INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Definition of terms
• Definition of Research

• The word ‘research’ comes from the two words: ‘Re’

meaning ‘again and again’, and ‘search’ meaning ‘finding
out something new’.
• According to Burns and Grove (1999: 3), the word
‘research’ means ‘to search again’ or ‘to examine
carefully’.
• Treece and Treece (1982, cited in Cormack) define
research in its broadest sense as an attempt to gain
solutions to problems.
Definitions cont…
•“Research is a process of systematically searching for new
facts and relationship.”—Notter

•“Research is systematic inquiry that uses disciplined method

to answer questions or solve problems.”—Polit and T Beck

•“Research essentially is a problem-solving process, a

systematic, intensive study directed towards full scientific
knowledge of subject studies.”—Ruth M French
Definitions cont…
•“Research is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts

or principles, a diligent investigation to ascertain

something.”—Webster's New International Dictionary

•“Research is considered to be the formal systematic intensive

process of carrying on the scientific methods of analysis; it

7involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually

resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a

report of results or conclusions.”—CC Crawford

Definitions cont…
• Research is the collection of data in a rigorously
controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or
explanation

• Research is the diligent, systematic inquiry or study

to validate and refine existing knowledge and
develop new knowledge
Definitions cont…
• Similarly as Burns and Grove (1999) indicate
‘diligence’ and ‘systematic study’ will include
certain activities, such as planning, organisation
and persistence.

• Research is meant to validate, that is, prove or

disprove existing knowledge or information
Definitions cont…

• Nursing Research

• Cormark (1991:5); defined nursing research as research

into those aspects of professional activity, which are
predominantly and appropriately the concern and
responsibility of nurses.

• “Nursing research is systematic inquiry designed to

develop knowledge about issues of importance to the
nursing profession, including nursing practice, education,
administration and informatics.”—Polit and Beck
Definitions cont…

• Nursing Research
• “Nursing research is a scientific process that validates and
refines existing knowledge and generates new knowledge that
directly and indirectly influences clinical nursing practice.”—
Burns and Grove

• “Nursing research is a scientific, systematic and orderly process

to find out solutions for problems concerning to nursing or
generating and refining the nursing knowledge to improve
quality of nursing care, nursing education and nursing
administration.”—SK Sharma
Definitions cont…
• Clinical nursing research; research designed to
guide nursing practice and to improve the health
and quality of life of nurses’ clients

• A critical appraisal of research involves careful

examination of all aspects of a study to judge its
strengths, limitations, meaning, and significance.
Definitions cont…
•Data is the piece of information collected during the study.

•Empirical data is the data gathered through the senses.

•Evidence-based practice is the conscientious integration of

best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient
needs and values in the delivery of quality, safe, and cost-
effective health care.

•Research utilization focuses on implementation of findings

from specific research studies.
Definitions cont…
• Control involves the imposing of rules by
researchers to decrease the possibility of error,
thereby increasing the probability that the study’s
findings are an accurate reflection of reality

• The rules used to achieve control in research are

referred to as design
Brief history of nursing research

• For a profession to be recognised, it must have its own

knowledge base.

• A large portion of knowledge in nursing is either borrowed

from other professions or is based on traditions, beliefs and
instincts that, for the most part, have not been validated by
empirical studies.

• In order for the nursing profession to have its own body of

knowledge, its professional practice must be based on a
sound knowledge developed through scientific research.
Brief history of nursing research cont..

• The knowledge base should come from the various aspects

of nursing education, nursing management, nursing
practice or from general nursing experience.

• Nursing research is not an old subject even though nurses

have made tremendous achievements in the area in the
last few decades.

• Initially, nursing research in the early part of the 20th

century concentrated on nursing education and the role of
nursing and nurses.
Brief history of nursing research cont…

• However, as nurses became aware and acquainted

themselves with the importance of research, there
has been an increased number of studies targeted
at clinical nursing problems (Burns & Grove, 1999).

• This started in the 1970s and to-date clinical

oriented research problems continue to be the
main focus of research for nurses.
Brief history of nursing research cont…

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE (1859)

• The first historical development in nursing research is the
work of Florence Nightingale.

• Her work is significant because it marked as the beginning of

nursing research.

• Nightingale collected and analyzed the morbidity and

mortality of the soldiers in the Crimean war.

• Her notes on nursing (1859) are described as her research

activities.
Brief history of nursing research cont…

NURSING RESEARCH (1900–1970)

• The American Journal of Nursing was published in 1900

• First doctoral program for nurses was launched in 1923

• Nursing Research was published in 1952

• International Journal of Nursing Studies was published in

1963

• ANA Council of Nurse Researchers was established in

1970
Brief history of nursing research cont…

NURSING RESEARCH (1970–2005)

• First Nursing Diagnosis Conference was held in 1973

• Western Journal of Nursing was first published in 1979

• Annual Review of Nursing Research was first published in 1983

• Agency for Health Care Policy and Research was established in

1989

• Journal of Nursing Measurement was first published in 1993

• Qualitative Health Research was first published in 1994

• Evidence based Nursing was first published in 2004

Directions for Nursing Research in the New
Millennium

• Heightened focus on EBP

• Stronger evidence base through more rigorous methods and

multiple, confirmatory strategies.

• Greater emphasis on systematic reviews

• Expanded local research in health care settings

• Strengthening of multidisciplinary collaboration

• Expanded dissemination of research findings

• Increasing the visibility of nursing research.

• Increased focus on cultural issues and health disparities

Methods of acquiring knowledge

•Knowledge: is essential information acquired in a variety of ways, expected to be an

accurate reflection of reality. and is incorporated and used to direct a person’s actions
•The common methods of acquiring knowledge are:

• Tradition;

• It includes the truth or beliefs that are based on the customs and trends.

• Traditions can positively influence nursing practice if were developed from

effective past experiences.
• Authority

• A person with expertise and power, who is able to influence opinion and
behavior.
• Students usually get knowledge from the instructors or authorities.
Methods of acquiring knowledge

Borrowing

• It is one of the most common methods of acquiring knowledge.

• Information borrowed from other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology,

medicine, etc.

•Trial and Error

• Involves multiple attempts to solve a particular problem until a

satisfactory solution is found

•Personal experience

• Personal experiences are based on recognition, generalization,

and predictions based on observations.

Methods of acquiring knowledge

•Role modeling

• Knowledge is acquired by imitating the behavior of an expert, such as teachers or any

professional.

•Intuition

• It is an insight or understanding to the situation which cannot be explained logically.

• Intuitive knowing is "the ability to understand a situation or phenomena as a whole

without reasoning or previous study"

•Logical Reasoning

• the processing and organizing of ideas to reach conclusions. Through reasoning, people
are able to make sense of their thoughts, experiences, and research evidenc

• Two intellectual mechanisms are used in reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning
Methods of acquiring knowledge

• Inductive reasoning:
• Is the process of developing conclusions and generalizations
from specific observations.
• It moves from the specific to the general.
• Bottom-up reasoning
• Specific situations are observed and then combined into a larger,
more general statement that can be tested through research
• Inductive knowledge is developed by pulling observations and facts generated through
research together to generate theory. Inductive knowledge development starts with
pieces to build a whole theory.
Methods of acquiring knowledge

• Deductive reasoning:
• Is the process of developing specific predictions
from general principles.
• Top-down reasoning
• In this method, a nurse reaches a conclusion by
moving from the general to the specific.
• It is the approach used to test predictions and
validate existing relationships.
Methods of acquiring knowledge

• Scientific method/ inquiry

• Defined as controlled, systematic investigations that
are rooted in objective reality and aimed to develop
general knowledge about natural phenomena
• A method free from personal bias or prejudice.
• It is self-corrective in nature.
• More reliable than other sources of knowledge.
Elements of scientific inquiry/ research

•Concepts

•Constructs

•Variables

•Research problem

•Research objective

•Research questions

•Hypothesis

•Definition of terms

•Conceptual frameworks

•Theoretical framework
Goals of nursing research
• Improvements in nursing care:- the main reason is to
foster optimum care for clients

• Accountability for nursing practice:-nurses must have

sound rationale for their actions. This rationale should be
based on knowledge that is gained through scientific
research.

• Documentation of the cost –effectiveness of nursing care

• Credibility of the nursing profession

Purposes of nursing research

•Description; involves identifying and understanding the

nature of nursing phenomena(what, where, who) and,

sometimes, the relationships among them .

•Explanation clarifies the relationships among

phenomena and identifies possible reasons why certain

events occur. Research focused on explanation provides

the following types of evidence essential for practice:

Purposes of nursing research ct

•Through prediction, one can estimate the

probability of a specific outcome in a given situation.

•It is through prediction that the risk of illness or

injury is identified and linked to possible screening
methods to identify and prevent health problems
Purposes of nursing research ct
• Control If one can predict the outcome of a situation,
the next step is to control or manipulate the situation to
produce the desired outcome.

• In health care, control is the ability to write a

prescription to produce the desired results.

• Using the best research evidence, nurses could prescribe

specific interventions to meet the needs of patients and
their families
Other purposes of nursing research

• Developing scientific, evidence based reasons for nursing

activities.

• Finding ways of increasing the cost effectiveness of nursing

activities.

• Providing a basis for standards setting and quality assurance.

• Providing evidence in support of demands for resources in nursing.

• Barring and defending a professional status for nursing.

• Focusing on priority problems that affect the nursing profession.

Objectives of research
• Add to scientific knowledge.

• Improve the medical and health practice.

• Benefit the patients and community.

• Study new phenomenon for establishing the facts.

• Help in planning the medical and health programs.

• Support managerial aspects of health development.

• Improve diagnostic techniques by newer, cheaper and accurate

tests.

• Help in effective patient care management.

Importance of Nursing
Research
• Corrects perceptions as well as expands them.

• Gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack or have little

knowledge about.

• Develops and evaluates concepts, practices and theories.

• Research also develops and evaluates methods that test concepts,

practices and theories.

• Obtains knowledge for practical purposes like solving problems on

population explosion, drug addiction, juvenile delinquency and the like.

• Provides hard facts which serve as bases for planning, decision making,
project implementation and evaluation.
Benefits of Research
1. Fostering critical thinking and analytical skills through
hands-on learning.

2. Defining academic, career and personal interests.

3. Expanding knowledge and understanding of a chosen field

outside of the classroom.

4. Developing one-on-one connections with distinguished

faculty in their field.

5. Building community with peers, faculty and organizations

on- and off-campus
Characteristics of a good research

• Purposiveness
• Research must have an aim.
• This means that research must be problem-based, unified
and directed.

• Rigor
• Refers to carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of
exactitude in research investigation

• it requires discipline, adherence to detail, strict

accuracy, and precision
Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Variables Clarification – well defined variables. A

variable is a measurable value (property or
characteristic) that varies from person to person,
group to group, or even within one person over
time.
Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Examples of variables include:

✓ Dependent variable

✓ Independent variable

✓ Moderator variable

✓ Intervening variable

✓ Control variable

✓ Antecedent variable

✓ Suppressor variable

✓ Distorter variable

✓ Exogenous variable

✓ Endogenous variable etc

Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Replicability - A good research should be

replicable/ re done/ repeated in another/same
setting by other researchers.
Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Precision and Confidence - Precision refers to the closeness

of the findings to reality while confidence refers to the
probability that our estimations are correct.
• Research must exhibit the highest degree of precision
and confidence to demonstrate the scientific method
and usefulness of the results.
• This simply means that the results must be as close as
possible (precise) to the actual state of affairs under
study and that results can be relied upon to a high
degree
Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Objectivity - Refers to clearly outlining what the

study intends to achieve through the
objectives/aim/goal.
• The conclusions should be based on the facts of
the findings derived from actual data, and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.
• Should not be biased
Characteristics of a good research
cont…
• Hypothesis formation –
• The researcher’s anticipated opinion with regard
to the study outcome needs to be clearly
outlined.
• Hypotheses are the connecting membranes that
hold the research together.
Characteristics of a good research
cont…

• Parsimony
• Economy of explanation/words is preferred in
research work.
• Parsimony also refers to simplicity in explaining
the phenomena and generating solutions for the
problem.
Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Generalizability/Inference
• Refers to the scope of applicability of the
research findings in other settings.
• The more a given research project results can be
generalized to other situations the better.
 Characteristics of a good
research cont…
• Systematic.

Follows specific steps and process, i. e. problem identification,

sampling, data collection, interpretation and analysis, evaluation
and reporting.

• Logical.

Procedures used should flow and link in a sensible manner that can
allow evaluation. Scientific concepts must be employed.

• Empirical.

It relies on observation and measurement devoid of external

influence or personal position
 Characteristics of a good research cont…

• Perceptibility (understandability).

Scientific explanations must be perceptible. People must be

able to understand them if they are to be accepted and
included in the body of knowledge

• Limitations.

Limits in the process must be acknowledged as protected

and provided by research ethics e.g. financial constraints,
lack of cooperation from subjects, time constraints etc
Paradigms in Research
• Paradigm is the worldview/ perspective
• Positivist/ postpositivist paradigm; one objective
reality about the phenomena. Associated with
quantitative research
• Naturalistic/ interpretivist… multiple truths,
depends on who is interpreting it…associated
with qualitative researches
Problems in conducting research in nursing

•The common problems in conducting nursing research are:

•Research characteristics:

• Lack of research design application

• Problems in sample selection

• Problems in data collection method

• Problems in data analysis

•Nurses' characteristics:

• Lack of skill of the nurses/Lack of scientific training in

Problems in conducting research in nursing

•Organizational characteristics:

• Lack of support from the organization

• Lack of qualified supervisors

• Lack of proper guidance

•Characteristics of nursing profession:

• Non-relevance of the problem

Roles of a nurse in research

•Principal investigator

•Member of the research team

•Identifier of the research problem

•Evaluator of the research finding

Roles of a nurse in research cont….

•User of the research finding

•As a client advocate during the studies

• As a subject in studies
Limitations of the scientific research:

1. It is inadequate for addressing moral or ethical

questions (e.g., Should abortion be legal?).

2. It must contend with problems of measurement,

thus, any phenomena must be translated to
measurable items.

