LEVELING Introduction * Leveling is the operation required in the comparison of heights of points on the earth's surface. * The height of a point can be given only relative to another point or plane. If a series of heights is given relative to a plane, this plane is called a datum. * Onsite, surveyors and engineers use both horizontal and vertical datums as references for different types of measurements including leveling. © Figure 2.1 shows a plumb-bob suspended over a point P Freely suspended plumb ne Horizontal ine 1. Direction of gravity {the vertical) at P Figure 2.1: Horizontal line (Source Uren and Price) The vertical at P defines the direction of gravity along the plumb-line. * The horizontal line is therefore any line taken at right angles to the vertical. * In leveling any horizontal line can be selected as a datum and heights of points are then determined below or above the chosen horizontal line. This horizontal line is then assigned a height and becomes the leveling datum. ‘+ Insurveying, the most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (m.s.l) 37Definition of terms a) Level line: A level line is one which is at a constant height relative to mean sea level and since it follows the mean surface of the earth, it must be a curved line. b) Horizontal line: A horizontal line is one which is normal to the direction of gravity at a particular point. It is tangential to the level surface at any particular point. Note: Over short distances the level line and horizontal line are taken to coincide but over long distances, a correction for their divergence becomes necessary. Horizontal line, ., Level line. Mean sea level. Figure 2.2: Difference berw6n a level line and a horizontal line, ©) Reduced level: The reduced level of a point is its height relative to a chosen datum, 4) Benchmark (BM): Any permanent reference point whose reduced level has been accurately determined by leveling. The most common type of benchmarks are those permanently marked on walls of buildings. ©) Temporary Benchmark (TBM): Several points whose reduced levels have been established usually on an engineering site Leveling Equipment The level-A device that gives a truly horizontal line i Dumpy level ii, Tilting level iii, Automatic level iv. Digital level * A leveling staff-equivalent of a long ruler which enables distances to be measured vertically from the horizontal plane established by a level to points whose reduced levels are required. 38Figure 2.3: The leveling staff © Atripod ‘Types of levels Dumpy level # The telescope and vertical spindle are cast as one pivce. * The leveling head consists of two plates; the telescope is mounted on the upper plate whereas the lower plate sits directly onto a tripod * The two plates are held apart by three leveling screws (foot screws) and adjustments to these enable accurate leveling of the instrument to be carried out.(Figure 2.4) ‘Tilting level * The telescope is not rigidly attached to the tribrach. The telescope can thus be tilted slightly in the vertical plane about a pivot placed below it, * A tilting screw placed near the telescope eyepiece governs the amount of tlt (Figure 2.5). The telescope and main spirit level can be moved independently of the tribrach. The tribrach carries a circular bubble called a pond level which must be brought to the center of its run before each reading. In the tilting level, the line of collimation need not be perpendicular to the vertical axis as it must in the dumpy level, 39+ Note: The essential difference between a dumpy and tilting level is that the vertical axis of the dumpy level is made perfectly vertical by the leveling operation. The telescope is fixed at right angles to the vertical axis and it defines a horizontal plane. On the other hand, the telescope of the tilting level posses a limited amount of vertical movement and can be made horizontal even though the vertical axis of the instrument is not truly vertical. Spirit level Bubble capstan screw 4 4 --Line of sight nooo Leveling head Fig 2.4 The dumpy level Spirit level Bubble capstan screw —= 4 ---Line of sight P Tilting screw Leveling head Fig 2.5 The tilting level 40Automatic level ‘* An automatic level has no spirit bubble attached. The telescope of this instrument need only to be approximately leveled. A compensating device, usually based on the pendulum system inside the telescope corrects for any residual mislevelment. ‘© The compensators ensure that the collimation axis is horizontal even if the optical axis of the telescope itself is not horizontal. ‘These instruments have an advantage of ease of use but suffer from instability. Digital levels # Similar to automatic level but uses a bar code staff read automatically by the instrument Setting up the level i, Fix the tripod legs firmly in the ground with the tripod head nearly level and at a convenient height. ii, Screw the lower plate of the instrument on to the tripod head. ii, Bring the circular bubble to its central position using either the foot screws iv. _ Remove parallax between the cross-hairs and the image of the staff. v. Incase ofa tilting level, center the sensitive bubble (spirit level) in the telescope using the tilting screw. This should be done before every reading. Note: stages iii iv, and v can be referred to as temporary adjustments of a level. 