Interpret Biomedical

Signals
 Course content
 Introduction to Electronic Communication
 Types of Electronic Communication
 Modulation, Multiplexing and Demodulation
 Fiber Optics
 Radio-Frequency
 Basic bioelectrical signals
• ECG (electro cardio gram)
• ENG (electro neurogram)
• EMG (electro mayogram)
• EEG (electro encencephalogram)
 Origin of bioelectric potentials
 Propagation of action potentials
 Introduction to Electronic
Communication
Significance of Human Communication

 Communication is the process of exchanging information.

 Main barriers are language and distance.

 Contemporary society’s emphasis is now the accumulation,

packaging, and exchange of information.

Methods of communication:

1.Face to face

2.Signals

3.Written word (letters)

4.Electrical innovations:
 Telegraph
 Telephone
 Radio
 Television
 Internet (computer)
 Communication Systems

Basic components:
 Transmitter

 Channel or medium

 Receiver

 Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted information.

Transmitter

 The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and

circuits that converts the electrical signal into a signal

suitable for transmission over a given medium.

 Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned

circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency

synthesizers, and other circuits.

Communication Channel
 The communication channel is the medium by which the
electronic signal is sent from one place to another.
 Types of media include

• Electrical conductors
• Optical media

• Free space

• System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for

sonar).
Receivers
 A receiver is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the
channel and converts it back into a form understandable by
humans.
 Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned
circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that
recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated
carrier.
Transceivers
 A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits
that both send and receive signals.
 Examples are:

• Telephones

• Fax machines

• Handheld CB radios

• Cell phones

• Computer modems
Attenuation
 Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of
wireless transmission. It is proportional to the square of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver.

Noise
 Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters
the communication system via the communicating medium
and interferes with the transmitted message.
Types of Electronic Communication

 Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are

1. One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions

2. Analog or digital signals.

Simplex
 The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as
simplex.
 This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:

• Radio
• TV broadcasting
• Beeper (personal receiver)
Full Duplex
 Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as
duplex.
 When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full
duplex. The telephone is an example of this type of communication.

Half Duplex
 The form of two-way communication in which only one party
transmits at a time is known as half duplex.
Examples are:
• Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
• Citizen band (CB)
• Family radio
• Amateur radio
Analog Signals
 An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying
voltage or current. Examples are:
• Sine wave
• Voice
• Video (TV)
Digital Signals
 Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments.
 Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes.
Examples are:
• Telegraph (Morse code)
• Continuous wave (CW) code
• Serial binary code (used in computers)
Analog signals (a) Sine wave “tone.”(b) Voice. (c) Video (TV)
signal.
 Digital signals (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave
(CW)
code. (c) Serial binary code.
Digital Signals
 Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital form
but must be converted to analog form to match the
transmission medium.
• Digital data over the telephone network.
• Analog signals.
-They are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
-The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers
and other digital circuits.
 Modulation and Multiplexing
 Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for
transmitting information efficiently from one place to
another.
 Modulation makes the information signal more compatible
with the medium.
 Multiplexing allows more than one signal to be transmitted
concurrently over a single medium.
Baseband Transmission
 Baseband information can be sent directly and unmodified
over the medium or can be used to modulate a carrier for
transmission over the medium.
 In telephone or intercom systems, the voice is placed on
the wires and transmitted.
 In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied
directly to coaxial or twisted-pair cables for transmission.
Broadband Transmission
 A carrier is a high frequency signal that is modulated by
audio, video, or data.
 A radio-frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic signal
that is able to travel long distances through space.
Broadband Transmission
 A broadband transmission takes place when a carrier signal
is modulated, amplified, and sent to the antenna for
transmission.
 The two most common methods of modulation are:

• Amplitude Modulation (AM)

• Frequency Modulation (FM)

 Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in which
the phase angle of the sine wave is varied.
Modulation at the transmitter.
Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency
modulation.
Broadband Transmission
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data is
converted to frequency-varying tones.
 Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) translate
the data from digital to analog and back again.
 Demodulation or detection takes place in the receiver when
the original baseband (e.g. audio) signal is extracted.
Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals
to share the same medium or channel.
 The three basic types of multiplexing are:

• Frequency division

• Time division

• Code division
Multiplexing at the transmitter
Communication system
Assignment
• super heterodyne receiver
• RF amplifier
• Mixer
• IF amplifier
• Fiber Optics
 Origin of bioelectric potentials
Electrophysiology
Study of electric properties of biological cells and organs
 Includes measurement of voltage changes and currents
from cell level to organ level
 In neuroscience, potentials of nerve cells and action
potentials are measured
 Types of electrophysiological
measurements
 Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG)- a standard
noninvasive procedure for recording electrical potentials of
the heart.
 The record (electrocardiogram), consists of waves that
relate to the electrical activity of the heart during each
beat. Results - printed on paper or displayed on monitor.
 Electroencephalography (EEG)- is a recording of the
electrical activity of the brain from the scalp. EEG signals
are created by measuring the difference in electrical
currents across neuron membranes
 The record (electroencephalogram), consists of curves that
relate to the spontaneous electrical activity of millions of
neural cells of the brain. The recording lasts for 20-40 min
and is printed on paper or displayed on monitor.
 Electromyography (EMG) is an experimental
technique concerned with the development,
recording and analysis of myoelectric signals.
 The electrical potential generated by muscle cells
when these cells are electrically or neurologically
activated.
 Electrooculography (EOG) - measuring the resting
potential of the retina. The resulting signal is called the
electrooculogram.
 Other methods: Electroretinography, Audiology,
Electrogastrography ...
 Excitable cells and tissues
 Nerves, muscles and
glands are said to be
excitable tissues, b/c they
respond to their
external stimuli by
producing an impulse
necessary to transmit
information.
 Common to all is
generation of
electrochemical
impulses
The best example is a
nerve
 (cont…) Excitable tissues, a neuron
A neuron: is a
Myelin sheath: a fatty
functional unit of the
material that envelop an
nervous system.
axon.
Consists of:
a. Dendrite: branching
processes Node of Ranvier :
small empty space found
b. Cell body: protein
b/n myelin sheaths,
synthesis
where ion exchange with
c. Axon: a nerve fiber the ECF takes place
d. Terminal knobs: end
part, contains
neurotransmitters
 (Cont…) Excitable tissues, simple neuronal connection

3-functional classes of a
neuron

a. Afferent neuron
(sensory): from peripheral
receptors towards the CNS

b. Inter-neuron: located
inside the CNS, pass
impulse from sensory to
motor
c. Efferent (motor)
neuron:
From CNS to the effector
organ
(Cont…) Excitability, generation of an impulse
 Membrane potential: Is
the presence of separation of
charges across the cell
membrane. ICF and ECF are
normally electrically neutral in
that each has an equal
number of positively and
negatively charged
particles.
 However, in a resting un-
stimulated state, there is a
slight accumulation of
negative charges on the
inside and a slight positive
charges on the outside of the
Cellcell
Membrane .
is found
membrane in all cells
and separates the interior of the
cell from the outside
environment.
(Cont…) Excitable tissues, Ion and charge distribution

39
(Cont…) Excitable tissues, measurement ofThe resting membrane potential
is the voltage across a given cell
membrane during the resting
RMP stage.
 Resting membrane In neuromuscular tissues (e.g.,
potentials (RMP) is nerves, cardiac and skeletal
measured by inserting a muscle), it is determined primarily
by the potassium concentration
thin electrode (conductor)
gradient across the cell membrane
into the ICF and another or the ratio of ICF to ECF
into ECF. potassium ([Ki]/[Ke]).
 Connect the two
electrodes to a voltmeter.
The reading gives a
potential difference of
-70 mv (inside negative
in respect to the outside).
 This is called RMP and in
The important ions in the nervous
muscle cells it is about system are sodium and potassium
-90 mv (both have 1 positive charge, +),
calcium (has 2 positive charges, ++)
and chloride (has a negative charge, 40
 (Cont…) Excitable tissues, causes for
the generation of RMP
1. Concentration gradient b. Non-diffusible anions:
2. Electrical gradient are mainly proteins with their
important factors for RMP large sizes remain inside
development by the the cell causing
permeability of 3-ions. negativity
These are : a. K+ ion c. The active pump (Na+K+
b. Anions- (proteins) pump): The pump removes
c. Na+ 3Na+ ions from inside and
a. K+ efflux: : the plasma adds them to the outside. It
membrane allows K+ ion to also pumps 2K+ from
outside to the inside.
diffuse down its concentration
gradient from ICF (inside) to Thus normality of RMP is
maintained by the pump b/c
ECF (outside) the
more + charges are extruded
K+cell
channels are membrane proteins
that allow rapid and selective flow of
to the ECF
K+ ions across the cell membrane,
and thus generate electrical signals 41
in cells.
 (Cont…) Excitable cells, RMP
Summary of the
B. The active pump is
development or
generation of the RMP: responsible to
reestablish the uneven
A. The main cause for the
distribution of ions
RMP generation is
the selective across the plasma
permeability of K+ membrane. It pumps
ion from inside to 3Na+ : 2K+ ions.
outside of the cell The ECF becomes more
down its concentration positive
gradient.
Then follows Na+ • Cl- ions are not
permeability from important in RMP
outside to the inside the
generation, b/c they are
cell
repelled by anions.