3. It typically focuses on a relatively small portion of

the human experience (e.g., weight gain,
depression) in a single study.
Major Areas of Health Systems Research

• Policy (the role of health in the national development

plan, priority health needs, equity in distribution of
resources, respect of culture and humanitarian
values)

• The environment (improvement of living conditions,

provision of safe water and basic sanitation, disposal
of waste, preservation of natural resources
Major Areas of Health Systems Research
cont…

• Administration and management (agreement with

policy, effectiveness and efficiency in supporting
direct services, development of adequate
monitoring and evaluation procedures)

• The community (development of institutions and

practice promoting health, community
participation)
Major Areas of Health Systems
Research cont…
• Individual and families (assessment of physical,
mental and socioeconomic needs, potential for
addressing specific health problems)

• Direct services (appropriateness, effectiveness,

efficiency, accessibility, acceptability).
Essential Features of Health Systems
Research (HSR)
•HSR should focus on priority problems.

•It should be action oriented (i.e., aimed at

developing solutions)

•An integrated multidisciplinary approach is required

(research approaches from many disciplines)
Essential Features of Health Systems Research
(HSR) ….

•The research should be participatory in nature (from

policy makers to community members)

•Research must be timely.

•Emphasis should be placed on comparatively simple,

short-term research designs that are likely to yield
practical results.
Differences between Research and Problem
Solving
Differences between Research and
Problem Solving
Differences between Research and
Problem Solving
TYPES OF
RESEARCH
Classification of research
• Research can be classified based on:
• Purpose/ what the study is to be used for; descriptive, explanatory ,
exploratory research
• Methodological approaches, which includes the research approaches that
the researcher intends to adapt in the course of the study; quantitative vs
qualitative research
• Aims of the study, including what the study aims at achieving; basic/ pure/
fundamental research; applied research
• The time dimension referring to the time factor of the study, that is, is the
study a ‘one off’ case or one that will take months or even years;
longitudinal , cross-sectional
• Methods of analysis; descriptive vs analytical research
Classifications of research
1. Based on aims of research
• Basic research

• This is a type of research that aims at building

knowledge but not of immediate application by
practitioners.

• It doesn’t produce results of immediate and practical

use but it provides empirical knowledge which
constitutes foundations for fundamental knowledge.
Classifications of
research
• Action/applied research
• This is a type of research that focuses on
activities in order to obtain information to solve
operational problems.
• It solves immediate and practical problems
requiring scientific and immediate solutions on
top of adding to scientific knowledge.
5 steps of Action research
• Problem identification
• Problem identification is done through various ways such as:
Observation, Discussion with other people, Experience, etc.

• Consideration of action alternatives

• The researcher develops a number of alternative solutions to the
problem and then considers the strengths and weaknesses of each
of the solution.
• In evaluating the various action alternatives the research would
consider such factors as; AFASS (affordability, feasibility,
acceptability, sustainability, safety)
5 steps of Action research
• Action taking
• This involves implementation of action that is considered the most
desirable.
• It will include such activities as developing an action plan,
mobilizing resources etc.

• Evaluation of consequences of actions

• The research after implementing the action will then review the
outcomes, this will include assessment of the success of the action
in addressing the problem and any challenges encountered in the
implementation stage.
5 steps of Action research
• Extractions of lessons learnt
• The researcher then identifies what worked well
and what didn’t work well, and the reasons why.
• This is the step that contributes to new
knowledge in action research.
2. Based on the type of data collected

a) Quantitative research

• Quantitative research is a formal, objective, rigorous, systematic

process for generating numerical information about the world

• It relies on the principle of verifiability or proof/ absolute truth

• Knowledge is derived from what can be proven by direct

observation and focuses on measurements

• In this type of research, data is collected in numerical form and

analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. It
involves analysis of numerical data (quantity).
Characteristics of quantitative research

• Concise and narrow.

• Collects information under conditions of control

• Uses structured procedures and formal instruments to collect

information such as questionnaires, interviews.

• Analysis is done through statistical procedures

• Investigator does not participate in the events under investigation

• Begins with preconceived ideas about how concepts are interrelated

• Emphasis objectivity in the collection and analysis of data.

Subdivisions of quantitative research
• Quantitative research is further divided into non-experimental and
experimental research

• In medical and epidemiologic research, an experimental study usually is

called a controlled trial or clinical trial, and a nonexperimental inquiry
is called an observational study.

a) Experimental research
• Is an objective, systematic, highly controlled investigation conducted for the
purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena in nursing practice.
• In an experimental study, causality between the independent (treatment) and
dependent (outcome) variables is examined under highly controlled conditions
• This is a study concerned with cause-effect relationships.
Experimental research cont..

• Experimental research is further classified into:

i) True Experiments

• True experiments are characterized by:-

• Manipulation/ treatment/ intervening of the experimental variable(s)

• Control

• by introduction of one or more controls over the experimental

situation including the introduction of a control or comparison group.

• This ensures that the dependent variable is as a result of independent

variable and not other variables.

• A control group is the group that does not receive the experimental
treatment.
True Experiments

• Randomization
• Subjects are randomly assigned to either the
experimental or the comparison group.
• Each individual has an equal chance of being
placed into any of the groups in an experimental
study
ii) Quasi-Experiment
• This is an experimental research in which there is no
control group or the subjects are not randomly
assigned to groups.

• It involves mostly implementing a specific treatment

and later examining the effects of treatment using
selected methods of measurements.

• Example: randomized clinical trials

ii) Quasi-Experiment
cont…
• The purpose of quasi-experimental research is to
examine causal relationships or determine the
effect of one variable on another.

• For example, a treatment of a swimming exercise

program might be implemented to improve the
balance and muscle strength of older women with
osteoarthritis
B) Non-experimental research (descriptive)

• This is a study that explores a phenomenon in real life

situations.

• It provides an accurate account of characteristics of

particular individuals, situations, or groups

• The purpose is to observe, describe and explore aspects

of a situation as it is without manipulation.

• It does not try to explain or understand the underlying

causes of variable of interest.
B) Non-experimental research (descriptive) cont..

• Usually conducted with large numbers of subjects or study

participants, in natural settings, with no manipulation of the
situation.

• Through descriptive studies, researchers discover new

meaning, describe what exists, determine the frequency
with which something occurs, and categorize information in
real-world settings.
B) Non-experimental research (descriptive) cont..

• The outcomes of descriptive research include;

• the identification and description of concepts,

• identification of possible relationships among concepts,

and
• development of hypotheses that provide a basis for
future quantitative research.
Subdivisions of non-experimental researches

i) Survey

• This is a type of descriptive research that focuses on

obtaining information regarding prevalence, distribution, and
interrelationships of variables within a population

• It obtains information from a sample of people by means of

self-report i.e. people in the sample respond to a series of
questions posed by the investigator.

• Surveys ask subjects to report their attitudes, opinions,

perceptions or behaviors
i) Survey …

• Survey data can be collected through;

• personal interviews (or face-to-face interviews),

• Interviewers meet in person with respondents to ask
them questions.

• Personal interviews are expensive because they involve

a lot of personnel time.

• Quality of data is higher than with other methods

• Refusal rate tends to be low.

i) Survey …

• Telephone interviews
• are a less costly method,

• when the interviewer is unknown, respondents may be

uncooperative on the phone.

• convenient if the interview is short and not too

personal, or if researchers have had prior personal
contact with respondents
i) Survey …

• Questionnaires;
• differ from interviews in that they are self-administered.

• Respondents read the questions on a form and give their

answers in writing.
• Self-administered questionnaires are economical but are
not appropriate for surveying certain populations (e.g.,
the elderly, children).
• Survey questionnaires are often distributed through the
mail, and over the Internet
i) Survey …

• Advantage of Survey include:

• Ability to provide accurate information on populations
using relatively small samples
• Ability to obtain large amount of data rather quickly and
with minimal cost.
• can be used with many populations

• flexibility and broadness of scope

i) Survey …

• The disadvantage of survey

• That data maybe unreliable because in self-report,
people tend to provide socially acceptable responses
• suited to extensive rather than intensive analysis

• tends to be relatively superficial

ii) Correlational studies
• This is a type of research where the investigator examines
the strength of relationships between variables by
determining how changes in one variable are associated
with changes in another variable, i.e. how variable X is
related to variable Y.

• This relationship can be positive or negative.

• A positive relationship indicates that the variables vary

together; that is, both variables increase or decrease
together.
ii) Correlational studies
• Use correlational statistics to determine the relationships
among the study variables

• The magnitude and direction of the relationship is indicated

by the correlation coefficient.

• The strength of a relationship varies, ranging from 1 (perfect

negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive correlation), with
0 indicating no relationship

• For example, research has shown that the more people

smoke, the more lung damage they experience.
ii) Correlational studies cont…

• A negative relationship indicates that the variables

vary in opposite directions; thus as one variable
increases, the other will decrease.

• For example, research has shown as the number of

smoking pack-years (number of years smoked times
the number of packs smoked per day) increases,
people’s life spans usually decrease, demonstrating a
negative relationship.
ii) Correlational studies cont…
• The primary intent of correlational studies is to explain the
nature of relationships in the real world, not to determine cause
and effect.

• The focus of correlational research is on describing

relationships, not testing the effectiveness of interventions.

• The relationships identified with correlational studies are the

means for generating hypotheses to guide quasi-experimental
and experimental studies that do focus on examining cause and
effect relationships.
 Advantages of correlation method
• Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large
variables in a single study

• Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly

or in combination might affect a particular phenomenon
being studied

• It provides information concerning the degree of

relationship between the variables being studied.
 Disadvantages of correlation
method
• Correlation between two variables does not necessarily
imply causation although researchers tend to interpret such
a relationship to mean causation

• A correlation coefficient is an index hence any two variables

will always show a relationship even when common sense
dictates that such variables are not related. E.g. a correlation
coefficient can be computed between weight and level of
education even though this relationship.
 The disadvantage cont’d
• The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to size
of the sample. If data is collected from two
subjects only, the absolute value of the correlation
coefficient will be exactly equal to 1.0, as the
sample size increases, the correlation drops and
then stabilizes when the sample size is big enough.
Small samples in correlational studies yield
erroneous results.
iii) Comparative studies

• This is a study that examines the differences

between two intact groups on some independent
variables of interest.

• Unlike in experimental design the researcher is not

able to manipulate the independent variable
Comparative studies are classified as:

1) Retrospective

• Dependent variable (effect) is identified in the present (a

disease condition) attempt is made to determine the
independent variable (cause) that occurred in the past.
Example: case-control studies.

2) Prospective

• Independent variable (presumed cause is identified at the

present time and then subjects are followed in future to
observe the dependent variable. Example: cohort studies
 Advantages of comparative
• Allows a comparison of groups without having to
manipulate the independent variables.

• The studies can be done solely to indentify variables

worthy of experimental investigations.

• The studies are relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of comparative
study

‣ Interpretations are limited as the researcher does

not know whether a particular variable is a cause or
result of a behaviour being studied

‣ There could be a third variable which affect the

established relationship in a causal-comparative
study but which may not be established in the
study.
Longitudinal
• This is a study which follows subjects over a period
of time in the future. A study that follows the
subjects for six or more months is considered
longitudinal.

Cross-sectional

• This is a study which examines the subjects at one

point in time
Explorative Research

• It aims at exploring areas of problems, its

manifestation and other factors.

• For research problems which have not been studied

in depth
Differences between experimental and Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research merely describes something

whereas experimental research tests a hypothesis

• Researchers can control variables in experimental

research but cannot in descriptive research

• Descriptive research is subjective but experimental

research is objective

• Experimental research can lead to predictions but

descriptive research cannot.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research

• This is a type of research in which a systematic,

subjective approach is used to describe life
experiences and give them meaning.

• Data collected is in the form of words rather than

numbers and data is then grouped into categories,
themes and patterns.
Characteristics
• Collects information without formal structured
instruments such as; KII, FGD

• It involves sustained interaction with the people being

studied.

• It does not attempt to control the context of the research

but rather attempts to capture the context in its entirety.

• It attempts to understand the phenomenon in its entirety.

Characteristics cont…
• It has few preconceived ideas and stresses the importance
of people’ s interpretation of events and circumstances
rather than the researchers interpretation

• Does not aim to generalize the findings.

• Validity of findings based on trustworthiness of the

researcher

• Sample size based on saturation

Advantages
• Permits research to go beyond the statistical
results usually reported in quantitative research
• Enables study of attitudes and other emotional
behavior

• Disadvantages
• Cannot show causal relationship
Types of Qualitative research
i) Phenomenological studies

• These are studies that examine human experiences/ “lived

experiences.” through the descriptions that are provided by
people involved.

• The goal is to describe the meaning and essence that

experiences hold for each subject.

• include such topics as the meaning of suffering, the

experience of domestic violence, and the quality of life with
chronic pain
Phenomenological studies ct…

• Four aspects of lived experience that are of interest to

phenomenologists are;
• lived space, or spatiality;

• lived body, or corporeality;

• lived time, or temporality; and

• lived human relation, or relationality

• Involve a small number of study participants—often 10 or fewer.

• the main data source typically is in-depth conversations, with

researchers and informants as co-participant
Descriptive
Phenomenology
• Primarily interested in the question: What do we
know as persons?

• Emphasizes descriptions of human experience.

• Depiction of “things” as people experience them.

• These “things” include hearing, seeing, believing,

feeling, remembering, deciding, and evaluating
Steps of Descriptive phenomenological
study

• 1. Bracketing refers to the process of identifying and

holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs and
opinions about the phenomenon under study. often
maintain a reflexive journal in their efforts to bracket

• 2. Intuiting; occurs when researchers remain open to

the meanings attributed to the phenomenon by
those who have experienced it
Steps of Descriptive phenomenological study ct..

• 3. analysis phase (i.e., extracting significant

statements, categorizing, and making sense of the
essential meanings of the phenomenon)

• 4. descriptive phase occurs when researchers come

to understand and define the phenomenon
Interpretive
Phenomenology
• Hermeneutics

• The critical question is: What is being?

• Stressed interpreting and understanding—not just

describing— human experience

• Lived experience is inherently an interpretive

process
Interpretive Phenomenology
• The goals of interpretive phenomenological research are
to enter another’s world and to discover the wisdom,
possibilities, and understandings found there.

• Interpretive process as a circular relationship known as

the hermeneutic circle

• Bracketing does not occur

• rely primarily on in-depth interviews with individuals who

have experienced the phenomenon of interest
ii) Ethnographic
studies.
• A type of qualitative research involves the
collection ,description, analysis and interpretation
of a culture and cultural behavior

• The researcher lives with the people and becomes

part of their culture or interviews people who are
considered knowledgeable about the culture.
ii) Ethnographic
studies…
• An emic perspective refers to the way the members of the
culture regard their world—it is the insiders’ view.

