EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

Virtual Work or Unit Load Method

The method of virtual work is the most fundamental, direct and versatile tool for computing
deflection of structures. The method can be used to evaluate deflections resulting from loads of
any type, temperature changes, error in fabrications and movement of supports. The method is
based on Bernoulli’s principle of virtual displacements which is stated as follows:
If a rigid body under the action of any set of forces in equilibrium is given any small
virtual displacement, the total work of the force system (virtual work) is equal zero.
The corresponding theorem for deformable bodies known as the principle of virtual work is
stated as follows:
If a deformable body, in equilibrium under the action of a system of loads, is subjected to
a small virtual displacement, the external virtual work done by the external forces is
equal to the internal virtual work of the stress caused by the given system of loads.
The equality is written as follows:
External Virtual Work = Internal Virtual Work

Work of External Forces

The work done by an external force P as it rides along at its full value during such a virtual
displacement  is called virtual work, which is expressed as:
External virtual work: We = P
In the same manner, the virtual work done by a moment M during a virtual angular rotation  is
expressed as:
External virtual work: We = M

In general, the total virtual work done by a force system will equal the sum of the product of
each load by the corresponding virtual displacement and generalized as:
External virtual work: We = P + M

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 1/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

Internal Virtual Work

The internal virtual work for any element of the deformed structure is expressed as the product of
the average stress on the element and the corresponding virtual deformation of the element in the
direction of the stress. Expressions will be developed for the internal virtual work of axial and
flexural strains, which are then equated to their respective external virtual works to solve for the
resulting deflection component.

Displacement due to Axial Strains: (for Truss Type structures)

Consider a prismatic bar of length L, cross sectional area A and made of a material with modulus
of elasticity E, subjected to an axial force N, the resulting axial deformation is:

If this deformation is considered to be a virtual displacement of the bar, the internal virtual work
done by a bar force resulting from the action of another fictitious unit axial force "n" as it rides
along at its full value is;

For example in computing truss deflection, two different states are considered:
State I – The truss acted upon by the real loads is considered (fig. a).
State II – The truss acted upon by a unit fictitious load at a point in the direction of
required deflection (fig. b).

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

a b
a b c
c
Δc
1
ra rb
(a ) State I
(a ) State II

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 2/15

EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

If for example the vertical displacement at point C of the truss is required; assume that a unit
load in the direction of the required displacement is applied to the truss which is in equilibrium
(state II), then the actual displacement of the truss (state I) can be considered to be virtual
displacement to the effect of unit force of state II.
- The external virtual work done due to the effect of fictitious unit load through the
displacement will be: We = P = ra * 0 + 1*  + rb * 0 = 1*

- The internal virtual work in each member of the truss will be: . Thus the total

internal virtual work for the entire truss will be:

By the principle of virtual work:

We = Wi

Where:
n = axial force in members of the truss due to a unit fictitious load applied at the point
where the deflection is sought along the desired direction.
N = axial force in members of the truss due to the actual loads
E, A, L = modulus of elasticity, cross-sectional area and length of members of the truss
respectively.
* Note that the member forces n due to a fictitious unit load is a deflection coefficient and when
multiplied by the change of length (due to any cause) of the corresponding member will give the
effect of the change in length of the members on the required deflection component, thus the
above expression can be generalized as follows:
1*  =  n  L
where:  L = change in length
= NL/EA, due to applied forces (i)
= (T)L, due to temperature change (ii)
= Specified value; such as errors in fabrication (iii)
n = deflection coefficient

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 3/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

Displacement Due to Flexural Strain

The lateral displacement and rotation at any point on a beam due to flexural strain/bending
moments can be obtained using the principle of virtual work by applying a unit fictitious force
and couple respectively at the point and equating the external and internal virtual work.
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to transverse loads as shown below.

w 1 1
a c b a c b a c b
νc EI EI
θc L L
L
m
M mθ

(a ) (b )
(c )
To compute the vertical displacement at a point (point c), apply a unit vertical force at the point
as shown in fig (b) above.
- The curvature of a segment of the beam dx subjected to a bending moment M due to the
real load is given by:


M

dx

- The internal bending moment at section x, caused by the unit fictitious load

designated by m, performs an internal virtual work in segment dx which is

equal to:

The total internal virtual work resulting from flexural strain in the total length L of the beam is:

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EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

