Unit:-3

Electrical mechanics

1.DC GENERATOR
DC generator is an electrical machine, which converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy
Mechanical energy Electrical Energy

Generator
Construction:
Parts of a DC Generator:
Yoke
Field system
Armature
Brushes
Commutator

YOKE :
• It is the outermost solid part of the machine. It act as the protecting cover
for the whole machine and protects all the inner parts of the machine
from damage.
 • It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
• It is made up of cast iron.
Field System:
• It consists of main field poles and field winding.
• The poles are in the shape of horse shoe so that uniform distribution of
flux is
obtained in the air gap between the poles and rotating parts.
• The field winding is placed over each pole and all these are connected in
series.
Armature:
• The armature core consists of armature core and armature windings.
• The armature conductors rotate under the poles and hence the flux
produced by the
field magnet is cut by the armature.
• Due to rotation of conductors between north and south poles, hysteresis
loss will be
there. To reduce that silicon steel is used in the armature.
• Due to rotation of armature under the flux eddy current will be there
hence solid iron armature
is used and we can also reduce eddy current by insulating the armature.
• The insulation is 0.4 mm to 0.5 mm thickness
• The eddy current and hysteresis loss produce heat in the conductors, so
ventilating ducts are
used to remove the heat.
Commutator:
• It converts the alternating emf in to unidirectional emf
• It is made up of wedge shaped segments and it is insulated from each
other by thin layers of mica.

Brushes:
 • A set of brushes made up of carbon or graphite is fixed to collect the
current from
commutator and to convey it to the external load.
2.PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Faradays law of Electromagnetic Induction:
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is
induced which is called induced current.

Generator is a dynamic machine. It operates on the principle on faradays

law of electromagnetic induction.

The EMF generated is a dynamically induced EMF

Dynamically Induced emf can be created by,
• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
• By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
• By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.

• A steady magnetic field produced by the pole pieces of a magnet N and S.

• A single turn coil ABCD is placed in the field produced between the pole
pieces.
• The coil rotated by means of a prime mover.
• Thus as per faradays law, an emf induced in the coil. Such an emf is
basically alternating.
• The bidirectional induced emf is made unidirectional using the
commutator.
The magnitude of the induced emf is given by,
E = B * l* V
Where ,
L = Active length of conductor in metre
V = Relative velocity of conductor in metre / sec
If angle between the plane of rotation and the plane of flux is θ, then the induced
emf is given by
E = B * l* V Sinθ
3. Types of Armature winding Lap winding & Wave winding
Lap winding

Wave Winding

4.Difference between Lap and Wave winding

5.EMF Equation of DC Generator

6.Types of DC Generator
Separately Excited DC Generator

Here the field winding is supplied from external DC supply hence it is called as
separately excited generator.
If = Field Current
Ia = Armature Current
IL = Load Current
Vt = Terminal Voltage
E = Induced emf
Here,
Armature current Ia = Load Current IL
Then Induced emf E is given by,
E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Vbrush
7.Self Excited DC Generator
When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself
then it is said to be self excited generator.
Types of self excited generator
 1. Shunt Generator
2. Series Generator
3. Compound Generator
• DC Shunt Generator

Ra

When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the
combination across the load, then the generator is called shunt generator.
From the figure,
Ia = IL + Ish
Ish = Shunt field current
Voltage across load Vt = IshRsh
Rsh = Shunt field resistance
Induced emf E is given by,
E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Vbrush
• DC Series Generator

When the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding while
supplying the load then it is series generator.
From the figure,
Ia = Ise = IL
Ish = Shunt field current
Ise = Series field current
Induced emf E is given by,
E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
• DC Compound Generator
Long Shunt

In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the series

combination of armature and series field winding.
From the figure,
Ia = Ise
Ia = IL + Ish
Voltage across shunt field winding Vt = IshRsh
Induced emf E is given by,
E = Vt+ Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Vbrush

Short Shunt

In this type, shunt field winding is connected only across the armature, excluding series field winding.

From the figure,

Ia = Ise + Ish

IL = Ise

Ia = IL + Ish
Applications of DC Generator

Separately Excited DC Generators

• Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they have a wide
range of voltage output.

• Used as a supply source of DC motors.

Shunt Generators

• DC shunt-wound generators are used for lighting purposes.

• Used to charge the battery.

• Providing excitation to the alternators.

Series Generators

• DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for
providing field excitation current.

• Used as a booster in distribution networks.

• Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply.

• Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, schools, etc.

• Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding purpose.

9.DC MOTORS

DC motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy based on the

faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Construction :

Parts of a DC motor:

Yoke

Field system

Armature

Brushes

Commutator

Principle of operation:

DC machine consists of both armature and field windings connected to the DC

supply. Here

The armature is the rotating part and field winding is kept stationary.

faraday’s law :

whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a

force

tending to move it.