• The emic is the local language, concepts, or means of

expression that are used by the members of the group
under study to name and characterize their experiences.

• The etic perspective, by contrast, is the outsiders’

interpretation of the experiences of that culture the words
and concepts they use to refer to the same phenomena.
ii) Ethnographic studies…
• Ethnographers strive to acquire an emic
perspective of a culture under study.

• Strive to reveal what has been referred to as tacit

knowledge, information about the culture that is so
deeply embedded in cultural experiences that
members do not talk about it or may not even be
consciously aware of it
ii) Ethnographic
studies…
• Three broad types of information are usually sought by
ethnographers: cultural behavior (what members of the
culture do), cultural artifacts (what members of the
culture make and use), and cultural speech (what
people say).

• Ethnographers rely on a wide variety of data sources,

including observations, in-depth interviews, records,
and other types of physical evidence (e.g.,
photographs, diaries).
ii) Ethnographic
studies…
• Ethnographers typically use a strategy known as
participant observation in which they make
observations of the culture under study while
participating in its activities

• enlist the help of key informants to help them

understand and interpret the events and activities
being observed.
iii) Grounded theory
• This is a study in which data are collected and analyzed and
then a theory is developed that is based (grounded) on the
data.

• A fundamental feature of grounded theory research is that

data collection, data analysis, and sampling of participants
occur simultaneously.

• The grounded theory process is recursive: researchers collect

data, categorize them, describe the emerging central
phenomenon, and then recycle earlier steps.
iii) Grounded theory…
• In-depth interviews and participant observation are
the most common data source in grounded theory
studies, but existing documents and other data
sources may also be used.

• Typically, a grounded theory study involves

interviews with a sample of about 20 to 40
informants.
iv) Historical/ narrative
studies
• Focuses on story as the object of inquiry

• Concerned with the identification, location,

evaluation and synthesis of data from the past.

• It seeks to discover the events of the past and to

relate those events to the present and future.
V) Descriptive
Qualitative Studies
• Claim no particular disciplinary or methodologic roots
e.g ethnograghy or phenomology

• The researchers may simply indicate that they have

conducted a qualitative study or a naturalistic inquiry,
or they may say that they have done a content analysis
of their qualitative data (i.e., an analysis of themes and
patterns that emerge in the narrative content)
vi) Case studies.
• Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single
entity or a small number of entities (case series).

• The entity may be an individual, family, institution,

community, or other social unit.

• the case itself is central

• Case studies maybe considered qualitative or

quantitative depending on the purpose of the study
v) Case studies….
• In qualitative case studies, the researcher must be
interested in the meaning of experiences to the subjects
themselves rather than generalizing the results to other
groups of people.

• Case studies can be used to generate hypothesis but not to

test hypothesis.

• Are time consuming and costly.

• Case series; set of case studies

Similarities btn Quantitative and
qualitative research

• Both require researcher expertise,

• Involve rigor in implementation of studies,

and

• Generate scientific knowledge for nursing

practice
CHARACTERISTIC QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Philosophical Origin Logical Positivism Naturalistic, Interpretive,

Humanistic
Focus Concise, Objective, Reductionistic Broad, Subjective, Holistic

Reasoning Deductive Inductive

Basis Of Knowing Cause-Effect Relationship Meaning, Discovery,
Understanding
Theoretical Focus Tests Theory Develops Theory
Researcher Control Shared Interpretation
Involvement
Methods Of Structured Interviews, Questionnaire, Unstructured Interviews And
Measurement Observations, Etc Observations

Sample Size Predetermined Determined At Saturation

Data Numbers Words
Analysis Statistical Individual Interpretation
Findings Generalization, Accept Or Reject Uniqueness, Dynamic,
Theoretical Propositions Understanding Of Phenomena,
And New Theory
MIXED METHOD RESEARCH

• Planned integration of qualitative and quantitative

data within single studies or coordinated clusters of
studies
Rationale/advantages for Mixed
Method Research
• Complementarity; possibly avoiding the limitations of a
single approach; numbers and words

• Incrementality; quantitative findings sometimes need

clarification through in-depth probing

• Enhanced validity. When a hypothesis or model is

supported by multiple and complementary types of
data, researchers can be more confident about their
inferences and the validity of their results
Applications of Mixed Method
Research
• Instrumentation; nurse researchers sometimes gather
qualitative data as the basis for generating and wording the
questions on quantitative scales that are subsequently
subjected to rigorous testing

• Hypothesis Generation and Testing

• In-depth qualitative studies are often fertile with insights

about constructs or relationships among them.

• These insights then can be tested and confirmed with larger

samples in quantitative studies
Applications of Mixed Method Research

• Explication
• Qualitative data are sometimes used to explicate the
meaning of quantitative descriptions or relationships.
• Quantitative methods can demonstrate that variables
are systematically related but may fail to provide insights
about why they are related.
Applications of Mixed Method Research

• Such explications help to clarify important concepts and

to corroborate the findings from the statistical analysis;
they also help to illuminate the analysis and give
guidance to the interpretation of results.
• Qualitative materials can be used to explicate specific
statistical findings and to provide more global and
dynamic views of the phenomena under study,
sometimes in the form of illustrative case studies
Applications of Mixed Method Research

• Theory Building, Testing, and Refinement

• A theory gains acceptance as it escapes
disconfirmation, and the use of multiple
methods provides great opportunity for
potential disconfirmation of a theory.
Clinical Trials
• Clinical trials are studies designed to assess clinical
interventions.
Strategies Used to Synthesize Research
Evidence

• A systematic review
• is a structured, comprehensive synthesis of the research
literature to determine the best research evidence
available to address a healthcare question.
• A systematic review involves identifying, locating,
appraising, and synthesizing quality research evidence
for expert clinicians to use to promote an EBP
Strategies Used to Synthesize Research Evidence

• A meta-analysis
• is conducted to combine or pool the results from
previous quantitative studies into a single statistical
analysis that provides one of the highest levels of
evidence about an intervention’s effects
• Qualitative studies do not produce statistical findings
and cannot be included in a meta-analysis.
Strategies Used to Synthesize Research
Evidence

• Metasynthesis
• Systematic compilation and integration of qualitative studies
to expand understanding and develop a unique
interpretation of the studies’ findings in a selected area

• Mixed methods systematic review

• Synthesis of findings from individual studies conducted with
a variety of methods (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-
methods) to determine the current knowledge in an area
THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
The research process
• Research process refers to the overall sequence of activities in
which researcher engages in order to produce new knowledge.

• Phases of the Research Process

• Conceptual/Thinking/Planning Phase

• Construction of the design Phase

• Empirical/Implementation/Doing phase

• Analysis and Interpretation Phase

• Dissemination/Communication Phase
Phases of the Research Process
1. Conceptual/ Thinking/Planning Phase

• It can be divided into 4 steps as follows:

a) Formulation of research problem or research questions, set bounds of

them, determine the purpose of the study

b) Searching and review the literature relating to the regarding research

problem and develop a framework.

c) Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork

d) Development of conceptual definitions

e) Creation of hypothesis which should be verified/falsified in future

research.
2. Construction of the design Phase
• The aim of this phase of research is to prepare general plan of real research.

• This phase is composed of following parts:

• Identification of variables

• Construction of operational definitions for variables

• Selection of design for data analysis

• Selection of research respondents

• Selection of research methods

• Selection of technology

• Protocol of research (the research process and methodology) −

• Study administration and ethical issues.

• Pilot study
3. Empirical/Implementation/Doing phase

• It is in this phase the research proposal is implemented.

• The following are done during implementation:

• Development of data collection instruments.
• Recruitment and training of data
collectors/interviewers.
• Actual data collection from respondents
• Data cleaning and processing
• Preparation for data analysis.
4. Analysis and Interpretation Phase

• Data is carefully examined for completeness and accuracy.

• Coding, which is the process of translating verbal data into numeric form
done

• The data are organised in an orderly, coherent fashion so that he/she can
discern patterns and relationships.

• Data analysis is done using appropriate methods and techniques to yield the
desired results.

• They must be summarised and subjected to various types of analysis and

interpretation.

• Interpretation is the process of making sense of study results and of

examining their implications
5. Dissemination/Communication Phase

• The research process is completed in this phase when the

researcher communicates the findings of the study to the
users (stakeholders).

• Dissemination means process when results of the research

are presented or published as:

• ✓ Final research report from research project

• ✓ Lectures and/or posters at the congresses and conferences

• ✓ Papers in journals

• ✓ Using the result in clinical practice

STEPS The research
process
STEPS The research process can also be divided into 10 key steps:

1) Identification of the research problem/question/topic .

Including background to the study and problem statement.

2) Formulation of research objectives, hypothesis and research

questions

3) Explaining the rationale/justification of the research problems.

4) Review of literature.
10 key steps
5) Highlighting the materials and methods.

6) Determining the methods of measurements.

7) Conducting a pretest/pilot study

8) Data collection and presentation

9) Data analysis and interpretation

10)Communication of the research findings.

Steps alternative
• Alternative I: The Research Process

1. Problem identification

2. Purpose

3. Objectives

4. Hypothesis

5. Literature Review

6. Research design

7. Sampling design

8. Measurement of Variables

9. Data collection

10. Data analysis and interpretation

11. Generalization/Inference
RESEARCH PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
• Definition
• Elements of a Research Problem
• Steps of identifying research problem
• Sources of research problems
• Criteria for Research Problem Selection
• Conditions Satisfying Existence of Research Problem
• Characteristics of an Important Research Problem
• Examples of research topics:
• Factors Affecting Topic Selection in Research
Research Problem identification

• Research problem; is an area of concern where there is a gap in the

knowledge base needed for professional practices

• It is the question the researcher wants answered, or problem to be

solved

• Whether a problem requires research depends on three conditions:

I) There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy between

what it is and what it should be;

II) The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so that it
makes sense to develop a research question); and

III) There should be more than one possible and plausible answer to
the question (or solution to the problem).
Problem identification

• Problem situation: In district “ Y “ a report showed

that in the first month there were 500 children
under one year old who started immunization, but
at the end of the year it was found out that there
were only 25 children who completed their
vaccination.
• Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district “Y
“should have completed their vaccination but only
5% out of those who started vaccination have
completed.
• Problem (research) question: why only 5% of the
children completed their vaccination?
Problem identification

• Problem situation: In district “Z” (population 150,000) there are 2

health centers, 1 hospital and 15 health stations and all of them
function smoothly. However, at the end of the year it was found
that the EPI coverage was only 25%.
• Discrepancy: Although district “Z” had 100% availability of health
services and at least 80% of the children should have had full
vaccinations the EPI coverage was only 25% as seen above.
• Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI coverage in
district “Z”?
• Possible answers:
• Mothers might have problems for not attending in the EPI sessions.
• The MCH, EPI, OPD, CDD, etc… programmes might not have been
integrated; hence children might have missed opportunities in getting
immunization.
• The follow up of defaulting children might not be effective and other
reasons.
Example of another Research Problem

• Problem Situation: A recent family planning survey

revealed great differences between villages in the
rate of contraceptive prevalence. Despite the fact that
all villages receive the same level of health and family
planning services, some villages have a prevalence
rate as high as 80 percent, while others have a rate
as low as 6 percent.
• Discrepancy: All villages should have approximately
the same rate of contraceptive prevalence, but in fact
there is great variation between villages.
• Problem Question: What factors are responsible for
the aerial variation in contraceptive prevalence rates?
Examples of research topics:
• ✓Determinants of Condom Use During Sex Among
Commercial Sex Workers on Koinange Street,
Nairobi Commercial Business District - Independent
variable: Are the determinants. - Dependent
variable: Condom use. - Scope: commercial sex
workers, Koinange street, Nairobi
• ✓Triple Trouble: The Role of Malnutrition,
Tuberculosis and HIV infection on Effectiveness of
HAART in Sub-Saharan Africa - Independent
variable: Are Malnutrition, Tuberculosis and HIV
infection. - Dependent variable: Effectiveness of
HAART. - Scope: Triple trouble, HAART, Sub-Saharan
Africa
Criteria for selecting a research topic

1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority

problem:

Questions to be asked include: ƒHow large or widespread is the

problem? ƒ Who is affected? How severe is the problem?

2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic has

been researched. If the topic has been researched, the results
should be reviewed to explore whether major questions that
deserve further investigation remain unanswered. If not,
another topic should be chosen
Criteria for selecting a research topic

3. Feasibility:

• Consider the complexity of the problem and the

resources you will require to carry out the study.

• Thought should be given first to personnel, time,

equipment and money that are locally available.

• In situations where the local resources necessary to

carry out the project are not sufficient, you might
consider sources available at the national level.
Criteria for selecting a research topic

• 4. Political acceptability:

• It is advisable to research a topic that has the

interest and support of the authorities.

• This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the

research and increases the chance that the results
of the study will be implemented.
Criteria for selecting a research topic

• 5. Applicability of possible results and

recommendations

• Is it likely that the recommendations from the study

will be applied?

• This will depend not only on the blessing of the

authorities but also on the availability of resources
for implementing the recommendations
Criteria for selecting a research topic

• 6. Urgency of data needed

• How urgently are the results needed for making a decision?

• Which research should be done first and which can be done

late?

• 7. Ethical acceptability

• We should always consider the possibility that we may

inflict harm on others while carrying out research.
Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed study.
Factor considered when deciding research
question / problem

• Following factors may be considered for deciding the research

problem/question as described by acronym “FINER”.

• F = Feasible: the research area should be feasible in terms of

technical, financial, and administrative capabilities.

• It should be able to answer the following questions:

• Can adequate number of subjects be available?

• Is there adequate expertise to do the work?

• Is the research affordable?

• Can it be managed well?

• Will the administrative support be available?

FINER cont…
• I = Interesting: The selected problem area should
be of interest to health policy managers and
researcher.

• N = Novel: It should be able to fill the gap in existing

knowledge and /or able to solve the problem in an
area.

• E = Ethical: beneficence. Can be approved by

research ethical body
FINER cont…
• R = Relevant: Selected problem should be relevant
and have priority for that geographical area, region
and country
Characteristics of a good research topic

• Researchable/feasible – data for investigating it should be

available & manageable within the constraints of available
resources.

• Addresses current concerns or priority areas in nursing

• Captivates the interests of the researcher

• Pay more attention to ethical issues.