42
 (cont…) Action potential (AP) generation
• Action potential is a rapid
change that disturbs the
RMP and leads to impulse
generation and conduction.
• Any stimulus that increases
the permeability to Na+ ion
can trigger an action
potential
• The stimuli can be:
- Electrical
- Chemical
- Mechanical
- Touch that act on a
nerve cell

43
 (cont…) Action potential (AP) generation
Ionic bases for AP
generation;
• The permeability of k+ and
the Na+ permeability's are
the main causes and these
movements are divided into
different phases:
A. Depolarization (Na+)
B. Repolarization (K+)
C. Hyperpolarization (K+
more negative
Potential
- Resting potential
- Threshold potential

- Refractory period
44
 (cont…) Action potential (AP)
propagation or conductivity
Propagation:
• Movement of AP along the
nerve fiber by local current
flow at an adjacent area of
the membrane.
• This flow or propagation
reaches the terminal site.
• Velocity:
a. fiber diameter: faster
b. Myelin sheath: faster
at node of
Ranvier.
45
Synaptic transmission

46
Ionic changes in EPSP and IPSP

47
Cardiovascular System (CVS)
&
The Electrocardiogram (ECG)

48
 Cardiovascular physiology (CVS)
The CVS = consists of the
a. Heart &
b. Blood vessels
Function:
-Generally it has a
transport function
It transports:
- nutrients,
- gases,
- wastes,
- heat,
- hormones etc.

49
 The different layers of the heart muscles

Surrounding the heart is a

protective sac called the
pericardium.
The heart muscle has 3-
layers:
A. Epicardium: outer
B. Myocardium: middle
C. Endocardium: inner layer

Between the outer

epicardium and the
protective pericurdium is
found a sac or cavity, which
contains small amount of
lubricating fluid used to
prevent friction during
heart contraction. 50
 Intercalated disks and gap junctions of

cardiac muscles
Heart cells are branching
and striated similar to
skeletal muscles. Heart
muscles have many
mitochondria

Adjacent cells are connected

by intercalated discs
that form gap-junctions.

Gap junctions provide low

resistance to ion flow.

Because of the easy flow of

ions, the myocardium
behaves as a single
syncytium (is excited all
51
over at once as a a unit)
 Functional organization
Functional structure
of the CVS
• Heart: Enclosed in a
pericardium
• Septum (interatrial &
interventricular septum)
divides the heart into
right and left side
Has 4-chambers
• 2- atrium : upper, thinner
• 2- ventricles: lower and
thicker portion
• Valves: allow one way
blood flow: AV-valves and
semilunar valves
52
 Circulation & blood supply to heart muscles

Heart beats ~72 times/min,

and > 100, 000 times/day, so
it requires a continuous
supply of O2 + nutrients
Blood to the heart muscles is
supplied by:
A. Coronary artery (red
oxygenated blood)
B. Coronary vein (blue
deoxygenated blood)
Ischemia: short of O2 supply
due to narrowing of the
vessels by emboli or thrombus
Infarction: complete blockage
of part of the cardiac muscles
below the obstruction die or
necrose

53
Anterior and posterior view of the heart

54
Types of blood circulation
Two types of circulations
A. Pulmonary Cir. :
Right ventricle pumps to
the lung, eliminates CO2
and takes O2 (arranged in
series).
Is a low pressure bed,
ABP = 25/8
systolic/diastolic
= average 15 mm
Hg
B. Systemic Cir: circulation
from Left heart until right
auricle. O2 + nutrients is
distributed to tissues under
high pressure. 120/80;
average pressure is 55
average 100 mm Hg.
circulation

