Theory of Structures 1

6.0 Deflections Using Energy Methods

Contents:
6.1 External Work and Strain Energy
6.2 Principle of Work and Energy
6.3 Principle of Virtual Works
6.4 Method of Virtual Works
6.5 Castigliano’s Theorem for Truss
6.6 Method of Virtual Works: Beams and Frames
6.7 Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames

6.1 External Work and Strain Energy

 For more complicated loadings or for structures such as trusses & frames, it is
suggested that energy methods be used for the computations.
 Most energy methods are based on the conservation of energy principle.
 Work done by all external forces acting on a structure, Ue is transformed into
internal work or strain energy Ui. (𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 )
 If the material’s elastic limit is not exceeded, the elastic strain energy will return the
structure to its undeformed state when the loads are removed.
 When a force F undergoes a displacement dx in the same direction as the force, the
work done is 𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹.
𝑥𝑥
 If the total displacement is x, the work becomes: 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = ∫0 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹.

 Consider the effect caused by an axial force applied to the end of a bar
(i) F is gradually increased from 0 to some limiting value 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑃𝑃.
(ii) The final elongation of the bar becomes ∆.

(iii) If the material has a linear elastic response, then 𝐹𝐹 = �𝑃𝑃�∆�𝑥𝑥.

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(iv) Integrating from 0 to ∆: 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃∆
2
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 (v) Suppose P is already applied to the bar & that another force F’ is now
applied, so that the bar deflects further by an amount ∆’.

(vi) The work done by P when the bar undergoes the further deflection is then
𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 ′ = 𝑃𝑃∆′ .
(vii) In this case, P does not change its magnitude since ∆’ is caused only by F’,
Work = force x displacement
(viii) When a force P is applied to the bar, followed by an application of the force
F’, the total work done by both forces is rep by the triangular area ACE.
(ix) The triangular area ABG represents the work of P that is caused by
displacement ∆.
(x) The triangular area BCD represents the work of F’ since this force causes
a displacement ∆’.
(xi) Lastly the shaded rectangular area BDEG represents the additional work
done by P.

 The work of a moment = magnitude of the moment (M) x the angle (dθ) through
which it rotates. (𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)
𝜃𝜃
 If the total angle of rotation is θ rad, the work becomes 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = ∫0 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 .

 If the moment is applied gradually to a structure having a linear elastic response

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from 0 to M, then the work done is 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀.
2

 However, if the moment is already applied to the structure & other loadings further
distort the structure by an amount θ’, then M rotates θ’ & the work done is 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 ′ =
𝑀𝑀𝜃𝜃 ′ .
 When an axial force N is applied gradually to the bar, it will strain the material
such that the external work done by N will be converted into strain energy.

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 Provided the material is linearly elastic, Hooke’s Law is valid.
𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
 If the bar has a constant x-sectional area A and length L.
𝐹𝐹
(i) The normal stress is 𝜎𝜎 = .
𝐴𝐴

∆
(ii) The final strain is 𝜀𝜀 = .
𝐿𝐿

𝐹𝐹 ∆
(iii) Consequently, = 𝐸𝐸 � �
𝐴𝐴 𝐿𝐿

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
(iv) Final deflection: ∆=
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐹𝐹 2 𝐿𝐿
(v) Substituting with P = F, 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 =
2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

 Consider the beam, P & w are gradually apply.

 These loads create an internal moment M in the beam at a section located a

distance x from the left support.

 Consequently, the strain energy or work stored in the element can be determined
since the internal moment is gradually developed.
𝑀𝑀2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 =
2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
 The strain energy for the beam is determined by integrating this result over the
beam’s length.
𝐿𝐿
𝑀𝑀2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 = �
0 2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

6.2 Principle of Work and Energy

 Consider finding the displacement at a point where the force P is applied to the

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 cantilever beam.
1
 The external work: 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃∆
2

 To obtain the resulting strain energy, we must first determine the internal moment
as a function of position x in the beam.
𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 (−𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑃𝑃2 𝐿𝐿3
 In this case, M = - Px so that: 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 = ∫0 = ∫0 =
2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 6 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

 Equating the external work to internal strain energy & solving for the unknown
displacement,
𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒 = 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖
1 1 𝑃𝑃2 𝐿𝐿3
𝑃𝑃∆=
2 6 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿3
∆=
3𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

 Limitations:
(i) It will be noted that only one load may be applied to the structure.
(ii) Only the displacement under the force can be obtained.