• Enhance existing knowledge by filling in the gaps that

exist
Characteristics of a good research topic

• Improves nursing services by contributing to more knowledge

and better skills.

• Variables are clearly specified.

• Target population is clearly identified.

• Focus is clear.

• Limited to about 14 – 18 words or even fewer and redundancies

avoided; avoid words like A study on….., Assessment on…..

• You can have a title that contains two parts. However, in this
case the two parts have to be separated by a colon (:)
Characteristics of a good research topic

• It’s written on first page at the top of the page &

usually not paged.

• Full names of the researcher including qualifications

written immediately below the title.

• Award for which the proposal intended i.e. A proposal

submitted in partial fulfillment for requirements of
diploma (specify e.g. KRCHN), & name of awarding
institution appear at the middle of the page.
Characteristics of a good research topic

• Date (month & year) appear at the bottom of title

page.

• All information on the title page should be in upper

case and should be Centre aligned
Sources of research problems

i. Clinical Experience –the nurse’s everyday experience

provides a rich supply of problems for investigation

ii. Nursing literature - ideas for research projects often

come from reading the nursing literature (published
research reports) and textbooks/articles

iii. Existing Theories – this includes theoretical schemes

and conceptual frameworks that have been developed
in nursing and other related disciplines
Sources of research problems

iv. Ideas from external sources – a research topic can

be given to students as a direct suggestion. In other
cases ideas for studies may emerge as a result of
brainstorming session or from discussions with other
nurses, researchers, etc.

v. Societal trends – social concerns reflected in the

policies, legislation, and funding priorities of the
Government.
Sources of research problems
vi. The media – issues which are frequently reported
in the media can also form the basis of a research
problem.

vii. Formal needs assessment: - a careful assessment

of needs may reveal problems that may require
research to solve
Factors Affecting Topic Selection in Research

1.The structure and state of the scientific discipline: Most

researchers select topics suggested by the on-going development
of theory and research in their particular fields of study.

2.Social problems: Problems associated with the human

conditions e.g. urban crowding, racism, social evils etc. can be
sources of research problems.

3.Personal values of the researcher: Personal motivations and

interest also guide a researcher in selecting a research problem
Factors Affecting Topic Selection in Research

4. Social premiums: How a researcher socializes and interests.

5.Practical considerations: Availability of resources e.g.

manpower, money, materials, equipment, researcher’s
personal skills and the availability of relevant data will shape
both the nature and scope of the research problem.

6.Subject which is overdone: Should not be normally chosen,

for it will be a difficult task to bring out any new light in such a
case
Examples of research topics:
• ✓Factors Affecting Implementation of Community
Based Projects in Kenya, 2017 - 2020: A Case of
Kajiado County - Independent variable: Are the
factors. - Dependent variable: implementation of
community-based projects - Scope: Kajiado County,
Kenya. January 2017 – September 2020
• ✓Factors Contributing to Premarital Pregnancies
Among Adolescents in Kijipwa Village, Mtwapa Sub-
county, Kilifi County - Independent variable: Are the
factors. - Dependent variable: Premarital
pregnancies - Scope: Adolescents, Kijipwa Village,
Mtwapa Sub-county, Kilifi County
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Background to the study
• Present the problem under investigation as follows:

1. The perspective/ magnitude (globally, regionally and locally) of the

problem with figures to support the claim.

2. It also illustrates the key predictors (drivers) of the problem under study.

3. Illustrates the key effects of the problem under study, thus, under scores
the need for investigation.

4. Demonstrates the significance of the study in solving the problem under

investigation.

5. Show the gap warranting the study to be conducted.

6. The setting and its key indicators relevant to the study

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem
• Development of an argument to explain existence
of research problem and need for research

• A specific statement that clearly conveys the scope,

magnitude and purpose of the research study

• It describes an undesirable gap between the

current-state level of performance and the desired
future-state level of performance.
Statement of the
problem…
• A problem statement should include absolute or
relative measures of the problem that quantify that
gap, and includes possible causes or solutions.

• Use reviewed literature to argue your case

Characteristics of the statement of the problem

It is written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s

interest is captured immediately.
The specific problem identified in the problem statement is
objectively researchable.
The scope of the specific research problem is indicated.

The importance of the study in adding new knowledge is

stated clearly.
The problem statement must give the purpose of the
research.
Rationale for statement of the problem

• ƒ the foundation for the further development of the

research proposal (research objectives, methodology, work
plan, etc); ƒ

• Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar

studies from which your own study design can benefit; ƒ

• Enables the researcher to systematically point out why the

proposed research on the problem should be undertaken
and what you hope to achieve with the study results.
A good statement;-
• Clearly and unambiguously identifies the variable(s) under
consideration

• Clearly expresses the variables relationship to each other

• Specifies nature of the population(s) being studied.

• Specifies the environment(s) where the study will be undertaken.

• Restrict the scope to specific questions/ hypothesis.

• Be feasible & amenable to research: - not too wide & data for
solving it available.

• Significant
Components of Statement of the
Problem
1. A brief description of the social need in relation to the
problem.

• Include a few illustrative statistics, if available to help

describe the context in which the problem occurs

• Its magnitude, distribution, and severity (who is

affected, where, since when, and what are the
consequences for those affected and for the services?)
Components of Statement of
the Problem

2. A concise description of knowledge gap; the discrepancy

between what it is and what it should be; identify 3-5 gaps. The

gaps could relate to method/ measurements used, the context

of the study, conflicting findings, groups omitted, variables

identified in the previous study

• An analysis of the major factors that may influence the

problem and a convincing argument that available information

and knowledge is not sufficient to solve the problem.

Components of Statement of the
Problem
• A brief description of any solutions that have been

tried in the past, how well they have worked and

why the further research is needed.

• ‘Despite….

• Previous studies….
Components of Statement of the
Problem
• 3. A description of the type of information expected
to result from the project and how this information
will be used to help solve the problem; ….the main
research question seeks to answer…therefore the
problem of this study is to…
Components of statement of problem

• 1. Problem identification: What is wrong with the current situation?

• 2. Background: What is the nature of the problem, or the context of

the situation, that readers need to understand?

• 3. Scope of the problem: How big a problem is it, how many people
are affected?

• 4. Consequences of the problem: What is the cost of not fixing the

problem?

• 5. Knowledge gaps: What information about the problem is lacking?

• 6. Proposed solution: How will the new study contribute to the

solution of the problem?
Statement of Research
Problem
• “According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008), the American workforce is aging. By 2015,

the number of workers aged 55 years or more will reach 31.2 million, a 72% increase from 2000.

As a result, health problems associated with the aging process, such as cardiovascular disease

(CVD), present new health and safety challenges for older workers. More than 3.5 million

workers have CVD... . However, older workers with CVD are 3 times more likely to report work

limitations than those without CVD... . Older workers with CVD also report increased rates of

absenteeism and longer periods of disability from work. Furthermore, within 6 years after a

recognized heart attack, approximately 22% of men and 46% of the women report being

disabled from work (American Heart Association, 2005)... . For the large segment of the

American workforce with CVD, self-care that entails adhering to treatment regimens while

working and managing symptoms is critical to their quality of life... . Few studies exist to guide

clinicians in supporting ongoing employment among patients with CVD.” Dickson et al., 2012, pp.
The research
purpose
The research purpose
• Is a clear, concise statement of the specific goal or focus of a study.

• In quantitative and outcomes studies, the goal of a study might be

to identify, describe, or examine relationships in a situation,
examine the effectiveness of an intervention, or determine
outcomes of health care.

• In qualitative studies, the purpose might be to explore perceptions

of a phenomenon, describe elements of a culture, develop a theory
of a health situation or issue, or describe historical trends and
patterns.
The research purpose
• The purpose includes the variables or concepts, the
population, and often the setting for the study.

• A clearly stated research purpose can capture the

essence of a study in a single sentence and is
essential for directing the remaining steps of the
research process
The research purpose

• In a published study, the purpose frequently is

reflected in the title of the study, stated in the study
abstract, and restated after the literature review.
Research
Objectives
Research Objectives
• A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative,
statement expressed to direct a study.

• It focuses on identification and description of

variables and/or determination of the relationships
among variables

• Research objectives are sub-divided into broad and

specific objectives
Importance of research objectives

• Bridge the gap between the research purpose and the

study design.
• Guide on planning for data collection and analysis.

• Summarise what is to be achieved by the study.

• Build a close link with the statement of the problem.

• Keep the researcher within the scope of study by

defining the area of focus.
Characteristics of a good research objective

• SMART
• Specific – addressing one outcome or issue

• Measurable – use action verb, e.g. determine, compare,

investigate, explore, find out, examine, inquire, establish etc.
• Achievable–in terms of time, resources

• Realistic - manageable within constrains of available

resources such as finances, equipment, manpower & time.
• Time bound/timely - can be accomplished within available
time.
Specific objectives cont…
• Operational, using action verbs such as:
• determine
• verify
• identify
• describe
• assess
• compare
• calculate
• Establish
• explore
• Avoid use of non-action verbs( to appreciate,
study, understand, Believe , Know)
Example of a SMART Objective

• To establish the number of children born at home

within the last two years in Ganga village.
• Specific – Establishing prevalence of home deliveries
in Ganga village
• Measurable – Number of children
• Achievable – The task is achievable
• Realistic – The task is realistic
• Time bound – In the last two years
A RESEARCH QUESTION
Research questions
• A Statement that identifies the key study variables, their
possible interrelationships and the nature of the
population of interest stated as a question.

• Characteristics of a good research question

i. It has the key variables of the study

ii. It states the possible interrelationship of study

variables

iii. It identifies the population of study.

Research questions
• RQ assists the researcher to:
• Focus on the study by narrowing it down to the
essentials
• Avoid collection of data that are not necessary
• Organise the study in clearly defined parts or
phases
The PICOT

• The PICOT format is a process in which clinical research questions are

phrased in a manner that yields the most relevant information.

• The PICOT format helps;

• In proposal development by alluding to the study population

inclusion and exclusion criteria
• To generate a question that aids in constructing the framework of
the study
• Identify an appropriate outcome measurement tool.

• To increase the effect on the interpretation

• To increase the applicability and generalizability of the research

findings.
Types of Research
Questions
• There are three basic types of questions that
research projects can address:
1. Descriptive questions
2. Relational questions
3. Causal questions
Examples of RQ
• What is the level of knowledge of breastfeeding
women on exclusive breastfeeding?

• Do nurses in Kalala hospital practice the hand

washing procedure as stipulated by the hospital
infection control handbook?
VARIABLES
VARIABLES

Def: Variables are defined as quality, properties or

characteristics of persons, things or situation that

change or vary/ assume different values. For

example: sex (male and female) age (20–25, 26–30

years) academic success, stress and pain.

• It is also a logical grouping of attributes.

Variables cont…

• Attributes are characteristics or qualities that describe

an object.

• For example if gender is a variable then male and

female are the attributes.

• If residence is the variable then urban, semi urban,

rural become the attributes. So attributes here

describe the residence of an individual

Broad categories
• Mathematical variables e.g continuous variable,
discrete variable

• Experimental variables e.g independent variable,

dependent variable
Types of variables

1) Independent Variable(treatment/experimental)

• It’s a variable that influences other variables.

• It is perceived as contributing to or enabling a particular outcome. is the

antecedent variable

• It is the intervention or treatment or input that the researcher performs

to see the resulting change in the dependent variable.

• The values of an active independent variable can be manipulated to bring

changes in the dependent variable

• Variables which cannot be manipulated are attribute variables e.g age,

gender, blood group, color of eyes

Types of variables cont…

2) Dependent Variable:

• This is the outcome/ consequent variable.

• It reflects the effects (outcome) or response to the independent
variable.

• It is the variable that appears, disappears, diminishes or increases.

• it describes the problem under study

For example, to determine the effects of salt intake on

hypertension, the blood pressure is the dependant variable and
salt intake is the independent variable.
3) Confounding variables

a. Extraneous Variables: These are uncontrolled variables

that influence the findings of the research study. They
include intervening, antecedent, suppressor, and
distorter variables.

They influence both the dependent and independent

variables. These are called threats to internal and external
validity of the study and may bias the selection, the time
3) Confounding
variables
b. Control variables:

• Is a variable that must be held constant/controlled

/neutralized/ balanced/ eliminated in a study to avoid bias
(is a process where the scientists performing the research
influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome
types - information bias, selection bias, and confounding).

• Some researchers refer to control variable as concomitant,

covariate, or blocking variables.
4) Demographic Variables :These are demographic
attributes. They are variables that cannot be manipulated
or influenced by the researcher, for example, age, sex
religious beliefs or educational level

• For example, if gender may also influence reaction time,

we should add sex as an independent variable in our
study. Using a statistical procedure such as regression, we
can measure the effect of alcohol on reaction time,
controlling for sex.
5) Intervening variable: It is recognized as being caused
by the independent variable and as being a
determinant of the dependent variable. i.e.

Independent intervening dependent

variable variable
variable

• An intervening variable comes in between the

independent and the dependent variables.
Variables cont…
• Moderator Variable - It modifies the original relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.

• Quantitative variable – This is a variable that can be

measured to convey information regarding amount e.g.
age, weight, height.

• Qualitative variable – This is a variable that cannot be

measured in amounts but in categories e.g. gender and
race. It conveys information regarding attributes of a
person, place or thing.
Variables cont…
• Discrete variable; One that has finite numbers of
values between any two points e.g. 0, 1, 2, 3 or more

• Continuous variable: they have values that can be

represented on a continuum without restriction to
whole numbers e.g. weight between 1 and 2 pounds

• Dichotomous /categorical variable:- are variables with

distinct categories that do not represent a quantity e.g.
gender, blood type, race, marital status, hair color….
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
Hypothesis of the study

Definition:

• This is a predictive statement about an expected relationship

between two or more variables that permits empirical testing

• A formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between

two or more variables in a specified population.

• A clearly stated hypothesis includes the variables to be

manipulated or measured, identifies the population to be
examined, and indicates the proposed outcomes for the
study.
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

• Hypotheses also influence the study design, sampling

method, data collection and analysis process, and
interpretation of findings

• E.g.

-Persons with Type II diabetes mellitus who have

greater knowledge of their disease will have a higher
rate of adherence to treatment regimen than those
with less knowledge.
 Where are hypothesis
required?
• They are most appropriate for field intervention or
evaluative studies… experimental/ quasi
experimental

• Diagnostic or exploratory studies do not normally

require hypotheses because they generally do not
test relationships between variables.
Purposes of Hypotheses
• Hypotheses provide direction. They bridge the gap between the
problem and the evidence needed for its solution.