If a current carrying conductor is placed between two magnetic poles, then both

the fields will be distorted.

 Above the conductor the field is weakened (less flux) and below the conductor the field is

strengthened. Therefore the conductor tends to move upwards.

The direction of the current is reversed, then the field below the conductor is less
and field

above the conductor is more. Then the conductor move downwards.

The direction of motion of conductor is given by fleming’s left hand rule. The thumb, the

forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are held such that the fingers are mutually

perpendicular to each other.

• Fore finger indicates the direction of field

• Middle finger indicates the direction of current

• Thumb indicates the direction of motion of conductor

BACK EMF:

when a motor rotates, the conductors housed in the armature also rotate and cut
the magnetic lines of force. So an emf is induced in the armature conductors and this
induced emf opposes the supply voltage as per lenz’s law. This induced emf is called back
emf or counter emf..

Where,

Ф = flux per pole in Wb

Z= number of conductors
 N= speed in rpm

P= number of poles

A= number of parallel paths

Equivalent circuit of motor

Voltage equation of the motor:

From the above, armature current is given as,

Types of DC motors:

The classification is based on the connections of field winding in relation to the

armature.

(i) Separately excited DC motor

Here, the field winding and armature winding are separated.

The field winding is excited with a separate DC source, hence it is separately excited
DC motor.
(ii) Self excited motor:

Here both armature and field excited by the same DC source.

DC series motor ( It should not be started without load ):

Here the field winding is connected in series with the armature.

The field winding have less number of turns. Rse is the resistance of the series field winding

IL = line current

Ia = Ise = IL

DC shunt motor (Constant flux motor or Constant speed motor):

Here the field winding is connected in parallel to the armature. Ф α I sh

DC compound motor:

a) Long shunt compound motor:

Here the shunt field winding is connected across both armature and series field winding.

b) Short shunt compound motor:

Here the shunt field winding is across the armature and series field winding is connected in series
with this combination.
Applications of DC Motor

Transformer

The transformer is a static device which transfer electrical power from one AC circuit to another with
the desired change in voltage and current, without any change in the frequency.

Use of transformers in transmission system

NOTE: Transformers can’t be used in DC transmission

Principle of Working
It works on the principle of faraday law of mutual induction.

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in
one coil is changed uniformly then an emf gets induced in the other coil.

It works on the principle of faraday law of mutual induction.

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in
one coil is changed uniformly then an emf gets induced in the other coil.

It works on the principle of faraday law of mutual induction.

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in
one coil is changed uniformly then an emf gets induced in the other coil.

• Transformer consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked
through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance.

• The coil connected to a source is Primary winding(P), The coil connected to the load is
Secondary winding(S).

• The Primary winding have N1 number of turns and secondary winding have N2 number of
turns

• When primary winding is excited by an AC source, it circulates an alternating current. This

current produces alternating flux (ϕ).

• Thus the alternating flux links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core.

• As the flux is alternating, according to faradays law of electromagnetic induction, mutually

induced emf gets developed in the secondary winding, this emf drives a current through it.

• Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy
gets transferred from primary to secondary.

EMF equation of Transformer

Sinusoidal Flux

•
The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux
produced is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of ϕm

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced emf are,

Φ = Flux
ϕm = Maximum value of flux

N1 = Number of primary winding turns

N2 = Number of secondary winding turns

f = frequency of the supply voltage

E1 = RMS value of the primary induced emf

E2 = RMS value of the secondary induced emf

According to faradays law,

Average emf per turn = dϕ / dt = change in flux / Time required for change in flux

Consider the 1/4th cycle of the flux shown in figure, complete cycle gets completed in

1 / f seconds hence for 1/4th time, the change in flux is from 0 to ϕm

Then,

dϕ / dt = (ϕm – 0) / (1 / 4f)

= 4f ϕm Wb/sec or volts

As ϕ is sinusoidal, the induced emf in each turnof both the winding is also sinusoidal.

For sinusoidal quantity,

Form factor = RMS value / Avg value

RMS value = 1.11 * Avg value

Therefore,

RMS value of induced emf per turn = 1.11*4fϕm = 4.44 f ϕm

There are N1 number of primary turns hence the RMS value of induced emf of primary denoted as
E1 is,

E1 = N1 * 4.44 f ϕm volts

For secondary,

E2 = N2 * 4.44 f ϕm volts

Applications of Transformer

The main application of Transformer is to Step up ( Increase) or Step down (Decrease) the level of
Voltage.
in other words, Increase or decries the level of Current, while Power must be same.
Other Uses and application of Transformer:
It step up the level of voltage at generation side before transmission and distribution.
in distribution side, for commercial or domestic use of electricity, transformer step down ( decries)
the level of voltage for example form 11kV to 220 V single phase and 440 V three phase.
The Current Transformer and Potential Transformer also used power system and in the industry. Also,
it is used for impedance matching. So these were the simple uses and application of transformer.