M7-L01: Deflections Using Energy

Methods
Contents
- External Work and Strain Energy
- Principle of Work and Energy
- Principle of Virtual Work
- Method of Virtual Work: Trusses
- Method of Virtual Work: Beams and Frames
- Virtual Strain Energy Caused by Axial Load, Shear, Torsion, and Temperature
- Castigliano's Theorem
- Castigliano's Theorem for Trusses
- Castigliano's Theorem for Beams and Frames
8.1 External Work and Strain Energy

Moment area theorems & Conjugate Beam Method

• Energy methods are used for more complicated loadings or

structures such as trusses and Frames.
• Energy methods are based on the conservation of energy principle:
The work done by all the external forces acting on a structure, U e is
transformed into internal work or strain energy, Ui, which is developed
when structure deforms.
• Material’s elastic limit is not exceeded, the elastic strain energy will
return the structure to its undeformed state when the loads are
removed.
• The conservation of energy principle can be stated mathematically as

U e U i (8‑1)
External Work-Force
• When a force F undergoes a displacement dx in the same direction as
the force, the work done is
dUe = F dx.

• Total work becomes

x
U e Fdx (8‑2)
0
External Work-Force
• If we consider an axial force applied to the end of a bar.
As the magnitude is gradually increased from Zero to
some limiting value F=P, the final elongation of the
bar becomes Δ. If the material has linear elastic
response, then F=(P/Δ)x. Substituting into Eq. 8-2, and
integrating from 0 to .


U e Fdx
1
U e  p (8‑3)
0
2 F
• Conclusion:
As a force is gradually applied to the bar, and its
magnitude builds linearly from zero to some value P,
the work done is equal to the average force magnitude
(P/2) times the displacement (Δ).

• If P is already applied to the bar and

- that another force F’ is now applied.
So the bar deflects further by an amount Δ’,
- The work done by P (not F’) when the bar undergoes
the further deflection Δ’ is then

U e P (8‑4)

• Work represents the shaded rectangular area.

P does not change its magnitude since ' is caused only
by F'.
Work is force magnitude (P) times the displacement
(').
• In summary
- When a force P is applied to the bar,
followed by application of the force F',
the total work done by both forces is
represented by the triangular area
ACE.
- The triangular area ABG represents the
work of P that is caused by its
displacement  .
- The triangular area BCD represents the
work of F' since this force causes a
displacement '.
- The shaded rectangular area BDEG
represents the additional work done by
P when displaced ' as caused by F'.
External Work-Moment
• The work of a moment is defined by the product of the magnitude of
the moment M and the angle d through which it rotates.
dU=M d.

• Total angle of rotation is  radians U e M d (8‑5)
0

• If the moment is applied gradually to a structure having linear elastic

response from zero to M.
1
U e  M (8‑6)
2

• If the moment is already applied to the structure and other loadings

further distort the structure by an amount ', the work is

U e M  (8‑7)
Strain Energy-Axial Force
• When an axial force N is applied gradually to the
bar, it will strain the material such that the external
work done by N will be converted into strain
energy, which is stored in the bar.
• Material is linear elastic, Hooke’s law is valid
= E 
if the bar has constant cross sectional area A and
length L
• Normal stress = N /A
• Final strain = Δ / L

NL
• Final deflection  (8‑8)
AE

• Strain energy in the bar N 2L

Ui  (8‑9)
2 AE
Strain Energy-Bending

• The beam is distorted by the gradually applied

load P and w. These load create an internal moment
M in the beam at a section located a distance x from
the left support.

• The resulting rotation of the differential element dx is

d= ( M/EI ) dx
• The strain energy, or work stored in the element

M 2 dx
dU i  (8‑10)
2 EI

• The strain energy for the beam

L
M 2 dx
U i  (8‑11)
0
2 EI
Questions?
M7-L02: Principle of Work and Energy
9.2 principle of work and energy

• how the conservation of energy or the principle of work and energy

can be applied to determine the displacement at a point on a structure.

• Consider finding a displacement  at the point where force P is

applied to the cantilever beam.