• Hypotheses ensure collection of the evidence necessary to answer the

question posed in the problem statement.

• It enables the researcher to assess the information he or she has

collected from the standpoint of both relevance and organization.

• Sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are

relevant regarding the problem at hand.

• Enables the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity.

The characteristics of good
hypotheses
 Must state clearly and briefly the expected
relationship between variables.
 Based on a sound rationale derived from
theory, or research, or professional experience
 Consistent with common sense or generally
accepted truths.
 Characteristics cont’d

 Testable, i.e. data can be collected to support or fail to

support the hypotheses. This then implies that the
variables stated in the hypotheses can be
operationalized.
 Must be related to empirical phenomena. Words like
‘ought’, ‘bad’ reflect moral judgment should be avoided
 Be testable within a reasonable time.
Characteristics cont’d
 Variables tested in the hypotheses must be consisted with
purpose statement, objectives and the operationalized
variables in the method section
 A good hypothesis must be as simple and as concise as the
complexity of the concepts involved allows.
 A good hypothesis must be stated in such a way that its
implications can be deduced in the form of empirical
operations with respect to which relationship can be validated
or refuted.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

• Alternate Hypothesis/ Research hypothesis

• This hypothesis that states that there is a relationship or

differences between the dependent and independent variables.

• However, the nature of such a difference or relationship My not

be stated

• Types of alternate hypothesis

• 1. Directional alternate hypothesis

• 2. Non-directional alternate hypothesis

Directional alternate
hypothesis
• It specifies the nature of the relationship or differences
between variables.

• A relationship may, therefore, be stated as being greater

than, less than, increased, decreased, higher than or lower
than, among others.

• For example: a) High alcohol content in the blood decreases

reaction time of drivers in Kenya. b) The use of fertilizers
increases maize yield per acre in Uasin Gishu County.
Non-directional alternate hypothesis

• It does not specifies the nature of the relationship

or differences between variables.

• For example:

• a) Alcohol consumption affects reaction time

among drivers in Kenya.

• ) The use of fertilizers is related to maize yields per

acre in Uasin Gishu County.
2. Null Hypothesis
1) Null hypothesis (denoted as H0): The null (statistical)
hypothesis is used for statistical testing and interpretation.
It states no difference exists between groups or no
correlations between variables. Example;

a. Resource allocation has no effect on project

implementation among CBOs in Kajiado County.

b) There is no difference in the performance in Nursing FQE

between students at KMTC Homa Bay Campus and Migori
Considerations in Writing the
Hypothesis

• In writing study hypotheses, always think in terms of the expected relationship

between variables

HOW TO WRITE A HYPOTHESIS

• Think first about the central problem your study will address (the dependent
variable).

• Next, consider what factor or factors (the independent variables) might cause,
determine, or influence the dependent variable

• Finally, ask yourself if the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables is direct or indirect through a set of intervening variables.
Difference between Specific objectives,
Broad objectives and hypothesis
• While broad objectives identify the anticipated contributions
arising from a study,

• The specific objectives specify what will be done or

measured in the study,

• And hypotheses specify the expected relationship among the

variables
 Research
rationale/justification
 Research rationale/justification

refers to the reasons for carrying out the study.

• Justifications of the study should address some of the

following questions( QUESTIONS THAT YOU MUST ADDRESS):
Is the problem you wish to study a current and timely one?
Does it exist now?
How widespread is the problem? Are many areas and many
people affected?
Does the problem affect key populations such as the
adolescents, youth, expectant mothers or children?
Research rationale/justification cont….

Does the problem relate to ongoing intervention activities?

Does the problem relate to broad social, economic and health

issues such as poverty, status of women, or education?
Who else is concerned about the problem? Are top
government officials concerned? Are health and other
professionals concerned?
What gaps in knowledge do you want to fill in and why is it
important to generate information to fill those gaps?
Significance of the study
Significance of the
study
• It refers to the relevance/ utility of the study in terms of academic
contributions and practical use that might be of the findings.

• It should consider:-

• Why and how the study will contribute to scholarly research

and literature i.e. its contribution to extension of knowledge
and other related studies.
• Why and how the study will help to improve practice.

• Why and how the study will improve policy.

• A study must be significant to the researched population,

target population and to the nation.
Study limitation
 Study limitation

Limitation of a study

• Refers to factors that might impact on the outcome of the

study and have not been accounted for/controlled

• An aspect of a research that may influence the results

negatively but the over which the researcher has no control

• Are often related to sample size, sample selection, research

design, etc.
The scope
The scope
• It’s also referred to as the delimitations of the
study.

• It’s a description of the boundary of the research in

terms of content, sample size and geographical and
theoretical coverage in a single line or paragraph.
 Study
assumptions
 Study assumptions

Assumptions

• Any fact that a researcher takes to be true without

actually verifying

• An assumption puts some boundary around the

study and provides the reader with vital
information which influences the way the results
of the study are interpreted
Theoretical framework
• The theoretical framework introduces and
describes the theory which explains why the
research problem under study exists

• Provides the foundation of the study

• The theoretical framework must demonstrate an

understanding of theories and concepts that are
relevant to the topic of your research paper
Purpose of theoretical
framework
• It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the
study

• It can provide him with a general framework for data

analysis;

• It is essential in preparing a research proposal using

descriptive and experimental methods.

• The theory provides a point of focus for attacking the

unknown in a specific area.
Conceptual framework
• Visual representations of tentative relationships between
independent and dependent variables in a study.

• Should include narrations/ explanations of the nature of

relationship among the variables

• Represent ways of thinking about a problem or a study

• A conceptual framework provides a logical, unified and

orderly way of seeing related events or processes that
relevant to a study/ research and less formal than theories
Literature Review
Definition of Literature
Review
• Is the synthesis of the literature that describes what is known or
has been studied regarding the particular research question or
purpose

• A broad, comprehensive in depth, systematic and critical review

of scholarly publications, unpublished print materials, audio-
visual matter and personal communications.

• Reading and organization of material that represents current

knowledge as available in previous studies for the direction of a
research study.
Definition of Literature Review cont..

• According to by Burns and Grove (1999: 469),

‘literature review is a summary of theoretical and
empirical sources to generate a picture of what is
known and not known about a particular problem’.

• Literature review involves more than reading

through articles in a journal or research paper.
Definition of Literature Review cont..

• As Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) state, it entails

the systematic identification, location and analysis
of documents containing information related to the
research problem being investigated.

• In fact, the process of literature review should start

with identifying and locating the library, identifying
sources and locating the sources.
Literature Review
cont…
• The literature review is more than a listing or summary of
relevant research; it entails the combination of several elements
or studies to provide a different or new focus on the research
problem.

• In the literature review section, the literature referenced is

usually more focused on the particular research problem than
the literature in the background section,

• The background literature is relatively general and addresses

the overall research problem.
Literature Review cont…
• The literature review is guided by the variables that have
been identified in the research purpose and aims to give the
reader an overview of what is known about those
variables, how those variables have been studied in the
past, and with whom they have been studied

• Usually, we would expect that most of the literature cited in

a literature review has been published within 3 to 5 years of
the date of the study or the publication of the report.
Types of Literature
Review
1. Narrative Review (traditional review)

• A descriptive overview of significant literature published on a

given topic.

• Critiques and summarises the literature and draws conclusions

about the topic in question.

• Brings the reader up-to-date with current literature on a topic

• Narrative reviews can be; explorative, instrumental or evaluative

2. Systematic reviews; Uses systematic and explicit methods to

analyze the strength of evidence in different studies
Types of Literature
Review…
• Grey literature
• Refers to publication issued by the government, academia,
business and industry, in both print and electronic format
but not controlled by commercial publishing interests.
• They comprises:- newsletter, reports working papers,
theses, government documents, bulletins, fact sheets,
conference proceedings and other publication distributed
free, available subscription or for sale.
Objectives/purpose of the review of literature

• To determine what is known and not known about a subject,

concepts or problem

• To determine gaps, consistencies, and inconsistencies in the

literature about a subject, concept or problem

• To discover unanswered questions about a subject, concepts

or problems

• To describe the strength and weaknesses of

designs/methods of inquiry and/or instruments used in
earlier works
Objectives of the review of literature cont…

• To discover conceptual traditions used to examine

problems

• To generate useful research questions or

projects/activities for the discipline

• Help the researcher to narrow the research topic.

• To determine the appropriate research design/method

(instruments, data collection and analysis methods) for
answering research question
Objectives of the review of literature cont…

• To determines the need for replication of well-

designed study or refinements of a study

• To promotes developments of protocols and

policies related to nursing, practice, (service,
administration, education and research)

• To uncover a new practice intervention of gain

support for changing a practice intervention.
Literature review entails

• Identifying gaps in the knowledge

• The magnitude & distribution of the problem,

including the population being affected
• Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of past
work on the subject

• Methodology (ies) used in the previous studies

• Theoretical and analytical frameworks used

• Identifying any inconsistent findings

Literature review entails cont…

• Hypotheses and variables used and their measurements

• Research Designs used

• Methods of data collection used

• Sampling procedures and sample sizes used

• Methods of data analysis used

• Recognising the possibility of unintentional duplication

Scope of literature review
• Literature review focus on areas related to the
topic under study starting with the recent
publications or articles (5-10years)
• Read only studies that are reasonably close to the topic

• Review any or every relevant materials in case of new or

little researched area
Scope of literature review
• Avoid temptation to include all available materials
(excess is not necessarily great)

• Stop when your encounter materials is already

reviewed

• A minimum of 10 and maximum of 20 publications

suffice for the research at this level
 Types of information
• The type of information included in academic or other non
fictional documents can be classified roughly into five
categories:

1) facts, .statistics, or findings

2) theory or interpretation

3) methods and procedures

4) opinions, beliefs, or points of view

5) clinical impressions, or narrations of incidents and

situations.
Types of Sources of literature review

• These include primary, secondary sources, tertiary

and

• Other sources of Literature

• i. Experience

• ii. Tradition

• iii. Intuition

• iv. Authority
Types of Sources of literature review

• A primary source
• Is the description of a research written by the original
researcher.
• Is the work written by the person who is actually involved in,
or is responsible for, the generation of the idea published
• It can also be information from a person who actually
observed or witnessed the occurrence under investigation
• First hand information.

• Best source of literature

Examples of primary
sources
• Diaries, journals, and letters

• Newspaper and magazine articles (factual accounts)

• Government records (census, marriage, military)

• Photographs, maps, postcards, posters

• Recorded or transcribed speeches

• Interviews with participants or witnesses (e.g., The

Civil Right Movement)
Examples of primary sources cont…

• Interviews with people who lived during a particular time

(e.g., genocide in Rwanda)

• Songs, Plays, novels, stories

• Paintings, drawings, and sculptures

• Published results of research studies

• Published results of scientific experiments

• Published results of clinical trials

• Proceedings of conferences and meetings

Sources of information in literature review

• A secondary source
• is a description of a study prepared by someone other
than the original researcher.
• Are often interpretations of the original work, and so
may not serve all the needs of another researcher.
• Summaries, reviews or quoted content from a primary
source.
• Usually a paraphrase of the primary source.
Sources of information in literature review

• Secondary sources
• It is usually information given by someone who was not a
direct observer or participant of the events described.
• For example, a research article cited by another person
in a journal is a secondary source, but that author’s own
report in the same journal is a primary source
• Reviewed articles generally
• One problem with secondary sources is the potential for
inadvertent error or distortion of the findings of a study
Examples of secondary sources

• Histories

• Literary Criticism

• Book, Art, and Theater Reviews

• Newspapers

• Books,
Examples of secondary sources

• Government documents,

• Magazines

• Articles that interpret publications about the

significance of research or experiments

• Analysis of a clinical trial

• Review of the results of several experiments

Tertiary sources
• Gives information on the general overview

• Examples; Encyclopedia, bibliography, dictionary

Data Bases, Indexes and Internet Resources for
Nurses and Healthcare Professionals

• Index Medicus

• International Nursing Index,

• Nursing Research Index, British Nursing Index,

• Cummulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature

(CINAHL),

• www.nursingcenter.com

• www.altavista.com,

• www.rddirect.org.uk,
Data Bases, Indexes and Internet Resources for
Nurses and Healthcare Professionals

• PubMed,

• Intute,

• Cochrane library,

• National Electronic Library of health (NELH),

• Google scholar

• Academia

• ProQuest
Data Bases, Indexes and Internet
Resources for Nurses and Healthcare
Professionals cont…

• MEDLINE,

• Psychinfo,

• www.who.ch,

• www.icn.ch,

• www.rcn.org.uk,

• www.nursingcenter.com,

• www.nursingsociety.com,

• www.globalschoolhouse.org
Steps in carrying a Literature Review

• Be familiar with the library before beginning the literature review.

• Make a list of key words (4-6) or phrases which are central to the
subject matter to guide the review

• With the key words/ phrases do search in the physical library

(bibliographies, references in the books and articles) or online
databases

• Search first for journal articles then books. Based on the context you
may start by locating 50 journal articles. Ensure they are relevant to
your study objectives. Choose those which agree with your views and
those conflicting

• Summarize references on cards for easy organization

Steps in carrying a Literature Review cont…

• Draft summaries of the studies you have read i.e

describe the key themes and issues running
through the research work

• End the review with a summary of the major

themes
How to summarize
major themes
• A good summary should highlight

a) The problem being addressed in the reviewed

journal

b) Purpose of the study being reviewed

c) Key results that relate to your study objectives

d) Technical or methodological gaps in the review

literature which your survey may want to remedy
Organization of Literature Review
• Different ways to organize your literature review include:
• Topical order (by main topics or issues, showing relationship
to the main problem or topic)
• Chronological order (simplest of all, organize by dates of
published literature)
• Problem-cause-solution order

• Comparison and contrast order

• General to specific order

• Specific to general order

• Known to unknown order

offences in research
• PLAGIARISM

• The substantial use, without acknowledgement and

with intend to deceive the examiners or knowing
that the examiners might be deceived,
representing, whether by copying or paraphrase,
the ideas or discoveries of another or of others as
one's own work submitted for assessment.
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
• Summarize- In your own words and cite reference

• Paraphrase- Translate source into your own words and

cite reference

• Quotation- Word-for-word and cite reference (using

quotation marks- “……”)
CITATION AND
REFERENCING
CITATION AND
REFERENCING
• This is the process of identifying the sources of
direct quotations and of any facts or opinions used
by the researcher.
Citation And
Referencing
• Reasons
i. To show that you understand the topic and can demonstrate
your own thoughts on it.

ii. To demonstrate that you have read widely and deeply i.e.
show the depth and scope of your research.

iii. To enable the readers to locate where you obtained each

quote or idea

iv. By providing the original source you are acknowledging and

recognizing the original author.
Citation styles
• Citation within your text link specific passages to the
sources you consulted or quoted.