The external virtual work of the unit load due to the displacement  , which is virtual to the unit
load is
We = 1* 
- From the principle of virtual work We = Wi

To compute the rotation at a point (point c), apply a unit fictitious couple at the point as shown in
fig (c) above and using the same procedure as for the lateral deflections. It can be shown that:

Where:
m = bending moment due to a unit fictitious lateral load
m  = bending moment due to a unit fictitious couple
M = bending moment due to real loads
EI = flexural stiffness of the beam

Graphical Multiplication Method

The above integral contains the product of two ordinates of the m and M curves obviously the m
curves are straight line. Hence the integration of the product can be carried out in such a way
that:

Where:
Am = the area bounded by the M/EI diagram b/n the given limit.
mc = the ordinate of the m diagram at a point corresponding to the
centroid of the M/EI diagram b/n the given limits.

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 5/15

EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

The area and position of centroids for most commonly encountered shapes are found to be as
follows:
Shape of Diagram Area Position of Centroid
a b
a b
a b
h L/2
h L/2
A = hL
L
L

a b
2nd degree L/3 2L/3
A = hL/2
h curve

A = hL/3 L/4 3L/4

a b
a b
nth degree
h curve 2nd degree A = 2hL/3 3L/8 5L/4
curve
h

A = hL/(n+1) L/(n+2) (n+1)L/(n+2

L

In general, the internal virtual work in a frame work consisting of members which are subjected
to both axial force and bending moments can be considered as the sum of the work done due to
the axial strain and flexural strains. Hence the principle of virtual work can be generalized as:

* Note that in most of the cases for continuous beams and rigid frames, the effect of axial
forces for deflections are very small as compared to deflection due to bending moment and
thus are usually neglected.

Displacement due to Support Movement

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EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

It is evident that no internal stresses will result from movements of supports of statically
determinate structures. Thus, the internal virtual work in such cases is equal to zero.
Accordingly, by the principle of virtual work, the external virtual work is seen to be zero.

For example consider the following frame, where the horizontal displacement at B due to a
vertical settlement of Support D is required.

B B’ C XB = 1 B C

C’

H
H
D D

A A XB *H
 DV RV 
D’ L

L L

Actual State Fictitious State

(Fig. a) (Fig. b)
Assume a unit horizontal force XB = 1 is applied at point B (fig. b)

- The actual state of the structure carries no load at all implying that the internal virtual work
done by the stresses due to a unit fictitious force is zero.

- By the principle of virtual work, the external virtual work is zero.

XB * ΔBH - RDV * ΔDV = 0

And since XB = 1 and RD = H/L
1* ΔBH - (H/L) * ΔDV = 0 ΔBH = (H/L) * ΔDV

In general, the displacements indicated in a statically determinate structure due to the movement
of its supports can be determined as per the following procedures:

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 7/15

EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

a. Choose a fictitious state of the structure for which the support under consideration
remains fixed.

b. Apply a unit load to the structure in the fictitious state in the same direction
corresponding to the required displacement.

c. Determine the reaction produced by the applied unit load at the support in the same
direction as the support movement.

d. Find the total virtual work done by the loads and reactions of the fictitious state and
equate to zero.

e. Determine the displacement required by solving the virtual work equation.

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 8/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

Examples
1. Find the vertical deflection of joint B for the truss due to the applied load using the virtual
work method. All external members have cross-sectional area of 6cm2 and all internal
members have cross-sectional area of 4cm2. Use E =210 G Pa for all members.
H G F

2.40m
A E
B C D
10KN
2.40m 1.60m 1.60m 2.40m

Soln: - analyze the truss for the given loads & determine the bar forces
- apply a unit vertical load at joint B and compute the forces in the member due to
the unit load independently.
- Apply the principle of virtual work.
- The result is presented more conveniently in tabular form as follows.