• External work Ue=1/2 P

• Internal moment M= - Px

• Strain Energy
U i 
L
M 2 dx

 Px  dx 1 P 2 L3
L

2

0
2 EI 0
2 EI 6 EI
Example:

• Equating the external work to internal strain energy and solving for
the unknown displacement 

U e U i

1 1 P 2 L3
P 
2 6 EI
PL3

3EI

• Although the solution here is quite direct, application of

this method is limited to only a few select problems.
• Only the displacement under the force can be obtained,
since the external work depends upon both the force and
its corresponding displacement.
9.3 Principle of Virtual Work

• Developed by John Bernoulli in 1717

• Sometimes referred unit-load method
• It provides a general means of obtaining
the displacement and slope at a specific
point on the structure,
be it a beam, frame, or truss.
Example:
• Applied external load cause internal loads
u at points throughout the structure.
• The external and internal loads be related
by the equations of equilibrium.
• External displacements  will occur at the
P loads and
internal displacements  will occur at each
point of internal loads u.
• These displacements do not have to be elastic, and
they may not be related to the loads;
- the external and internal displacements must be
related by the compatibility of the displacements.
- if the external displacements are known, the
corresponding internal displacements are uniquely
defined.

Example:
• Real Loads P1, P2 and P3
• Virtual Load P' = 1 is in the same direction as .
• The term virtual is used to describe the load, since it
is imaginary and does not actually exist as part of
the real loading.

 P   u
Work of Work of (8‑12)
External Loads Internal Loads
Displacement 

• The unit load (P') creates an internal virtual load u in

a representative element or fiber of the body.
• P' and u be related by the equations of equilibrium.
• Point A will be displaced an amount  , causing the
element to deform an amount dL.
• The external virtual work is equal to the internal
virtual work done on all the elements of the body,
the virtual-work equation

virtual loadings
1   u dL (8‑13)
real displacements
Rotation 

• If the rotational displacement or slope of the tangent at a point on a

structure is to be determined,
a virtual couple moment M having a unit magnitude is applied at the point.
• Couple moment causes a virtual load u in one of the elements of the body.
Assuming that the real loads deform the element an amount dL,
the rotation  can be found from the virtual-work equation.

virtual loadings
1   u dL (8‑14)
real displacements
Method of Virtual Forces

• This method for applying the principle of virtual work is often referred
to as the method of virtual forces,
- Since a virtual force is applied resulting in the calculation of a real
displacement.
- The equation of virtual work in this case represents a compatibility
requirement for the structure.

Method of Virtual Displacements

• We can also apply the principle of virtual work as a method of virtual

displacements.
- In this case virtual displacements are imposed on the structure is
subjected to real loadings.
- This method can be used to determine a force on or in a structure.
- The equation of virtual work is then expressed as an equilibrium
requirement.
Questions?
M7-L03: Method of Virtual Work:
Trusses
9.4 Method of Virtual Work: Trusses
• We can use the method of virtual work to determine the
displacement of a truss joint when the truss is subjected
to an external loading, temperature change, or a
fabrication error.

External Loading
Example: At Joint B
• If the applied loadings P 1 and P2 cause a linear elastic
material response,
- then element deforms an amount
L=NL/AE
where N is the normal or axial force in the member,
caused by the loads.
• Applying virtual-work equation

nNL
1   (8‑15)
AE
Example:

nNL
1  
AE

Where
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction of 
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external virtual
unit load
 = external joint displacement caused by the real loads on the truss
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real loads
L = length of a member
A = cross-sectional area of a member
E = modulus of elasticity of a member
Temperature
• Truss member may change their length due to temperature.
  is the coefficient of thermal expansion for a member and
 T is the change in temperature.
• The change in length of a member L= T L
• Displacement of a selected truss joint due to this temperature

1   nTL (8‑16)

Where
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction of 
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external virtual
unit load
 = external joint displacement caused by the real loads on the truss
 = coefficient of thermal expansion of member
T = change in temperature
L = length of member
Fabrication Errors and Camber
• Errors in fabricating the length of the members of a truss may occur.
• In some cases truss members must be made slightly longer or shorter in
order to give the truss a camber.
• Camber is often built into a bridge truss to get straight view after
deflection of the trusses
• The displacement of a truss joint

1   nL (8‑17)

Where
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction of 
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external
virtual unit load
 = external joint displacement caused by the fabrication erros
L = difference in length of the member from its intended size as caused by a
fabrication error
Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a method

that may be used to determine
a specific displacement of any point
on a truss using the method of virtual work.