• This can be done through in text parenthetic notes, foot

notes or end notes.

• In addition, a list of works cited is placed at the end of the

paper.

• There are many different citation styles. These include:

i) Harvard University (author-date) style

i) Harvard University style
• Also called the author and date style.

• This is widely accepted in academic publications. When you refer to

ideas or information you have collected during your research you
include the author and date of the publication referred to or cited.

• The name of the author and the date of publication of the work are
placed in the text immediately after the work has been cited or
referred to. E.g. (Gicheha 2013) or Gicheha (2013).

• If two authors it will be (Gicheha and Mululu 2013) If more than

two authors add ‘et al’ after the first author E.g. (Gicheha et al
2013)
i) Harvard University style…
• In intext citation more emphasis maybe placed on:
writer or the idea

• If the writer hence, start with the writer followed by

the parenthesis.
• Kimani (2004) found out that there is a high drop out
among mothers enrolled in the ANC clinic

• if the idea you start with the parenthesis (indirect)

• There is a high drop out among mothers enrolled in the
ANC clinic (Kimani, 2004)
ii) MLA (modern Language Association of America)

• This is commonly used in literature.

• Does not include year or commas in intext citation

(Lazar 52).

• Uses full first names and puts year nearer the end of
entry,

• e.g. Lazar, Jonathan. Web Usability. A User-Centred

Design Approach. Boston: Pearson Addison Wesley,
2006. Print.
vi) Vancouver style
• References are numbered sequentially in
superscript (most times) as they appear in the text
and are listed in that order in the reference list at
the end of the text.

• Each reference bears the same number as the

superscript number wherever it appears in the text
APA style
What is APA style?

• APA referencing style is an author-date referencing

system published by the American Psychological
Association.

• This form of writing research papers is used mainly

in the social sciences, like psychology, anthropology,
sociology, as well as education and other fields.
APA style cont…
• There are two components in the APA referencing style:

• In-text citations and

• Their corresponding reference list entries.

• With anything that you have read, used and referred to in your
academic writing, you must:

• Acknowledge in text (i.e. In the work / assignment/ essay

you are writing)

• Include in your reference list (i.e. The list at the end of your
work of all the sources you refer to)
Significant changes from the
6th edition to 7th edition:
• Multiple authors - in text citations for three or more
authors should include the name of the first author
only, followed by et al.

• Reference list entries for works by up to and

including 20 authors should include all authors’
names.
Significant changes from the 6th edition to 7th edition:

• For works by more than 20 authors, include the

names of the first 19 authors followed by an ellipsis
(…) and then the final author's name.

• Place of publication is no longer included in

references.

• Include the issue number in parentheses immediately

after the volume number, for all journals that have an
issue number.
Significant changes from the 6th edition to 7th edition:

• DOIs are now given in the following format:

https://doi.org/xxxxx

• It is not necessary to include the words "Retrieved

from" before a URL.
Significant changes from the 6 th edition to 7th edition:

• Database names and URLs for items in academic research

databases should not be included in references, except for
databases such as Cochrane, ERIC and Factiva that include
works of limited circulation - for these items include the
name of the database and the URL for the specific work.

• For electronic works that do not have a DOI or a directly

linking URL, the reference should be the same as the
reference for a printed version of the work.
Significant changes from the 6th edition to 7th edition:

• APA 7th is an 'author/date' system, so your in-text

references for all formats (book, journal article, web
document) consists of the author(s) surname and
year of publication.

• The basics of an in-text reference in APA:

• Include author or authors and year of publication.
• Use round brackets.
Example: (Smith & Bruce, 2018)
Significant changes from the 6th edition to 7th edition:

• If you quote directly from an author you need to

include the page or paragraph number of the quote
in your in-text reference.

• Include author or authors, year of publication and

page or paragraph number of your quote.

• Use round brackets.

• Example: (Smith & Bruce, 2018, pp. 25-26)

Citing multiple works
• Citing multiple works

• When citing multiple works in the same parentheses, citations are

presented in alphabetical order, separated with semicolons.

• E.g. While other positive psychology constructs (e.g., resilience, hope,

core self-evaluations, social support) have been studied in people with
MS (Alschuler et al., 2018; Arewasikporn et al., 2018; Farber et al., 2015;
Lee et al., 2020; Lynch et al., 2001; Madan & Pakenham, 2014), there is a
dearth of research examining grit in this population.

• Lee, B., Rumrill, P., and Tansey, T. N. (2022, May 16). Examining the role of
resilience and hope in grit in multiple sclerosis. Frontiers in Neurology, 13,
Article 875133. CC BY. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.875133
Citation cont…
• All in-text references should be listed in the
reference list at the end of your document.

• The purpose of the reference list entry is to contain

all the information that a reader of your work
needs to follow-up on your sources.

• An important principle in referencing is to be

consistent
Paraphrasing in APA 7th
Paraphrasing
• Paraphrasing in APA 7th

• Paraphrasing is when you are summarizing the words or expressing

the ideas of the author(s) in your own words.

• When paraphrasing you must acknowledge the original source in the

text of your writing.

• Include the author's surname and year of publication in round

brackets, or if including the author(s) name anywhere in the

sentence, place the year of publication in round brackets next to the

author's name
Paraphrasing in APA Paraphrasing

• When paraphrasing there is more than one way to place the citation within

your text.

• Citation at the beginning

• Leskowitz (2017) describes the transcendent states that athletes experience …

• Citation in the middle

• … sport viewed as a spiritual path (Leskowitz, 2017), and one that is

frequently followed in the west.

• Citation at the end

• … athletes using techniques adapted from holistic and complementary

medicine (Leskowitz, 2017).

Paraphrasing in APA Paraphrasing

• Author-prominent citations
• In his research, Leskowitz (2017) explores mindfulness,
biofeedback …

• Information-prominent citations
• … applying up-to-the-minute advances in holistic and
complementary medicine (Leskowitz, 2017).
Paraphrasing in APA Paraphrasing

• Including page numbers in a paraphrase citation

• Although APA 7th does not require page numbers when

paraphrasing another's work, you may choose to include
page numbers particularly when dealing with a lengthy or
complex document.

• A number of holistic practices and dispositions can be

applied when training or coaching athletes to increase the
likelihood of athletes getting into 'the Zone' (Leskowitz, 2017,
p. 324).
Direct quotes in APA
7th
• For direct quotes of less than 40 words, incorporate them

into the text and enclose the quote with double

quotation marks, e.g.

• Narrative quote (where the authors are named in your

sentence):

• Webber (2018) concludes that “addressing the issue of

school dropout not only affects the education system,

but may also serve as a prevention effort for the welfare,

mental health, and corrections systems” (p. 82).

Direct quotes in APA 7th

• Parenthetical quote (where the citation details are

presented in parentheses following the quote):

• "Addressing the issue of school dropout not only

affects the education system, but may also serve as

a prevention effort for the welfare, mental health,

and corrections systems" (Webber, 2018, p. 82).

Direct quotes in APA
7th
• For direct quotes of 40 or more words start on a new line and
indent the whole block ~1cm from the left, do not add any
additional space before or after the quote. The entire quote
should be double-spaced. Quotation marks are not required e.g.:
• These overload issues can reach across the lifespan and affect
individuals in many ways. As related issues continue to emerge,
counselors will need to be aware of potential mental health problems
stemming from technology overload and continue to research and
develop the skills needed for effective interventions. In the digital age,
these capabilities will be crucial in helping clients regain and maintain a
healthy balance of life, work, and technology. (Scott et al., 2017, p. 605)
Ellipses '…' and Quotes

• It is common when writing to use an ellipsis (3 fullstops

in a row '…') to indicate where words have been
omitted from a sentence. This is not permitted in
quotes in APA:

• "Regardless of quotation length, do not insert an

ellipsis at the beginning and/or end of a quotation
unless the original source includes an ellipsis" (APA,
2020, p. 271).
Citing tables and figures
• Figures include graphs, charts, maps, drawings and
photographs.

• Tables are numerical values or text displayed in

rows and columns.

• Including figures or tables in your work

Citing tables and figures
• All figures and tables must be referred to in the
main body of the text.

• Number all figures and tables in the order they first

appear in the text.

• Refer to them in the text by their number. For

example:

• As shown in Table 4...

OR

• As illustrated in Figure 3.
Example of an in-text Figure
Discussion of a figure in another source
• Follow a discussion of a figure viewed in another source (but not

reproduced) with an in-text citation for the published source.

• Include the figure number as it appears in the published source.

• Cite the source in full in your reference list:

• On analysing the recognition of different facial expressions at different degrees of

eccentricity, Smith and Rossit (2018, Results section, Figure 1) found …

• Reference List:

• Smith, F. W., & Rossit, S. (2018). Identifying and detecting facial expressions of

emotion in peripheral vision. PLoS ONE, 13(5), Article e0197160.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197160
Citing secondary sources
• APA discourages the use of secondary sources unless
the original work is unavailable.

• If you read an article or book which references some

information that you also want to reference and you
have been unable to locate the original source, cite the
source you have read in the Reference list; in text,
name the original work and give the citation for the
source where you found the information.
Citing secondary sources cont…

• Where the year of publication for the original work is

known, include it.

• For example:

• Sue reads an article by Chris Brown in the Journal of

Library Administration in which he cites or refers to
statements made by Ulrich Boser in his 2017 book
‘Learn Better’. Sue wants to refer to Boser’s statement
in her assignment.
Citing secondary sources cont…

• Sue would acknowledge Boser in her text but her

reference is to the source where she saw the
information. Sue might write as her in-text
reference:

• ... (Boser, 2017, as cited in Brown, 2018)

OR
Boser (2017, as cited in Brown, 2018) states ...
Citing secondary
sources cont…
• In her reference list Sue would write a reference for
Brown's article because that's where she sourced the
information. The entry in her References would be:

• Brown, C. (2018). Creating better learners through

learning science: A sample of methods. Journal of
Library Administration, 58(4), 375-381.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2018.1448652
Guidelines for compiling Reference list

• List references on a new page with a centred

heading titled: References.

• Include all your references, regardless of format,

e.g. books, journal articles, online sources, in one
alphabetical listing from A - Z.

• Order entries alphabetically by surname of

author(s).
Guidelines for compiling Reference list

• List works with no author under the first significant

word of the title.

• Indent second and subsequent lines of each entry (5-

7 spaces).

• Use double spacing.

• Note that all references in APA end with a full

stop except when the reference ends with a URL or a
DOI.
Guidelines for compiling Reference list

• Give the last name and initials for all authors of a

particular work

• If you have more than one article by the same

author, single author references or multiple author
references with the same exact authors in exact the
same order, list by the year of publication starting
with the earliest
Referencing Different sources
• A basic reference list entry for a book from a library
database in APA must include:
• Author or authors. The surname is followed by first initials.

• Year of publication of the book (in round brackets).

• Book title (in italics).

• Edition (in round brackets), if other than first edition.

• Publisher.

• DOI (where a book has a DOI this must be included, even if

you are referring to a print book).
• The first line of each citation is left adjusted. Every subsequent
line is indented 5-7 spaces.
Referencing Different
sources
• Example: Arnott, G. D. (2017). The disability
support worker (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.
Referencing Different sources
• Article in journals or periodicals

• A basic reference list entry for a journal article in APA must include:
• Author or authors. The surname is followed by first initials.

• Year of publication of the article (in round brackets).

• Article title.

• Journal title (in italics).

• Volume of journal (in italics).

• Issue of journal (no italics).

• Page range of article.

• DOI (presented as a hyperlink, for example https://doi.org/xxxxx).

• The first line of each citation is left adjusted. Every subsequent line is
indented 5-7 spaces.
Referencing Different sources

• Example:

• Ruxton, C. (2016). Tea: Hydration and other health

benefits. Primary Health Care, 26(8),
34-42. https://doi.org/10.7748/phc.2016.e1162

• Imhoff, J.A (2010). Use of non-financial incentives in

motivating health workers. Journal of Human resource
Management, 66 (3), 1200-1223
Referencing Different sources cont…

Journals available from Databases

• Author, initials. Year. Title of the article. Full title of the

journal [type of medium] volume number (issue/part
number) page number. Available through: Name of
Database [date accessed]

• Imhoff, J.A (2010). Use of non-financial incentives in

motivating health workers. Journal of Human resource
Management [e-journal] 66 (3), 1200-1223 available
through: BMC database [May 2nd, 2012]
Referencing Different sources cont…

(ii) From internet

• Author, initials. Year. Title of the article. Full title of the journal
[online] volume number (issue/part number) page number.
Available at: full web address [data accessed]

• E.g. Imhoff, J.A (2010) Use of non-financial incentives in

motivating health workers. Journal of Human resource
Management [online] 66 (3), 1200-1223 available at:
http:/www.someadress.com/full/url [May 2nd, 2012] Instead of
using URL you can use digital object identifier (DOI) when it is
available
Referencing Different sources cont…

d) Articles in Magazines

• Author, initials. Year. Title of the article. Full title of

Magazine, Day, month, page number and column
number.

• Schultz, S. (2005). Cervical Cancer. The Parents, 3rd

September, pp1A, 2A f)
Referencing Different sources cont…

e) Article in the Newspaper

• Author, initials. Year. Title of the article. Full title of Newspaper, Day,
month, page number and column number.

• E.g. Baraza, S.A (2012). Cervical Cancer. The East African Standard, 6th
May, p1A, 2A

• For letters to the editor, you add [letter to the editor] after the title
before the title of the Newspaper.

• E.g. Baraza, S.A (2012) NHIF: A Cash cow [letter to the editor] The
East African Standard, 6th May, p1A.
Referencing Different sources cont…

f) Interviews, email and other personal

communications.

• No personal communication is included in your

reference list.