L A N n
Member
(m) (cm ) 2
(KN)

AB 2.4 6 +3.00 +0.70 +0.84

BC 1.6 6 +3.00 +0.70 +0.56
CD 1.6 6 +7.00 +0.30 +0.56
DE 2.4 6 +7.00 +0.30 +0.84
EF 3.394 6 -9.90 -0.424 +2.374
FG 1.6 6 -5.00 -0.50 +0.667
GH 1.6 6 -5.00 -0.50 +0.667
ΔB = HA 3.394 6 -4.24 -0.99 +0.667
HB 2.40 4 0.00 +1.00 0
ΔB = 0.333 mm , downward
HC 2.884 4 +3.61 -0.361 -0.940
GC 2.40 4 0.00 0.00 0

CF 2.884 4 -3.61 +0.361 -0.940

FD 2.400 4 +10.00 0.00 0

Σ= 7.002

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 9/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

2. Using virtual work method, determine the vertical displacement and rotation at
specified points for the following simple cases of beams

(a ) νc = ?
θa = ?
w 1
a 1
a b c b a b
θa c EI
νc L/2 L/2 L
R 1x
L/2 L/2
R  wL b 2 x r  1 ra  1 m 1  x r 1
Ra  wL x b 2 m b 2 L  L b L
2 wL2 wLx wx 2 2 (+)
M  (+)
8 2 2
(+) m - diagram mθ - diagram
M - diagram

 . Displacement at c:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

 . Rotation at a:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 10/15

EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

(b ) νa = ?
θa = ? 2
M   wL 1 m  L m  1
w b 2 b b
a c b 1 a b
νa EI
a
b L L
θa L r  1
R  wL x b
b 1 (-)
(-)
 wL
2 (-) L m  1
2
M   wx x 2
2
mx 
mθ - diagram
M - diagram m - diagram
 . Displacement at a:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

 . Rotation at a:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 11/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

νa = ?
(c )
θa = ?
P wL2
1
Mb  
2 c b mb   L 1 a b mb  1
a a
νa EI b L L
θa L rb  1
Rb  P x
1 (-)
(-) L m  1
 PL (-)
M   Pxx mx mθ - diagram
M - diagram m - diagram

 . Displacement at a:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

 . Rotation at a:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 12/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

(d ) νc = ?
θa = ?
1
P
a 1
a b c b a b
θa c EI
νc L/2 L/2 L
L/2 L/2 1 1 2/3
P P 1 rb  x ra  x
1
Ra  PL Rb  ra  L/6 2 L rb  x
1/3
x x x
2 4 2 2 L/6 L/4 L
A1 A2 (+)
(+) (+)
L/6 L/3 L/6 L/6 L/3
L/3 L/6 L/3
L/3 L/6 L/6 L/3
m - diagram mθ - diagram
M - diagram

 . Displacement at c:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

 . Rotation at a:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 13/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

3. Using virtual work method, determine the horizontal displacement of joint d for the
following frame

b c b c
EI EI

2.0m
EI

2.0m
EI

EI d 30KN EI d 1
2.0m

2.0m
a a
3.0m 3.0m

60 60
2 2
60 60
2 2

4/3 2 4/3
2.0m

2.0m
2.0m

2.0m

4/3
60 2
3.0m 3.0m

M – diagram on m – diagram on
tension side (KNM) tension

 . Horizontal Displacement at d:

Internal Virtual work:

External Virtual work:

By the principle of virtual work, We = Wi

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 14/15

 EiABC COTM 3101: Theory of Structures

Exercise
1. Determine the vertical deflection of joint c for the truss loaded as shown in Fig. 1. The
cross-sectional area of all external members and all internal members are 8cm 2 and 6cm2
respectively. Use E = 210GPa for all members
2. Calculate the horizontal component of deflection of joint g for the truss loaded as shown
in Fig.2. All members are made of the same material with modulus of Elasticity
E = 210GPa and have cross-sectional areas indicated in brackets along with each member
3. Determine the vertical deflection at points b and e for beam loaded as shown in Fig. 3
4. Find the horizontal displacement at d and rotation at b for the frame loaded as shown in
Fig. 4
g
10KN

2.0m
10KN 15KN 10KN Fig. 2 (8)

(8)
h (8)
10KN
2.0m
h g f
f (8)

(8)
(8)
2.0m

i (8)
e 10KN
2.0m

(8)
a e

(8)
(15) (15)
(8)
b c d 10KN
2.0m

d
(5)

(8)
2.0m (15)
2.0m 2.4m 2.4m
a (10) (10)
c
b
Fig. 1
3.0m 3.0m

50KN

b c

20KN/M
40KN 40KN/M EI

a b c
2.0m

e EI
EI d
2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m EI Fig. 4
d
1.0m

Fig. 3
a

3.0m 3.0m

Lecture Note 2020/21 Academic Year 1stSemester 15/15