototype is 3.0 m s–1 what should be
the velocity of water in the model for dynamic
similarity?

(b) What is the scale ratio of the quantity of flow?

(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60

kPa in the model.

(The density and viscosity of paraffin are 800 kg m–3 and 0.002 kg m–1 s–1
respectively. Take the kinematic viscosity of water as 1.12´10–6 m2 s–1).
 The pressure drop is expected to depend upon the gate opening h,
the pipe diameter D, the velocity V, density ρ and viscosity μ

List the relevant variables:

􀀀 Δp, h, D, V, ρ ,μ

􀀀 Write down dimensions:

Δp ML–1T–2
h L
D L
V LT–1
ρ ML–3
􀀀 μ ML–1T–1
 Number of variables: n = 6
 Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T)
 Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3
Choose scaling variables.
Geometric (D), kinematic (V), property of fluid (ρ).
Form dimensionless groups by non-dimensionalising the remaining
variables Δp, h and μ

Π1= ΔpDaVbρc
M0L0T0 = (ML-1T-2 )(L)a (LT-1 )b (ML-3 )c

Equating exponents:
M: 0=1+c →c = –1
T: 0 = –2 – b →b = –2
L: 0 = –1 + a + b – 3c → a = 1 + 3c – b = 0
 h
2  (obvious, since h is a length)
D
Π3 =μDaVbρc = (probably obvious, but here goes anyway ...)

M: 0=1+0+0+c → c = –1
T: 0 = –1 + 0 – b + 0 → b = –1
L: 0 = –1 +a + b – 3c → a = 1 + 3c – b = –1

Recognition of the Reynolds number suggests that we replace Π3 by

 Hence, dimensional analysis yields

 i.e.

p h VD
 f ( , )
V 2
D 
 (a) Dynamic similarity requires that all non-
dimensional groups be the same in model
and prototype; i.e.
p p
1 ( 2 ) p ( 2 ) m
V V
automatic if shape is same
h h
 2 ( ) p ( ) m (“geometric similarity”)
D D
' VD VD
 3 ( ) p ( )m
 
 From the last, we have a velocity scale ratio

 Hence,
 (b) The scale ratio of the quantity of flow is
 (c) Finally, for the pressure drop,

 Hence,
Froude-Number Scaling
 The most important parameter to preserve in
hydraulic modelling of free-surface flows driven
by gravity is the;

 Froude number, Fr =U/(gL)1/2

 Preserving this parameter between model (m)

and prototype (p) dictates the scaling of other
variables in terms of the length scale ratio.
Velocity

Thus, the velocity ratio is the

square root of the length-scale ratio.
Quantity of flow

Q ~ velocity X area

Time

t ~ length / velocity
NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS
 These groups occur regularly when dimensional
analysis is applied to fluid-dynamical problems.

 They can be derived by considering forces on a

small volume of fluid.

 They can also be derived by non-dimensionalising

the differential equations of fluid flow (see White,
Chapter 5).