• Instead, parenthetically cite in the main text only:

(Communicator’s name, date of communication) E.g.
E. Robbins, Personal Communication, January 4 th ,
2012)
Referencing Different sources cont…

g) Conference reports.

• Author/authorship, editor/organization, year. Full

title of conference report, location, date, place of
publication: publisher

• E.g. Makali J.W, WHA, 2006. 6th Global forum on

Health, Nairobi, 23rd -27th June, Geneva, WHO
Referencing Different sources cont…

h) Conference papers.

• Author, initials, year. Full title of conference paper in:

followed by editor or name of the organization, full
title of the conference, location, date, place of
publication: publisher

• E.g. Makali J.W, 2006. Prevalence of cervical cancer

among WRA in Zambia: WHA, 6th Global forum on
Health, Nairobi, 23rd -27th June, Geneva, WHO
Referencing Different sources cont…

i) DVD, video or Film

• Full title of DVD or video. Year of release. [Type of

medium] Director. (If relevant) Country of origin:
Film studio or maker. (Other relevant details).

• E. g. Great films from the 80s: a selection of clips

from Warner Brothers top films from the1980s.
2005 [DVD] New York: Warner Brothers.
Referencing Different sources cont…

• For a film the suggested elements should include:

• Title .Year of release. [Medium] Director. Country of

origin: Film studio.

• e. g. Macbeth, 1948. [Film] Directed by Orson

Wells. USA: Republic Pictures
Referencing Different sources cont…

j) Broadcast

• For a broad cast the suggested elements should include:

• Series title and episode name and number if relevant,

Year of broadcast. [type of medium] Broadcasting
organization and Channel, date and time of
transmission.

• e. g. Agenda Kenya, 2010. [TV programme] KBC, KBC1,

30th January 2010, 9.00 am.
Referencing Different sources cont…

• For a broadcast obtained through BoB (Box of

Broadcasts)

• Little Britain, 2006. [TV programme recording] BBC,

BBC2, 30th January 2006, 20.00 am. Available
through: Box of Broadcasts database [Accessed 12th
August 2011]
 RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Quantitative Research Design
Definition

• The blue print of the research.

• Is a strategy/scheme to get the information the

researcher wants in a study.

• It is the overall plan for answering the research

questions or testing the hypotheses.

• Incorporates the data collection plan, the sampling plan

and the analysis plan.
Definition cont…
• Each researcher could choose the design deemed most suitable for
the specific research.

• Research design must fit the type of question asked in order to

provide appropriate and effective answers (descriptive/ relational
or predictive questions)

• The research design, which could also be called methodology, may

be described as qualitative when the data to be collected will be in
words and quantitative, when the data would be in numbers
(numeric)

• Research methods are the procedures and tools used in data

collections
The elements of research design
• A good research design includes:-

a) Research approach; quantitative or qualitative

b) Subjects:- they are individuals who take part in the study

c) Variables:- they are the focus of the study and reflects the empirical
aspects of the concepts being studied

d) Time: - it is the frequency and the order in which observations are made.

e) Setting: - it may be natural setting or laboratory depending upon study

topic and researcher’s choice.

f) Methods of data analysis; inductive or deductive

g) Methods of data collections;

Characteristics/qualities of research design

1. Neutrality - The results projected in research

design should be free from bias but remain
neutral.

2. Reliability - If a research is conducted on a

regular basis, the researcher involved expects
similar results to be calculated every time. Allows
for replicabibility
Characteristics/qualities of research design

3. Validity - valid measuring tools helping a

researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of research. Contribute to accurate and fair
interpretation of results

4. Generalization - The outcome of research design

should be applicable to a population
Purposes of the
Research Design
• To enable the researcher focus on the key variables
under investigation

• To facilitate adequate sampling methods

• To ensure that the appropriate data collection

method is applied.

• It enhances the data analysis plan.

Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design

• Nature of Research Problem: Researcher decides

whether it should be investigated through an
experimental, Non Experimental or quasi
experimental depending on the nature of the
problem

• Purpose of study: Study may be conducted for the

purpose of the prediction, description, exploration or
correlation of research variable
Factors Affecting Selection of Research
Design cont..

• Researcher Knowledge and Experience: Selection of

research design depends on confidence, relevant
knowledge or experience the researcher has with the
method.

• Researcher Interest and Motivation: Motivated

researcher always analyze most aspects of research
design before choosing, and select the one they have
interest in
Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design
cont..

• Researcher’s Ethics and Principles: moral obligations

such as respect for participants and their rights.

• Subjects/ Participants: The number and availability of

study subjects may influence the selection of research
design if only few subjects are involved, an in-depth
qualitative research design may be chosen, but in case
of large samples the researcher may opt for
quantitative research design.
Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design
cont..

• Resources: None of the researcher can be conduct

without resources such as money, equipments,
facilities and support from colleagues.

• Time: Time is also a major deciding factor for the

selection of research design

• Available information (state of knowledge) about

the problem.
Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design cont..

• Possible Control of confounding Variables: An

efficient design can maximize results decrease errors
and control preexisting and impaired conditions that
may affect the outcome of the study.

• Users of the Study Finding: A research design also

involves various methods data collection and analysis.
Therefore while choosing a research design researcher
must ensure that research design is user friendly
Factor influencing classifications of designs

• The overall function of the design,

• How time or timing is incorporated into the design,

• Whether the design seeks to control or not control

study factors.
Types of Research
Designs
• Experimental Designs

• The Quasi Experimental Design

• The Non Experimental Design

• Analytical /The Ex Post Facto Design; case
controls
• Descriptive
Experimental designs
• Pre experimental, quasi experimental and true
experimental

• True experimental - design maintains maximum and

rigorous control over the research subjects and uses
the process of randomization and manipulation in the
implementation of the study

• The experimental design provides a scientific way of

determining whether or not the independent variable
has any effect at all on the dependent variable
Experimental designs

• Control implies the ability of the researcher to regulate

and check all elements in the research.

• Control is achieved through;

• Randomization, that is the process of assigning subjects to
the study on a random basis to make the groups equal,
• Removing/eliminating the confounding variables

• Using subjects as their own controls

• Matching cases; subjects with similar xteristcs assigned to

both expt. & control groups.
Experimental designs
• Manipulation is the process by which the
researcher manages the independent variable in
order to study its effect on the dependent variable.

• Something is done to a group of the subjects

(experimental group) by the researcher, while the
other group (the comparison group), does not
receive anything.
CHARACTERISTIC OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN

• Research ideas are restricted by requirement that

they be testable

• Theories and speculations are closely related to reality

• Simplicity in ideas and conceptualization is the ideal

• Research set out to test not to prove

• The concept of ‘failure’ is an archives interference in

research activity
Characteristic of experimental research
design

• The potential value of a research projects is directly

related to the cogency of the questions asked

• The methods of research are intentionally devised to

prevent the research are intentionally devised to
prevent the researchers deluding himself and others

• Values play a legitimate and important part in

research activities
True experimental design
ct..
True experimental
design ct..
• There are three subtypes: -

I. Pretest- posttest control group design: -

• It is the most used experimental design.

• Here (a) subjects are randomly assigned to groups, (b) a

pretest is given to both groups (c) the experimental group
receives the experimental treatment and the comparison
group receives the routine treatment or no treatment, and
the post test is given to both groups.
True experimental
design ct..
II. Posttest-only control group design: -

(a) subjects are randomly assigned to groups,

(b) the experimental group receives the experimental

treatment and the comparison group receives the
routine treatment or no treatment and

(c) a posttest is given to both groups

True experimental
design ct..
• III. Solomon four-group design:-

(a) subjects are randomly assigned to one of the four groups;

(b) two of the groups, experimental group1 and comparison

group 1 are pretested;

(c) two of the groups, experimental group1 and experimental

group 2 , receive the experimental treatment, whereas
two groups, comparison group 1 and comparison group2
receive the routine treatment or no treatment; and

(d) a posttest is given to all four groups

The steps in true experimental design
• Identify the study population

• Select a sample from the population by simple random sampling

• Randomly assign the sample to two subgroups, which you will name
experimental and control groups

• Observe and record the characteristics of the two groups

• Introduce the independent variable to the experimental group, but

not to the control group

• Later observe the dependent variable in both the experimental and

control groups
The steps in true experimental design cont..

• Compare the changes in experimental group with those in

the control group and record the difference.

• Compare these values with statistically computed values to

judge significance of the differences and indicate whether or
not the observed difference could have occurred by chance.

• If the findings are significantly greater than would be

expected to occur by chance alone, a causal relationship
would have been established between the independent
variable and the dependent variable under study.
The true Experimental
Design
Advantages

1. Most powerful design for testing the hypothesis of

cause-effect relationships between variables.

2. It is practical, feasible and can be generalized to some

extent. This type of design introduces some control over

certain extraneous variables.

The true Experimental
Design
Disadvantages

1. In most real situations, some of the variables

cannot be manipulated or controlled.

2. Quite difficult to get randomized research

subjects or even a control group.

3. Very expensive, both in terms of time and money.

The true Experimental
Design
• Controlled random trials

• Clinical trials refer to studies that test the effectiveness

of a clinical treatment
The Quasi Experimental Design
The Quasi Experimental Design
• Called controlled trials without randomization in the
medical literature

• It is a type of intervention study.

• Lacks randomization, the signature of a true experiment.

• Some quasi-experiments even lack a control group.

• The signature of a quasi-experimental design, then, is an

intervention in the absence of randomization.

• There are threats to internal validity.

Quasi-Experimental Designs
1. Nonequivalent control group before–after
design, which involves two or more groups of
subjects observed before and after the
implementation of an intervention.

• Is identical to the before–after experimental design

except subjects are not randomly assigned to the
groups
Nonequivalent control group before–after
design,

• The quasi-experimental design is weaker because,

without randomization, it cannot be assumed that
the experimental and comparison groups are
equivalent at the outset

• the hallmark of strong quasi-experiments is the

effort to introduce some controls, such as baseline
measurements.
2. Time–Series Design
• Involves collecting data over an extended time
period, and introducing the treatment during that
period
Advantages Quasi-
Experiments
• Are practical—it is not always possible to conduct
true experiments.

• People are not always willing to be randomized in

clinical trials.
Disadvantages of Quasi-Experiments

• Causal inferences cannot be made as easily as with

experiments; there are alternative explanations for
observed results
 Non experimental
/Descriptive Research Design
Features used to diff. types of descriptive res. design

1. Representativeness of the study data sources, for

example, whether random, stratified, non probability.

2. Time frame of measurement, i.e., whether short, cross

sectional or longitudinal.

3. Whether the study involves any comparisons, for

example, with another group.

4. Whether the design is focused on a simple descriptive

question or more complex, correlative questions.
Types of Nonexperimental Studies

• Correlational designs
• retrospective design
• case-control design
• prospective design (called a cohort design) in medical science

• Descriptive research designs

• Descriptive correlational

• Cross-sectional designs

• Longitudinal Designs

• Case studies
 Survey Research Design
• Concerned with systematic gathering information from a sample
of population. Fact finding study

• It’s designed to obtain information from the population regarding

the prevalence, distribution, and interrelations of variables within
those populations.

• In a survey the researcher designs the phenomenon and study

but does not manipulate any variables nor do they make any
efforts to determine the relationships between variables.

• Survey studies primarily yield quantitative data.

• They are mainly cross sectional in design.

Survey Research Design cont….

Advantages
1. It is flexible and broad in scope.

2. It can be applied to many people

3. It can focus on wide range of topics

• The survey design is better suited for extensive rather than
intensive analysis of a situation.
• It is usually descriptive
Correlation survey
design
• The researcher attempts to determine and describe
what relationship exists between variables.

• One independent variable is correlated with one or

more dependent variables.

• Then statistical methods are applied to describe if the

variables relate at all and what kind of relationship
they have, that is, positive correlation or, negative
correlation
Correlation survey
Correlation survey design
• When there is a positive correlation is an indication that the more
the exposure the high the outcome of interest, for example
smoking exposure and lung disease, which is the outcome.

• When there is no correlation one would conclude that the

exposure is not related to the outcome, for example teething and
diarrhoeal episodes.

• When there is a negative correlation it means that the more the

exposure the less the outcome, for example tetanus vaccination
and tetanus infection.
Explorative Research Design

• Is the systematic collection and presentation of data to

give clear picture of a particular situation.

• It involves the systematic collection of information and

aims to discover and describe new facts about a
situation, people, activities, or events.

• Its main purposes include observing, describing and

documenting all aspects of a situation as it naturally
occurs.
Comparative
Descriptive Design:
• Is mainly used when the researcher intends to
examine and describe particular variables in two or
more groups.

• The concept here is to compare the groups and

how they differ or how similar they are in relation
to the variable of interest.
 Case Study Research Design

• A case study is 'an in depth study of one individual, a

group of individuals or an institution’

• It is a detailed account of a particular experience event or

situation.

• It is meant to provide a description of people’s thoughts,

feelings and perceptions.

• It doesn’t aim at providing a causal relationship. Neither

does it attempt to test a hypothesis.
Limitations of case studies
1. They require plenty of time.
2. They are costly.
3. Have high possibility of subject drop out.
4. Data analysis also calls for skills and experience, particularly if the
study is carried over a long period of time

• Case study designs are used when:

1. There is a need to demonstrate the effectiveness of a specific

therapeutic technique
2. Generating and testing hypotheses
3. There is need to generate knowledge on a particular issue or
Case report:
• A careful, detailed report by one or more clinicians of the
profile of a single patient.

• Case series, describes characteristics of a number of

patients with a given disease.

• Uses
• Important link between clinical medicine and epidemiology

• One of the first steps in outbreak investigation

• Often useful for hypothesis generating and examining new

diseases, but conclusions about etiology cannot be made.
Case Report Series
• Objective and brief report of a clinical characteristic
or outcome from a group of clinical subjects.

• Generalization is not possible due to biased

selection or unrepresentativeness of subjects, lack
of control group, etc.
Cross-sectional designs
• Involve the collection of data at one point in time
(or multiple times in a short time period, such as 2
hours and 4 hours postoperatively)

• The main advantage of cross-sectional designs is

that they are economical and easy to manage.
There are, however, problems in inferring changes
and trends over time using a cross-sectional design
Longitudinal Designs
• Also called Panel studies on nonclinical studies

• Data collected at more than one point in time over an

extended period

• the same people provide data at two or more points in

time

• useful for studying changes over time and for ascertaining

the temporal sequencing of phenomena, which is an
essential criterion for establishing causality--expermental
Longitudinal Designs

• The most serious challenge in longitudinal studies is the

loss of participants (attrition) over time.