1. Virtual Force n
2. Real Force N
3. Virtual-Work Equation
1. Virtual Force n
• Place the unit load on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is to
be determined.
• The load should be in the same direction as the specified displacement, e.g.,
horizontal or vertical.

• With the unit load so placed, and all the real loads removed from the truss use
the method of
– Joints
– Sections
Calculate the internal n force in each truss member. Assume that
– Tension force positive
– Compressive force negative

2. Real force N
• Use the method of section or method of joints to determine the N force
in each member.
These forces are caused only by the real loads acting on the truss
3. Virtual-Work Equation
• Apply the equation of virtual work, to determine the desired
displacement.
It is important to retain the algebraic sign for each of the corresponding
n or N force where substituting these terms into the equation.

• If the resultant sum

∑nNL/AE is positive
– The displacement  is in the same direction as the unit load
∑nNL/AE is negative
– The displacement  is in the opposite direction as the unit load.

• When applying 1∙∆ = ∑nT L,

– T is positive members undergoes an increase in temperature
– T is negative members undergoes a decrease in temperature
• When applying 1∙∆ = ∑nL,
 L is positive error increase the length of a member
 L is negative error decrease the length of a member

• When applying any formula,

– Attention should be paid to the units of each numerical quantity
– The virtual unit load can be assigned any arbitrary unit since
– The n force will have these same units
– As a result the units for both the virtual unit load and the n forces
will cancel from both sides of the equation
Example 8-1. Figure 8-8a.
Example 8-1.
Example 8-1.
Example 8-1. Figure 8-8a.

SOLUTION (a)
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-8b.

(b) (c)

Figure 8-8c.
Questions?
 M7-L04: Example Problems
(Method of Virtual Work: Trusses)
 Fig. 9‑9a
Example 8-2.

(a)
 Fig. 9‑9a
Example 8-2.

(a)
Fig. 8‑9

SOLUTION
Figure 8-9

Fig. 9‑9b.

(b)
Fig. 9‑9c.
(8‑17).
(8‑9b).
Example 8-3.

Fig. 8.10a.
Example 8-3.

Fig. 8.10a.

Figure 8-10

SOLUTION

Fig. 8.10b.
0.449 in.
Questions?
M7-L05: Method of Virtual Work:
Beams and Frames
8.7 Method of Virtual Work: Beams and Frames

Deflection Problems Involving Beams and Frames :

- Deflections due to
- bending
- shear
- axial loading
- torsional loading, and
- temperature
- Strains due to bending are the primary cause of beam or
frame deflections.
Principle of virtual work (Method of virtual force)

To compute the displacement Δ of point A:

- placed a virtual unit load acting in the

direction of Δ on the beam at A, and
- determined the internal virtual moment m
by the method of sections at an arbitrary
location x from the left support.
- When the real loads act on the beam,
point A is displaced Δ.
Linear Elastic Material Response

- The element dx deforms or rotates

M
d  dx
EI
M = the internal moment at x caused by the
real loads.
- The external virtual work done by the unit
load is
1. Δ

The internal virtual work done by the

moment m is
M
md m dx
EI
L
mM
1.  
- Summing the effects on all the elements dx
along the beam requires an integration, and dx
therefore equation
0
EI
 L
mM
1.   dx
0
EI
1= external virtual unit load acting on the beam
or frame in the direction of Δ
m = internal virtual moment in the beam or
frame, expressed as a function of x and
caused by the external virtual unit load
Δ = external displacement of the point caused by
the real loads acting on the beam or frame
M = internal moment in the beam or frame,
expressed as a function of x and caused by
the real loads
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
I = moment of inertia of cross‑sectional area,
computed about the neutral axis
Tangent Rotation or Slope Angle θ:

- Apply a unit couple moment at the point, and

- Determine the internal moments mθ
- The work of the unit couple is 1. θ,

L
m M
1.   dx
0
EI
Note:
the definite integrals on the right side =
the amount of virtual strain energy
stored in the
beam.
L
mM
1.   dx
0
EI
L
m M
1.   dx
0
EI
Example:
- x1, for region AB,
mM
 EI dx - x2, for region BC,
- x3 for region DE, and
- x4 for region DC.
 If concentrated forces or
 couple moments act on the beam or
 the distributed load is discontinuous,
- a single integration cannot be performed across the beam's entire length.
- Chose separate x coordinates within regions that
have no discontinuity of loading.
- it is not necessary that each x have the same origin;
- the x selected for determining the real moment M in a particular
region must be the same x as that selected for determining the virtual
moment m or mθ within the same region.
Tabular Method to Perform Integrations:

- When the structure is subjected to a relatively simple loading, and yet

- the solution for a displacement requires several integrations,

To do so
- the moment diagrams for each member are drawn first for both the
- real loading, and
- virtual loading.
- By matching these diagrams for m and M with those given in the table
(on the inside front cover), the integral

mM
 EI dx
can be determined from the appropriate formula.
Procedure for Analysis:

to determine
- the displacement and/or
- the slope
at a point on the elastic curve of a
- beam or
- frame
using the method of virtual work.

1. Virtual Moments m (or mθ)

2. Real Moments
3. Virtual‑Work Equation
1. Virtual Moments m (or mθ )

• Place a unit load on the beam or frame

- at the point and
- in the direction of the desired displacement.
• If the slope is to be determined, place a unit couple moment at the point.
• Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of the
beam or frame where there is no discontinuity of
- real load or
- virtual load.
• With the virtual load in place, and all the real loads removed from the
beam or frame, calculate the internal moment m or mθ as a function of
each x coordinate.
• Assume m or mθ acts in the conventional positive direction.
2. Real Moments

• Using the same x coordinates as those established for m or mθ,

determine the internal moments M caused only by the real loads.
• Since m or mθ was assumed to act in the conventional positive
direction, it is important that positive M acts in this same direction.

This is necessary since positive or negative internal work depends

upon the directional sense of
- load (defined by ± m or ± mθ) and
- displacement M
md m dx
EI
3. Virtual‑ Work Equation

• Apply the equation of virtual work to determine the desired

displacement Δ or rotation θ .
It is important to retain the algebraic sign of each integral calculated
within its specified region.
• If the algebraic sum of all the integrals for the entire beam or frame is
positive, Δ or θ is in the same direction as the virtual unit load or unit
couple moment, respectively.
If a negative value results, the direction of Δ or θ is opposite to that of
the unit load or unit couple moment.
Questions?
M7-L06: Example Problems
(Method of Virtual Work:
Beams and Frames)
Example 8-7.
Determine the displacement of point B in
the steel beam shown in Fig. 8-17a.
Take E=200 GPa, I=500(106) mm4.
Example 8-7
SOLUTION E=200 GPa, I=500(106) mm4
Example 8-7.
Determine the displacement of point B in
the steel beam shown in Fig. 8-17a.
Take E=200 GPa, I=500(106) mm4.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-17
Example 8-7
SOLUTION E=200 GPa, I=500(106) mm4

Figure 8-17b.

Figure 8-17b.

Figure 8-17c.

Figure 8-17
Example 8-8.
Determine the slope θ at point B of the steel beam
shown in Fig. 8-18a.
Take E=200 GPa, I=60(106) mm4.
SOLUTION

Figure 8-18
Example 8-8.
Take E=200 Gpa
I=60(106) mm4.
Example 8-8

Take E=200 GPa,

I=60(106) mm4.
SOLUTION

Figure 8-18
Example 8-8

Take E=200 GPa,

I=60(106) mm4.
SOLUTION

Figs. 8-18b 8-18c.

Figs. 8-18d 8-18e.