56
 blood)
1. Atrio-ventricular valves :
their closure causes 1st heart
sound
A. Tricuspid : found between
Right auricle and right
ventricle
B. Mitral valve : found
between left auricle and left
ventricle
2. Semilunar valves:
A. Pulmonary valve:
between right ventricle
and pulmonary artery
B. aortic valve: between left
ventricle and aorta
Closure and opening is a passive
process brought about by
differences in pressure
Chorodae tendienae and
papillary muscles hold the
valves in position
57
 Electrical activity in cardiac cells, RMP
(resting membrane potential) generation
RMP in heart muscles is the same as
neurons, except that the RMP in heart
cells is (-90 mv) while in neurons is (-
70mv), but.
a. The 1st cause of RMP is K+ efflux
that carries “+” charges away from
inside to outside down its
electrochemical gradient. Remember
that the membrane is selectively
permeable to K+ than others
b. Large sized proteins that can not
permeate through the pores also
account for the increased negativity
inside (RMP= -90mv)
c. Then, Na+ influx down its
electrochemical gradient occurs, but the
active ATP pump removes 3Na+ : 2K+ ions
to bring back and maintain the
concentration differences on two sides of
the cell membrane. 58
 Action potential generation in cardiac muscle

cell

Like other excitable tissues, the

ventricular muscles of the heart
show the following properties:
A. RMP: - 90 mv
B. Threshold: - 60 mv
C. Reversal potential: +30 mv
D. Depolarization: due to Na+
influx
E. Plateau Phase: due to Ca2+
influx (main cause of
prolongation or duration of
AP)
F. Repolarization: K+ efflux
(in-to out)
Duration = 200-300 seconds.
59
muscle

60
 function
Heart muscles show:
Refractoriness meaning that
the heart muscles will not
respond to any other
stimulus.
Refractory period is mainly due
to the closure of fast
voltage gated Na+
channels that do not open
until the duration of one AP is
complete.
The physiological importance is
that it prevents the
development of tetanus or
sustained contraction of
cardiac muscles.
It is important to realize that
skeletal muscles exhibit
sustained contractions to
produce maximum strength.
61
 Causes of AP development in SA-node
Slow depolarization is due to
Cardiac muscles have specials a. Opening of slow and leaky
cells called sino-atrial node, Na+ channels that cause
which show the property of Na+ influx producing slow
autorhythmcity (are self- depolarization
excitatory); they can
b. Slow Ca2+ channels also
spontaneously excite or
open and cause Influx of
depolarize to threshold and
Ca2+ that produces the
generate action potential).
upstroke phase (0).
1. The RMP of SA-node is However, the slope is less
about -55 mv (i.e., less steep.
negative than the RMP of
c. Finally, K+ channels open
other cardiac cells, so
and efflux occurs that in
depolarize faster)
turn causes re-polarization
2. Secondly, the pacemaker
• Cardiac is Myogenic (i.e.,
potential is unstable, and
nervous stimulation is not
therefore slowly
always necessary to elicit
depolarizes towards
heart beat)
threshold and fires.
62
Comparison of action potentials between

ventricular muscle and SA-nodal cell

• The most important
difference between
the two is the
presence of
pacemaker potential
(diastolic potential) in
the Sino atrial node.

• Pacemaker potential is
not found in
ventricular muscle
cells

63
AP in cardiac auto-rhythmic cells

64
Summary: AP recorded in different parts of the cardiac
muscles are not the same

The AP in ventricular muscles

is different than SA node in
that
Ventricular muscles show:
- more negative RMP
wich is stable (-90mv)
The slope of the AP (i.e. phase
0) is much steeper due to
the opening of voltage gated
fast Na+ channels.
There is a lengthy plateau
phase in ventricular
depolarization (good b/s
muscle remains depolarized
for 200-300 ms, necessary
to facilitates the time
required for ejection of blood

65
Difference b/n ECG and AP of cardiac muscles

ECG: is the summed

electrical activity of all
cells recorded from the
surface of the body.