6.3 Principle of Virtual Work

 If we take a deformable structure of any shape or size & apply a series of external
loads P to it, it will cause internal loads u at points throughout the structure.
 As a consequence of these loadings, external displacement ∆ will occur at the P
loads & internal displacement δ will occur at each point of internal loads u.
 In general, these displacement do not have to be elastic, & they may not be related
to the loads.
 In general, the principle states that: Work of External Loads = Work of Internal
Loads (∑ 𝑃𝑃∆ = ∑ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)

 Consider the structure (or body) to be of arbitrary shape.

Apply virtual load 𝑃𝑃′ = 1 Apply real loads P1, P2 and P3

 Suppose it is necessary to determine the displacement ∆ of point A on the body
caused by the “real loads” P1, P2 and P3.

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  It is to be understood that these loads cause no movement of the supports.
 They can strain the material beyond the elastic limit.
 Since no external load acts on the body at A and in the direction of ∆, the
displacement ∆, can be determined by first placing on the body a “virtual” load
such that this force P’ acts in the same direction as ∆.
 We will choose P’ to have a unit magnitude, P’ =1.
 Once the virtual loadings are applied, then the body is subjected to the real loads
P1, P2 and P3.
 Point A will be displaced an amount ∆ causing the element to deform an amount
dL

 As a result, the external virtual force P’ & internal load u “ride along” by ∆ and
dL & therefore, perform external virtual work of 1 ∙ ∆ on the body and internal
virtual work of 𝑢𝑢 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 on the element.

 By choosing P’ = 1, it can be seen from the solution for ∆ follows directly since
∆= ∑ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢.

 A virtual couple moment M’ having a unit magnitude is applied at this point.

 This couple moment causes a virtual load in one of the elements of the body uθ.
 Assuming that the real loads deform the element an amount dL, the rotation θ can
be found from the virtual-work equation.

6.4 Method of Virtual Work

 External loading:

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  Consider the vertical displacement ∆ of joint B
 If the applied loadings P1 & P2 cause a linear elastic material response, the

element will deform as ∆𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁�𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 .

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
 The virtual work equation for the truss is: 1 ∙ ∆= ∑
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction
of Δ
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external
virtual unit load
Δ = external joint displacement caused by the real loads on the truss
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real load
L = length of the member
A = cross-sectional area of member
E = modulus elasticity of a member
 The external virtual load creates internal virtual forces n in each of the
members.
 The real loads caused the truss joints to be displaced in the same direction as
the virtual unit load.

 Each member is displaced 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁�𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 in the same direction as its respective n

force.
 Hence, external virtual work = sum of internal (virtual) strain energy stored
in truss members.

 Temperature:
 In some cases, truss members may change their length due to temperature.
∆𝐿𝐿 = 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
 The displacement of a selected truss joint may be written as
1 ∙ ∆= ∑ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛∆𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
Δ = external joint displacement caused by temperature change
α = coefficient of thermal expansion of member
ΔT = difference in length of the member from its intended size as caused
by fabrication error

Example:
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss. The cross-sectional

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area of each member is A = 300 mm2 and E = 200 GPa.

Solution:
Virtual forces
Only a vertical 1kN load is placed at
joint C. The force in each member is
calculated using method of joints.

Read forces
The real forces are calculated using
method of joints.

Member n (kN) N (kN) L (m) nNL (kN2m)

AB 0.333 20 3 20
BC 0.667 20 3 40
CD 0.667 20 3 40
DE -0.943 -28.3 4.24 113
FE -0.333 -20 3 20
EB -0.471 0 4.24 0
BF 0.333 20 3 20
AF -0.471 -28.3 4.24 56.6
CE 1 20 3 60
Σ369.6
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 369.6
1kN ∙ ∆𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = � =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
∆𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = 0.00616m = 6.16mm
Example:
The cross-sectional area of each member has
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A = 400 mm2
E = 200 GPa
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if no loads act on the truss and member
AB is 5 mm too short.

Solution:
The support reactions at A & B are calculated.
The n force in each member is determined using method of joints.

1 ∙ ∆= ∑ 𝑛𝑛∆𝐿𝐿
1kN ∙ ∆𝑐𝑐 = (0.667kN)(−0.005m)
∆𝑐𝑐 = −0.00333m = −3.33mm

6.5 Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses

 The displacement Di in the direction of Pi is equal to the first partial derivative of
the strain energy with respect to Pi.
𝜕𝜕𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖
∆𝑖𝑖 =
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝑁𝑁2 𝐿𝐿
 The strain energy in a truss member is 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 = .
2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝜕𝜕 𝑁𝑁2 𝐿𝐿
∆= ∑
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐿𝐿
∆= ∑ 𝑁𝑁 � �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Example:

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Determine the vertical disp of joint C of the truss. The cross-sectional area of each
member is A = 400 mm2.Take E = 200 GPa.