Figure 8-18
Figure 8-18b.
Example 8-9.
Determine the displacement
at point D of the steel beam
shown in Fig. 8-19a.
E=29(103) ksi, I =800 in4.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-19
Example 8-9. SOLUTION

E=29(103) ksi, I =800 in4.

Fig.8-19b

Fig. 8-19b

Fig. 8-19c.

Fig. 8-19b 8-19c

Figure 8-19

Fig. 8-19b.
Example 8-10.
Determine the horizontal
displacement of point C
on the frame shown in
Fig. 8-20a.
E=29(103) ksi, I =600 in4
for both members.
SOLUTION

Figure 8-20
Example 8-10.
E=29(103) ksi
I =600 in4.
Example 8-10.
SOLUTION E=29(103) ksi, I =600 in4.

8-20a Fig. 8-20b

Fig. 8-20c

Figs. 8-20b 8-20c Figs. 8-20d 8-20e,

Figure 8-20
Example 8-11.
Determine the rotation at point C of the frame shown in Fig. 8-21a.
Take E=200 GPa, I=15(106) mm4.
SOLUTION

Figure 8-21
Example 8-11.
Take E=200 GPa,
I=15(106) mm4.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-20

Fig. 8-20a.

Figs. 8-20b 8-20c,

Questions?
M7-L07: Virtual Strain Energy Caused
by Axial Load, Shear, Torsion, and
Temperature
8.8 Virtual Strain Energy Caused by
Axial Load, Shear, Torsion, and Temperature

- Deflections of beams and frames are caused primarily by

bending strain energy,
- in some structures the additional strain energy of
- axial load,
- shear,
- torsion, and perhaps
- temperature
may become important.
 Axial Load
Frame members can be subjected to axial loads.
The virtual strain energy caused by these loadings has been established
before (Sec. 8.9).
nNL
1.  
AE
For members having a constant cross‑sectional area, we have

nNL
Un 
AE
n = internal virtual axial load caused by the external virtual unit load
N = internal axial force in the member caused by the real loads
E = modulus of elasticity for the material
A = cross‑sectional area of the member
L = member's length
Shear
dx, dy
dy = γdx (Shearing distortion)
γ = τ/G (Shearing Strain)
dy = (τ/G)dx
τ = K(V/A) (Shear Stress)
dy = K(V/GA)dx
Internal virtual work done by
a virtual shear force υ

dUs = υdy = υK(V/GA)dx

For the entire beam, the virtual strain
L
energy is determined by integration.
V
Us  K ( )dx
0
GA
Shear
L
υ = internal virtual shear in the member, V
Us  K ( )dx
- expressed as a function of x and
0
GA
- caused by the external virtual unit load
V = internal shear in the member,
- expressed as a function of x and
- caused by the real loads
A = cross‑sectional area of the member
K = form factor for the cross‑sectional area :
- K = 1.2 for rectangular cross sections
- K = 10/9 for circular cross sections
- K =1 for wide‑flange and I‑beams,
where A is the area of the web
G = shear modulus of elasticity for the material
 Torsion
- Often three‑dimensional frameworks are subjected to torsional loadings.
- If the member has a circular cross‑sectional area,
no warping of its cross section will occur when it is loaded.
- To drive the virtual strain energy in the member
consider an element dx of the member under torque T.
 Torsion
- This torque causes a shear strain of
γ = (cdθ)/dx.
- Linear Elastic Material
γ = τ/G, τ = Tc/J
- The angle of twist
dθ = (γdx)/c = (τ/Gc)dx = (T/GJ)dx

- If a virtual unit load is applied to

the structure that causes an internal
virtual torque t in the member,
- After applying the real loads, the tT
dUt td  dx
virtual strain energy in the member GJ
of length dx will be

tTL
Integrating over the length L Ut 
of the member yields GJ
 Torsion
γ = (cdθ)/dx.
γ = τ/G , τ = Tc/J
dθ = (γdx)/c
= (τ/Gc)dx = (T/GJ)dx
tT
dUt td  dx
GJ
tTL
Ut 
GJ
t = internal virtual torque caused by the external virtual unit load
T = internal torque in the member caused by the real loads
G = shear modulus of elasticity for the material
J = polar moment of inertia for the cross section ,  c4
J
where c is the radius of the cross‑sectional area 2
L = member's length
 Temperature
- The effect of a uniform temperature
change ΔT on a truss member and
indicated that the member will elongate
or shorten by an amount
ΔL = α ΔT L.