4Permanent adjustments of a level — The two peg test: Permanent adjustment of a level is intended to make sure that once the temporary adjustments are finished, the line of sight should be truly horizontal, Permanent adjustments should be undertaken at regular intervals during the working life ofa level There are many variations in the set ups of the two peg test. One example will be considered here. b a che die AL___ tn | [a > 4 dy Fig.3.4a Level midway between pegs A and B a (drtdstda)eg ee a Gray iB Fig 3.4b Level moved a short distance away from peg B 2Procedure: a) Ona relatively flat site establish two pegs A and B about 50m apart. b) Set up the level at P, a point exactly half way between the pegs. Level the instrument and remove parallax. ©) Sight on the staff held vertically at A and take reading a). Repeat with the staff held at B and record reading b, Assuming the line of collimation is not horizontal but inclined at an angle e (fig 3.4a). the true difference in height between A and B is given by: Abau= (a - die) (bi- doe) i = d, (since the instrument is midway between A and B) Therefore Aha (ai ~ bi) Conclusion: Even when the level is not in correct adjustment, the difference in height between ‘two points measured with the level equidistant from each, is the true difference in height. d) Move the level to Q, a small distance (about 10m) away from peg B. Repeat the observations on to a staff held vertically at pegs A and B and record the readings ive. a2 and bo (fig 3.4b). In this case the true difference in height between A and B is given by: Abap= [a2 — (di-tdz +ds)]- (bo dse) Aliap= (a2 — ba)-(di+ds)e The height difference between the two pegs is the same, therefore: (a= by) =@— by)-(ditde Je hence; e= [(az ~ b2)- (a: — by)! (d+da ) The value of ¢ is called the collimation error, If the level is in correct adjustment then es +£0.00005 radians or equivalent to a height error of 0.5mm per 10m, When the collimation error is found to be greater, then the level should be adjusted. Procedure of adjustmen Had the level been properly adjusted, the staff reading at A when the level is set up at Q would be [a2 ~ (di+da +ds)e] 1, Using the tilting serew, the line of collimation is adjusted (lowered when ¢ is positive and raised when ¢ is negative) to the correct staff reading. 2. Then the sensitive bubble is brought to the center of its run using capstan screws. 48Principles of leveling In a correctly leveled instrument the line of collimation generated by the instrument coincides with the horizontal line which lies in the horizontal plane. If the height of this plane is known, heights of other ground points can be found, HPC=RLa+Ri HPC =RLy +R: Figure 2.7 Principles of leveling. In Figure 2.7, a level has been set up at point I. Readings R; and R; have been taken to A and B Height of the plane of collimation (HPC) at ly = RLa+Ry RLg = Collimation level-Ry =(RL4 + Ri) — R= RLa + (RitRa) The leveling in this case is from A to B thus R; is a back sight (BS) i.e. the first reading taken after setting up the level to a point of known or computed Reduced Level. Ry is therefore a fore sight (FS) i.e. the final reading taken before the level is moved to the next instrument position. The height difference between A and B s given by, in both magnitude and sign, (Ri. Ro). From the Figure R1 is greater than R, hence (Ri. Ra) is positive and it is called a Rise. The level is then moved to a new position I>, Rs is taken with staff still at point B (this is, the BS at I,) then Rs is taken with the staff at C (FS at Is). At point B, both an FS and a BS have been recorded consecutively, each from a different instrument position and this is called a change point (CP). Reduced Level of € (RLc) = RLat (Rs-R.) The height difference between B and C is given by, in both magnitude and sign, (Rs. Re). From the Figure Rs is smaller than Ry hence (Rs. Ra) is negative and it is called a Fall.* Note that readings can be taken between the FS and BS from the same instrument position. These are known as intermediate sights (IS). + Note that any leveling fieldwork must start and finish at points of known Reduced Level so that misclosures can be detected. Calculating reduced levels i, The rise and fall method ii, The height of collimation method Precision of leveling * Closing back on starting point, allowable misclosure for ordinary leveling = 412 Jk mm where k is the length of the level run in km. * Closing onto different BMs (for precise leveling) > Primary +2Vk mm > Secondary +5 vk mm > Tertiary +12Vk mm Sources of error in leveling Errors in equipment v Collimation error Parallax vv Defects of the staff'e.g. joint error v Tripod defects Field or on-site errors v Staff not vertical Unstable ground vv Handling the instrument and tripod Instrument not level vv Reading and booking errors v Weather conditions 45