Ventricular AP: is
recorded from a single
cell using an intracellular
electrode.

66
 Conduction of action potentials in heart

muscles

Steps in depolarization
wave through the
heart muscles:
a. SA-node >
b. Atrial muscles >
c. AV-node >
d. Bundle of His >
e. Right and left bundle
branches >
f. Purkinje fibers > and
g. Finally Ventricular
muscles
67
Conduction system of the heart

68
 Excitation and velocity of conduction
a. SA-node : (primary
pacemaker) 70-80 beats or
AP/min, velocity = 0.3
mt /sec
b. Atrial muscles: 40-60
beats/min, 0.5 mt /sec
c. # AV-node: (secondary
pacemaker) 40-60
beats/min, velocity = 0.05
mt /sec
(delay occurs in AV-
node)
d. Bundle of His: 40-60
beats/min, 2 mt / sec
e. Left and right bundle
branches
f. Purkinje fibers: (tertiary
pacemaker) 15-40 beats
/min, 4 mt/ sec
g. Ventricular fibers: 15-
40-beats/min, 0.5 mt/ sec

69
Progression of depolarization wave

70
Electrical conduction through heart muscles

71
 The Electrocardiogram (ECG)

The electrical current generated by the heart beat flows

away from the heart through the surrounding tissues and
reaches the body surface (ECF serves as volume
conductor).
• Using electrodes placed on the skin surface, this
current can be measured and be used to produce a
recording called electrocardiogram (ECG). The
instrument is called electrocardiograph.
ECG simply represents the sum of all electrical activity
throughout the heart, not individual action potentials.
• A recording is made only when current is flowing through
the heart during the actual processes of
depolarization or repolarization.
No picks or recording is made when the heart is
completely depolarized (plateau phase) or completely
repolarized (b/n heart beats).
72
Einthoven’s triangle and unipolar chest

lead

73
The normal recording of ECG

74
 Use of ECG in diagnoses

1. Enlargement or 4. Myocardial ischemia and

hypertrophy of the heart: infarction: chest pain,
sustained regions of the heart
hypertension, valve muscles die or necrose,
diseases etc. so normal conduction is
affected .
2. disturbances of heart
rhythm: beating too fast 5. Altered electrolyte
or too low (bradycardia disturbance: This
<60, tachycardia >100) effect can disturb normal
conduction pathways
3. Conduction (associated with
abnormalities: blockage electrolytes like K+, Na+,
of electrical conduction Ca2+ abnormalities)
(delay in AP generation) Drugs can also alter ECG
recordings

75
Method of recording, standard limb leads

76
 Augmented limb lead

Leads aVR, aVL,

and aVF are
unipolar leads and
consist of a single
positive electrode
and a
reference point
(with zero
electrical
potential) that lies
in the center of the
heart’s electrical
field.
77
 Augmented limb leads, aVR, aVL, aVF
• The exploratory electrode • Lead aVL gives the
for an augmented limb potential difference
lead is an electrode on a between the left arm and
single limb. the combination of the
right arm and left leg.
• The reference input is the
two other limb electrodes
• Lead aVF gives the
connected together.
potential difference
between the left leg and
• Lead aVR gives the the combination of the left
potential difference arm and right arm.
between the right arm
(exploring electrode) and
the combination of the
left arm and the left leg
(reference).

78
Einthoven’s triangle

79
ECG recording, pericardial leads

80
 ECG
SA-node: which initiates heart beat
has no recording, b/s of small
size it does not generate enough
electrical activity that can spread to
the surface of the body
The P-wave is small compared to QRS
complex b/s of less muscle mass.
The QRS –complex generates more
electrical activity due to its
large muscle mass that can be
detected adequately from the
surface
PR-segment: No recording occurs at
PR –segment b/s the impulse is
conducted in AV-node which has
small tissues that cannot generate
adequate electrical activity.
ST-segment is synonymous to
plateau phase or total ventricular
depolarization
T wave: ventricular muscle
repolarization
U wave- purkinje repolarization

81
Normal ECG recording

82
ECG graph paper and duration

83
 Calculation of Heart Rate (HR) from the

standard paper

METHODS FOR
CALCULATING HR = 60 min __
HEART RATE R - R (duration)

HR = 60 min __

R-R
(duration)

84
Normal and abnormal ECG-
tracing

85