- Structural Member under Temperature

Difference Across Its Depth
How to determine the displacement of
points along the elastic curve of the
beam by using the principle of virtual
work?
 Thermal Gradient

- we must first compute the amount of

rotation of a differential element dx
of the beam as caused by the thermal
gradient that acts over the beam's
cross section.
- Consider the most common case of a
beam having a neutral axis located at
the mid‑depth (c) of the beam.
- Using the temperature profile,
the mean temperature is
Tm = (T1 + T2)/2.

L
UTm  nTm dx
0
If T1 > T2,
- the temperature difference causes
strain elongation at the top,
strain contraction at the bottom.
- the difference in temperature
ΔTm = (T1 - Tm)= (Tm – T2)
- the thermal change of length at
the top and bottom
 x Tm dx
- the rotation of the element

Tm dx
d 
c
Virtual Strain Energy under Thermal Gradient

- Apply a virtual unit load at a point on the beam where a displacement

is to be determined, or
- Apply a virtual unit couple moment at a point where a rotational
displacement of the tangent is to be determined,
- This loading creates a virtual moment m in the beam at the point where
the element dx is located.
- The virtual strain energy in the beam under the temperature gradient is

L
mTm dx
Utemp 
0
c
 L
mTm dx
Utemp 
0
c
m = internal virtual moment in the beam
expressed as a function of x and
caused by the external virtual unit
load or unit couple moment
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
ΔTm = temperature difference between
the mean temperature and the
temperature at the top or bottom
of the beam
c = mid‑depth of the beam
Temperature

Tm = (T1 + T2)/2
T1 > T2
ΔTm = (T1 - Tm) = (Tm – T2)

 x Tm dx
Tm dx
d 
c
L
mTm dx
Utemp 
0
c
Note:
- Unless otherwise stated, we will consider only beam
and frame deflections due to bending.
- In general, beam and frame members may
be subjected to several of the other loadings.
- The additional deflections caused by
- shear and
- axial force
alter the deflection of beams by only a few percent
and are therefore generally ignored for even
"small" two‑ or three‑member frame analysis of
one‑story height.
Note:
If the the additional deflections caused by
axial force, shear, torsion, and temperature
are to be considered for the analysis,
add their virtual strain energy to the equation of virtual work.
nNL
Un 
AE
L
mM
L
V
Us  K ( )dx
GA 1.   dx
EI
0

tTL 0
Ut 
GJ L
m M
Utemp 
L
mTm dx 1.   dx
0
c 0
EI
L
UTm  nTm dx
0
Questions?
 M7-L08: Example Problems
(Virtual Strain Energy Caused by Axial
Load, Shear, Torsion, and
Temperature)
Example 8-12.

Fig. 8-25a.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-25
Example 8-12.

SOLUTION

Figs. 8-25b
8-25c.

9-8.

Fig. 8-25b 8-25c.

Figure 8-25
Example 8-12.

SOLUTION
Eq. 8-25
Fig. 8-25b 8-25c,

Figure 8-25
Example 8-13.
Fig. 8-26a.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-26
Example 8-13.
Questions?
M7-L09: Castigliano's Theorem
8-5 Castigliano's Theorem

Alberto Castigliano, 1879

A method for determining the
- deflection or slope
at a point in a structure,
- truss, beam, or frame.

Castigliano's second theorem, (the method of least work)

applies only to structures that have

- constant temperature,
- unyielding supports, and
- linear elastic material response.
Displacement of a Point
The Castigliano's theorem states that:
the displacement is equal to the first partial
derivative of the strain energy in the structure
with respect to a force acting
- at the point and
- in the direction of displacement.