Solution:
A vertical force P is applied to the truss at joint C. Using method of joints, the N forces
in each member are determined.

Member N 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 N (P = 0)* L 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑁𝑁 � � 𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

AB 0.667P+2 0.667 2 8 10.67

AC -(0.833P-2.5) -0.833 2.5 5 -10.42
BC -(0.833P+2.5) -0.833 -2.5 5 10.42
Σ10.67kNm
*Since P does not actually exist as a real load on the truss, we required P = 0 in the
table.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐿𝐿
∆𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = � 𝑁𝑁 � � = 0.133mm
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

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Example:
Determine the horizontal displacement of joint D of the truss. Take E = 200GPa. The
cross-sectional area of each member is indicated.

Solution:
External force P: Since the horizontal displacement of D is to be determined, a
horizontal variable force P is applied to joint D.

Internal forces N: Using the method of joints, the force N in each member is computed.
Set 𝑃𝑃 = 0 since this force does not actually exist on the truss.
Member N 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑁𝑁(𝑃𝑃 = 0) L 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑁𝑁 � � 𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
AB -60 0 -60 4 0
BC -60 0 -60 4 0
CD 75 0 75 5 0
DA 75+1.25P 1.25 75 5 468.75
BD −(90 + 0.75𝑃𝑃) -0.75 -90 3 202.50
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐿𝐿
Castigliano’s Theorem: ∆𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏 = ∑ 𝑁𝑁 � �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

468.75kNm 202.50kNm
= 0 + 0 + 0 + (385×10−6 + (385×10−6
𝑚𝑚2 )(200×106 kN⁄m2 ) 𝑚𝑚2 )(200×106 kN⁄m2 )

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Example:
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss. Assume that 𝐴𝐴 = 300mm2
and 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa.

Solution:
External force P: The 20-kN force at C is replaced with a variable force P at joint C.

Internal forces N: The method of joints is used to determine the force N in each member
of the truss. And 𝑃𝑃 = 20kN.
Member N 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑁𝑁(𝑃𝑃 L 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑁𝑁 � � 𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 20kN)) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
AB 0.333𝑃𝑃 + 13.33 0.333 20 3 20
BC 0.667𝑃𝑃 + 6.67 0.667 20 3 40
CD 0.667𝑃𝑃 + 6.67 0.667 20 3 20
DE −(0.943𝑃𝑃 + 9.43) -0.943 -28.28 4.243 113.2
EF −(0.333𝑃𝑃 + 13.33) -0.333 -20 3 20
FA −(0.471𝑃𝑃 + 18.86) -0.471 -28.28 4.243 56.6
BF 0.333𝑃𝑃 + 13.33 0.333 20 3 20
BE −0.471𝑃𝑃 + 9.43 -0.471 0 4.243 0
CE P 1 20 3 60
∑=
369.7kNm
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐿𝐿 369.7kNm
Castigliano’s Theorem: ∆𝑐𝑐𝜐𝜐 = ∑ 𝑁𝑁 � � = = 6.16mm
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

The similarity between the solution and that of the virtual work method should be noted.

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6.6 Method of Virtual Work: Beams and Frames
 To compute ∆ a virtual unit load acting in the direction of ∆ is placed on the beam
at A.
 The internal virtual moment m is determined by the method of sections at an
arbitrary location x from the left support.
𝑀𝑀
 When point A is displaced ∆, the element dx deforms or rotates 𝑑𝑑θ = � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1 ∙ ∆= ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

1: external virtual unit load acting on the beam or frame in the direction of ∆
m: internal virtual moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x and
caused by the external virtual unit load
∆: external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the beam
or frame
M: internal moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x and caused
by the real loads
E: modulus of elasticity of the material
I: moment of inertia of cross-sectional area, computed about the neutral axis

Apply real load w

Apply virtual unit

couple moment to
point A

 If the tangent rotation or slope angle θ at a point on the beam’s elastic curve is to
be determined, a unit couple moment is applied at the point.
𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 𝑀𝑀
 The corresponding internal moment mθ have to be determined, 1 ∙ 𝜃𝜃 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

 If concentrated forces or couple moments act on the beam or the distributed load
is discontinuous, separate x coordinates will have to be chosen within regions that
have no discontinuity of loading.