Slope at a Point

the slope at a point in a structure is equal to the

first partial derivative of the strain energy in the
structure with respect to a couple moment acting
- at the point and
- in the direction of rotation.
Proof of Castigliano's Second Theorem

Ui Ue
Ue   Pdx

Ui Ue f (P1, P2 ,, Pn )

First Applying the P1 , P2 , … , Pn then dPi

Internal strain energy

Ui
Ui  dUi Ui  dPi
Pi
Independent of the sequence of the applied loads.

First Applying the dPi then P1 , P2 , … , Pn

Ui  dU i Ui  dPi  i
Proof Ui
Ui  dUi Ui  dPi
Pi

Ui  dU i U i  dPi  i The displacement i in the direction

of Pi is equal to the first partial
Ui derivatives of the strain energy with
i 
Pi respect to force Pi

Note:
This is a statement regarding the structure's compatibility.
- The Castigliano's Second Theorem derivation requires that only conservative forces
be considered for the analysis.
- The conservative forces do work that is independent of the
- path and therefore
- create no energy loss.
- Since forces causing a linear elastic response are conservative, the theorem is
restricted to linear elastic behavior of the material .
- This is unlike the method of virtual force discussed before, which applied to both
elastic and inelastic behavior.
Castigliano's Theorem for Trusses

Strain Energy for a Member of a Truss

N 2L i 
Ui
Ui 
2 AE Pi

 N 2L

P
 2AE
Virtual Work Theorem:
 N  L L
  N   1   nN
 P  AE AE
Procedure for Analysis:
The following procedure provides a method that may be used to
determine the displacement of any joint of a truss using
Castigliano's theorem.

1. External Force P
2. Internal Forces N
3. Castigliano's Theorem
1. External Force P

• Place a force P on the truss at the joint where the desired

displacement is to be determined.
This force is assumed
- to have a variable magnitude and
- should be directed along the line of action of
the displacement.
2. Internal Forces N
• Determine the force N in each member caused by both
- the real (numerical) loads and
- the variable force P.
Assume
- tensile forces are positive and
- compressive forces are negative.
• Compute the respective partial derivative
N / P for each member.
N / P
• After N and have been determined,
- assign P its numerical value if it has replaced
a real force on the truss.
- Otherwise, set P equal to zero.
3. Castigliano's Theorem

• Apply Castigliano's theorem to determine the desired

displacement Δ.
It is important to retain the algebraic signs for corresponding
values of N and N / P
when substituting these terms into the equation.
• If the resultant sum

 N  L
  N  
 P  AE
is positive, Δ is in the same direction as P.
If a negative value results, Δ is opposite to P.
Questions?
M7-L10: Example Problem 8-4
Castigliano's Theorem
Example 8-4. SOLUTION
Determine the vertical displacement of
joint C of the truss shown in Fig. 8-11a.
The cross-sectional area of each member is
A=400 mm2 and E=200 GPa.

Figure 8-11
Example 8-4
A=400 mm2
SOLUTION E=200 GPa.

Fig. 8-11b

Fig. 8-11b.
Fig. 8-11c

8-21,

9-2. Figure 8-11

Questions?
M7-L11: Example Problems
Castigliano's Theorem
Example 8-5.
Determine the horizontal
displacement of joint D of the truss
shown in Fig. 8-12a. Take E=29(103)
ksi. The cross-section of each member
is indicated in the figure.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-12
Example 8-5.

SOLUTION

Fig. 8-12b.

Fig. 8-12b.

Figure 8-12

8-21,
Example 8-6.
Determine the vertical
displacement of joint C of the
truss shown in Fig. 8-13a.
Assume that A=0.5 in2 and
E=29(103) ksi.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-13
Example 8-6.

Figure 8-13
SOLUTION

Fig. 8-13b.

Fig. 8-13b.

8-21,

A=0.5 in2
E=29(103) ksi.