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Example:
Determine the displacement of point B of the steel beam. Take 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa and I =
500 × 106 mm4 .

Solution:
Virtual moment, m
The vertical displacement of point B is obtained by placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN
at B. Using method of sections, the internal moment m is formulated.

Real moment, M
Using the same x coordinate, M is formulated.

Virtual work equation

𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 10 (−1𝑥𝑥)�−6𝑥𝑥 2 �
1kN ∙ ∆𝐵𝐵 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

∆𝐵𝐵 = 0.150m = 150mm

Example:
Determine the slope θ at point B of the steel beam. Take 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa and I =
60 × 106 mm4 .

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Solution:
Virtual moment, 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃
The slope at B is determined by placing a virtual unit couple moment of 1kNm at B.
Here two x coordinates must be selected in order to determine the total virtual stain
energy in beam. Coordinate x1 accounts for the strain energy within segment AB and
coordinate x2 accounts for that in segment BC. The internal moment 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 within each
of these segments are computed using the method of section.

Real moment, M

Virtual-work equation
𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 𝑀𝑀 5 (0)(−3𝑥𝑥1 ) 5 (1)[−3(5+𝑥𝑥2 )]
1 ∙ 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 + ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

−112.5kNm2
𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Alternative,
10 1 1
∫5 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 (𝑀𝑀1 + 𝑀𝑀2 )𝐿𝐿 = 2 (1)(−15 − 30)5 = −112.5kN2 m3

𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = −0.00938rad
The negative sign indicates 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 is opposite to the direction of the virtual couple
moment.

Example:
Determine the horizontal displacement of point C on the frame. Take 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa
and I = 235 × 106 mm4 for both members.

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Solutions:
Virtual moments, m

Real moment, M

Virtual-work equation:
𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3 (1𝑥𝑥1 )�180𝑥𝑥1 −30𝑥𝑥1 2 � 2.4 (1.25𝑥𝑥2 )(112.5𝑥𝑥2 )
1 ∙ ∆𝑐𝑐ℎ = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 + ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

6.7 Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames

𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 If the displacement Δ at a point is to be determined, ∆= ∫0 𝑀𝑀 � �
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 If the slope θ at a point is to be determined, 𝜃𝜃 = ∫0 𝑀𝑀 � �
𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀′ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

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Example:
Determine the displacement of point B of the steel beam. Take 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa and I =
500 × 106 mm4 .

Solution:
A vertical force P is placed on the beam at B. A single x coordinate is needed for the
solution since there are no discontinuities of loading. Using method of sections,
With anti-clockwise moments as +ve,
𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀
∑ 𝑀𝑀 = 0; −𝑀𝑀 − (12𝑥𝑥) � � − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0, = −𝑥𝑥
2 𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃

Setting 𝑃𝑃 = 0 yields 𝑀𝑀 = −6𝑥𝑥 2

𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10 �−6𝑥𝑥 2 �(−𝑥𝑥)
∆𝐵𝐵 = ∫0 𝑀𝑀 � � = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 150mm
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Example:
Determine the slope at point C of the two-member frame. The support at A is fixed.
Take 𝐸𝐸 = 200GPa and I = 235 × 106 mm4 .

Solution:
External couple moment, M’
A variable moment M’ is applied to the frame at point C, since the slope at this point is
to be determined. Later this moment will be set equal to zero.

Internal moment, M
Due to the discontinuity of internal loading at B, two coordinates, x1 and x2.
For x1:
𝑥𝑥
−𝑀𝑀 − 30𝑥𝑥1 � 1 � − 𝑀𝑀′ = 0
2

𝑀𝑀1 = −(15𝑥𝑥1 2 + 𝑀𝑀′ )

𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀1
= −1
𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀′
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For x2:
−𝑀𝑀2 − 108(𝑥𝑥2 cos 60° + 1.8) − 𝑀𝑀′ = 0
𝑀𝑀2 = −108(𝑥𝑥2 cos 60° + 1.8) − 𝑀𝑀′
𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀2
= −1
𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀′

Castigliano’s Theorem:
Setting 𝑀𝑀′ = 0
𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3.6 �−15𝑥𝑥1 2 �(−1) 3 −108�𝑥𝑥2 cos 60° +1.8�(−1)
𝜃𝜃𝐶𝐶 = ∫0 𝑀𝑀 � � = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 + ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2
𝜕𝜕𝑀𝑀′ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

1059.48kNm2
𝜃𝜃𝐶𝐶 = = 0.0225rad
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

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