8-1,
Questions?
M7-L12: Castigliano's Theorem for
Beams and Frames
8.9 Castigliano's Theorem for Beams and Frames
Strain energy for a beam:

M 2 dx Ui
Ui   i 
2EI Pi

L
 M 2 dx
P 

2EI L
0 M dx
  M ( ) (8,28)
0
P EI

Δ = external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the
beam or frame
P = external force applied to the beam or frame in the direction of Δ
M = internal moment in the beam or frame,
- expressed as a function of x and
- caused by both the force P and the real loads on the beam
E = modulus of elasticity of beam material
I = moment of inertia of cross‑sectional area computed about the neutral axis
Slope θ at a Point

We must find the partial derivative of the internal moment M with

respect to an external couple moment M' acting at the point.

L
M dx
  M ( )
0
M  EI (8,29)
Comparing to the Method of Virtual Work

L L
M dx mM
M
  M ( ) 1.   dx
P EI EI  m
0 0
P
L
M dx L
m M M
  M ( ) 1.   dx  m
0
M  EI 0
EI M 

- As in the case for trusses, slightly more calculation is

generally required to determine the partial derivatives
when applying Castigliano's theorem rather than using the
method of virtual work.
- The Castigliano's theorem applies only to
material having a linear elastic response.
More Complete Accountability of Strain Energy in the Structure

The strain energy due to shear, axial force, and torsion must be included.
The strain energies and their derivatives are, respectively,

Note:
- These effects, will not be included in the analysis of the problems in this text
since beam and frame deflections are caused mainly by bending strain energy.
- Larger frames, or those with unusual geometry, can be analyzed by computer,
where these effects can readily be incorporated into the analysis.
Procedure for Analysis:

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to

determine the deflection and/or slope at a point in a beam or frame
using Castigliano's theorem.

1. External Force P or Couple Moment M'

2. Internal Moment M
3. Castigliano's Theorem
1. External Force P or Couple Moment M'

• Place a force P on the beam or frame

- at the point and
- in the direction of the desired displacement.
• If the slope is to be determined, place a couple moment M'
at the point.
• It is assumed that both P and M' have a variable magnitude.
2. Internal Moment M

• Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of

the beam or frame where there is no discontinuity of
force, distributed load, or couple moment.
• Calculate the internal moment M as a function of P and M' and
each x coordinate. M M
Compute the partial derivative or
P 
M
for each coordinate x.
• After M and M M
or
P M 
have been determined, assign P and M' its numerical value
if it has replaced a real force or couple moment.
Otherwise, set P or M' equal to zero.
3. Castigliano's Theorem

L
M dx
• Apply Eq. 8‑18   M ( )
0
P EI
L
M dx
or Eq. 8‑29   M ( )
0
M  EI

to determine the desired displacement Δ or slope θ .

It is important to retain the algebraic signs for
corresponding values of M and M M
or
P M 

• If the resultant sum of all the definite integrals is

positive, Δ or θ is in the same direction as P or M'.
Example 8-14.
Determine the displacement
of point B of the beam shown
in Fig. 8-27a. Take E=200
GPa and I=500 (106)mm4 .

SOLUTION

Figure 8-27
Example 8-14.

SOLUTION

Fig. 8-27c,

9-28,

Figure 8-27

8-7,
Example 8-15.
Determine the slope at point B of
the beam shown in Fig. 8-28a. Take
E=200 GPa and I=60 (106)mm4 .

SOLUTION

Figure 8-28
Example 8-15.

E=200 GPa
I=60 (106)mm4

SOLUTION Figure 8-28

8-28b.

8-28b.
8-28c,

9-29

8.8.
Example 8-16.
Determine the displacement of
point C of the beam shown in
Fig. 8-29a. Take E=200 GPa and
I=150 (106) mm4 .

SOLUTION

Figure 8-29
Example 8-16.
E=200 GPa
SOLUTION I=150(106) mm4.
8-29b.

8-29b
8-29c,

Figure 8-29

9-28
Example 8-17.
Determine the slope at point C of the
two-member frame shown in Fig. 8-30a.
The support at A is fixed. Take
E=29(103) ksi, and I=600 in4.

SOLUTION

Figure 8-30
Example 8-17. E=29(103) ksi,

SOLUTION I=600 in4

8-30b.

8-30b,
8-30c,

Figure 8-30

8-29,
Questions?