• Subject attrition is problematic because those who drop

out of the study often differ in important respects from
those who continue to participate, resulting in potential
biases, the risk of faulty inferences, and concerns about
the generalizability of the findings
Descriptive/ non experimental designs
strengths weakness
Lower costs Does not answer questions of causal-
effect relationship nature

Relatively easy to implement Expensive when complex data collection

techniques are used

Ability to yield results in fairly short May not consider variables

period in depth

Results are relatively straightforward to Generalizability of the findings may not

analyze and communicate to be achieved
an audience
Qualitative research
designs
• In qualitative research, by contrast, the study design typically
evolves over the course of the project.

• Qualitative researchers design as they do.

• Decisions about how best to obtain data, from whom to obtain

data, how to schedule data collection, and how long each data
collection session should last are made as the study unfolds.

• Qualitative studies use an emergent design—a design that

emerges as researchers make ongoing decisions reflecting what
has already been learned.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Design

• Is flexible and elastic, capable of adjusting to what

is being learned during the course of data collection

• Often involves a merging together of various data

collection strategies (i.e., triangulation)

• Tends to be holistic, striving for an understanding of

the whole
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Design

• Requires researchers to become intensely involved,

often remaining in the field for lengthy periods of
time

• Requires ongoing analysis of the data to formulate

subsequent strategies and to determine when field
work is done
Quality assurance in research designs
Validity of research/
design.
• Internal validity refers to

• (1) the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the
study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and
decisions concerning what was and wasn't measured) and
• (2) the extent to which the designers of a study have taken
into account alternative explanations for any causal
relationships they explore

• External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a

study are generalizable or transferable.
Validity of research/ design.
• Threats to internal validity.

• They are factors other than the independent variable that influence the
dependent variable.
• They include:-

• Selection bias: - it occurs when the subjects are not randomly assigned
to experimental and comparison group.
• History: - it’s when some events occurs during the course of study and
this may influence the dependant variable.
• Maturation:-it may become a threat when changes occur within the
subjects during an experimental study influence the study results e.g.
people may become older, taller etc.
Validity of research/ design.

• Threats to internal validity.

• Testing: - it refers to the influence of the pretest, or knowing
the results of the pretest, on the post test score.
• Instrumentation change: - it involves the difference
between the pretest and posttest measurement caused by
change in the accuracy of the instruments.
• Mortality: - it occurs when the subject dropout rate is
different between the experimental and comparison group.
External validity.
• External validity refers to the extent to which the study is findings can
be generalized or transferrable

• Threats to external validity

• 1. Hawthorne effect:-occurs when study participants respond in a certain
manner because they are aware that they are being observed. It may also
be considered a threat to internal validity.
• 2. Experimenter effect: - is a threat to the study results when the
researcher characteristics or behavior influences subject behavior e.g. facial
expression, age, and gender etc.
• 3. Reactive effects of pretest: - it occurs when subjects have been sensitized
to the treatment through taking the pretest. So people might not respond to
the treatment in the same manner if they have not received a pretest
Triangulation
• It refers to the application and combination of
several research methodologies in the study of the
same phenomenon.

• When qualitative and quantitative methods are

used simultaneously,

• Facilitates validation of data through cross

verification from more than two sources.
Triangulation…

• It becomes an alternative to traditional criteria like

reliability and validity.

• It can be employed in both quantitative (validation)

and qualitative (inquiry) studies.

• The purpose of triangulation in qualitative research

is to increase the credibility and validity of the
results.
Triangulation…
• It is the preferred line in the social sciences.

• By combining multiple observers, theories,

methods, and empirical materials, researchers can
hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases
and the problems that come from single method,
single observer and single-theory studies.
Types of triangulation
• Denzin (1978) identified four basic types of triangulation
• Data triangulation: involves type of data, time, space, and persons

• Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an

investigation
• Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical
scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon
• Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one
method to gather data, such as interviews, observations,
questionnaires, and documents.
Differences between Experimental and Non
Experimental Designs

• Experimental designs are characterized by

randomization, control and manipulation of subjects,
while in non experimental designs subjects are studied
as they are, with much less control, though there may
be random selection of subjects

• The experimental design is able to determine a cause

and effect relationship, which is not possible by the
non experimental design
Differences between Experimental
and Non Experimental Designs cont…
• In terms of cost, the experimental design is often
more expensive, since the researcher may need to
create conditions that may not be possible normally
for the purpose of the study.

• Subject availability may be more with none

experimental, but attrition rate is also higher
Differences between Experimental and Non
Experimental Designs cont…

• Experimental designs are not suitable for

researches that have to do with emotions.

• Experimental studies are amenable to replication

while it may not be possible with non experimental
designs.

• Prediction of future occurrences is possible with

only experimental design.
Techniques of research
control
Techniques of research control

• A major purpose of research design in quantitative

studies is to maximize researchers’ control over
potentially confounding variables.

• There are two broad categories of confounders that

need to be controlled—
• those that are intrinsic to study participants and

• those that are external, stemming from the research

situation.
Controlling the Study
Context
• Various external factors, such as the research
environment, can affect study outcomes.

• In carefully controlled quantitative research, steps are

taken to minimize situational contaminants (i.e., to
achieve constancy of conditions for the collection of
data) so that researchers can be confident that
outcomes reflect the influence of the independent
variable and not the study context
Controlling the Study
Context…
• For example, in interview studies, researchers can
restrict data collection to a specific type of setting (e.g.,
respondents’ homes).

• Researchers can also control when data are collected.

• Standardize communications to subjects in quantitative

studies

• In research involving interventions, formal intervention

protocols, are developed
Controlling Intrinsic
Factors
• Control of study participants’ characteristics is
especially important and challenging.

• The outcomes in which nurse researchers are

interested are affected by dozens of attributes, and
most are irrelevant to the research question
Methods of controlling confounding subject
characteristics.

• Randomization;
• The purpose of randomization is to secure a close
approximation to an ideal counterfactual, that is, to have
groups that are equal with respect to confounding
variables
• It controls all possible sources of extraneous variation,
without any conscious decision by researchers about
which variables need to be controlled.
Methods of controlling confounding subject
characteristics.

• Homogeneity; in which only subjects who are

homogeneous with respect to confounding
variables are included in the study; could mean
using the subjects of the same race, age, gender,
weight, health status

• Easy to use but one problem is limited

generalizability
Methods of controlling confounding subject
characteristics.

• Matching; involves using information about subject characteristics

to form comparable groups

• To match effectively, researchers must know in advance what the

relevant confounders are.

• Matching is the technique used to form comparable groups in case-

control designs

• Also, after two or three variables, it becomes difficult to match

• Statistical Control; statistical control mechanisms, such as analysis of

covariance,
Study area (setting)
Study area (setting)
• This refers to the location of the study.

• The research setting is the physical, social,

experimental and cultural context in which the
researcher conducts the study.

• The selection of a research site is essential because

it influences the usefulness of the information
produced.
Study area (setting)
• In selecting a research site:
• Identify the largest areas which are relevant to your
research questions and objectives
• Consider the heterogeneity of the potential study
population and choose areas or communities which
represent the range of variations on the most important
characteristics
Study area (setting)

• Identify and select actual communities which fulfill

these criteria by making site visits, discussing with
community leaders

• The study setting can be non-contrived (natural) or

contrived (unnatural controlled) depending on the
type of study.
Types of study settings
• Non-contrived − This is a natural setting where research is
conducted. − Field experiment, e.g., are the rates of interest
related to extent of deposits?

• Contrived − This is a controlled (unnatural environment)

setting where the study is conducted.
• Independent variable changed (manipulated) to see
effect on the dependant variable.
• Lab experiment e.g., to study relationship between
mosquito bites and incidence of filariasis in animal
Study area (setting)
• It is important to discuss how the research site was selected and the
reasons why. E.g. the study was carried out in Mathare Slums. Purposive
sampling was used to select Mathare Slums because it has……………..

• In selecting the study site it is important to consider the following

factors:-

• Study design

• Size of the study population – availability of the adequate subjects

• Available resources

• Available time

• Purpose of the study

STUDY POPULATION
Study population

• Population: refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects

having a common observable characteristic. It is an aggregate of all that

conforms to a given specification

• The researcher first defines the population to which she or he wants to

generalize the results. This is referred to as the “target population or the

“universe”.

• Sample: is a smaller group obtained from the accessible population.

• Each member or case in this sample is referred to as “subject”.

• Sometimes, the terms “respondents” or interviewers” are used.

Types of study
population
1) Target population

• This consists of entire/every element in the world that meets the

sampling criteria.

• It is the entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes

to generalize the findings of the study.

2) Accessible population;

• This refers to that portion of the target population that the investigator
can reasonably reach as study participants.

• It is the population from which samples are drawn because the likelihood
of getting a list of target population is low.
Study population

• It is important to describe your target population in

great detail discussing:
• Who they are

• Where they are located

• When they can be found

• Whether or not there is a listing of your population and

whether this listing is available to you.
Study population
• In describing the study population it is important to
highlight the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

• Eligibility criteria may reflect one or more of the

following issues
• Cost.

• Practical concerns.

• People ability to participate in a study.

• Design consideration.
a) Inclusion criteria
• Sometimes called eligibility criteria, inclusion criteria refers to
those characteristics that must be met in order to be
considered for participation in the study.

• characteristics that delimit the study population

• The investigator specifies what the sample will look like and
what characteristics all study participants will have in common.

• For example: in a study of efficacy of a drug in treatment of

DM, the participants must have a diagnosis of DM.
b) Exclusion criteria
• This refers to those characteristics that if present,
would make persons ineligible to be in the sample even
though they meet all the inclusion criteria.

• These exclusions limit the representativeness of the

sample and therefore the generalizability of the
findings.

• These should represent only those conditions or

characteristics that might potentially make a
difference in the outcome.
Determination of the
sample size
 Determination of the sample size

• Sample size determination is the technique of selecting the

number of observations to include in a sample.

• Sample size refers to the number of subjects in a sample.

• Influence making inferences about the population from a sample.

• The larger the sample the smaller is the sampling error.

• Is determined based on the cost of data collection, and based on

sufficient statistical power
Factors to consider in determining the
sample size

1. Population factors
• Homogeneity of the population

• Expected rate of the phenomenon, event or outcome

being measured. If the phenomenon occurs frequently, a
smaller sample size is needed and vice-versa

• Expected attrition rate. In longitudinal studies attrition

rates are expected to be high hence the need for a larger
sample

• Pop. Size; sample size should be representative also in size

Factors to consider in determining the sample size

2. Design factors
• Type of study; quantitative designs use statistics methods to

determine sample size while qualitative uses judgement methods

• Number of variables. As variables increase the sample size also

increases

• Sampling strategy. Stratified and quota sampling requires smaller

samples than simple or convenience because some of the

representativeness is already built into the stratification process

• Factor in the non response rate. Bias incr. when non response rate

rises
Factors to consider in determining
the sample size
3. Measurement factors
• Level of precision; refers to the rship btn the statistics (numerical
values of a sample) to the parameters (numerical values of a
pop).
• It gives the researcher an idea regarding the accuracy of the
statistical estimates.
• Expressed in % as +-5%.

• There fore if a researcher finds that 85% of children are obese,

then the researcher can conclude that btn 80-90% of children are
obese
Factors to consider in determining the
sample size

• 3. Measurement factors…………

• Confidence levels/ interval: refers to the probability that a

population parameter will fall btn a set of values for a certain

proportion of times.

• For instances, a 95% confidence level means that should you

repeat a study over and over again, 95% of the time, your result

will match the results you get from a population i.e 95%, is the

probability that the sample contains the parameters being

estimated.

• The higher the sample size the higher the confidence levels.
Factors to consider in determining the
sample size

• 4. Practical factors

• Cost

• Convenience
Approaches to determining the sample
size
Using a census for small populations,

Imitating a sample size of similar studies,

Using published tables, and

Using internet sample size calculators;

https://www.calculator.net/sample-size
Applying formulas to calculate a sample size.
 Cochrane/Fisher’S Formulas
 Yamane (1962) formulae
 Rule of 30
 i) Using census for small populations
• One approach is to use the entire population as the sample

• A census approach is more convenient to use for small populations e.g. 200 or
less

• A census eliminates sampling error and provides data on all the individuals in
the population.

• In addition, some costs such as questionnaire design and developing the

sampling frame are "fixed," that is, they will be the same for samples of 50 or
200
 ii) Using the sample size of a similar study

• Another approach is to use the same sample size as those

of studies similar to the plan.

• Without reviewing the methods used in these studies may

run the risk of repeating errors that were made in
determining the sample size for another study, thus, not
ideally recommended to rely solely on this method
 iii) Using Published tables
• A third way to determine sample size is to rely on published
tables, which provide the sample size for a given set of criteria,
given combinations of precision, confidence level and variability.

• Most studies use a confidence level of 95% (P=5%) or 90%

(P=10%)

• Glenn (1992), presented two tables for the selection of sample

size as shown below:
Size of Population Sample Size (n) for precision (e)
±5% ±10%
500 222 83
1,000 286 91
2,000 333 95
3,000 353 97
4,000 364 98
5,000 370 98
7,000 378 99
20,000 392 100
25,000 394 100
50,000 397 100
100,000 398 100
>100,000 400 100
 Table 2
Size of Population Sample Size (n) for Precision (e) of:
±5% ±10%

100 81 51
125 96 56
150 110 61
200 134 67
250 154 72
300 172 76
350 187 78
400 201 81
 iv) Using formulas to calculate the sample
size

• There are many formulas used in calculation of the

sample size.

• Yamane (1962) & cohen (1992) mathematical formulas

• n=N/(1+N(e)2); e = level of precision/margin of error.

N=the size of the pop.., n= sample size

• Fischer’s statistical formulae as described below:

SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION USING FISCHER’S STATISTICAL
FORMULA
• In social science research, the following formula can be used to
determine the sample size. FISCHER’S statistical formula (Mugenda
A. & Mugenda O., 1994)
Z2 pq
n=
d2
Where:
n = the desired sample size (if the target population is greater than
10,000)
z = the standard normal deviate at the required confidence level,
usually set at 1.96 which corresponds to the 95% confidence level
p = the proportion in the target population estimated to
have characteristics being measured in the study.
q = the proportion in the target population estimated not
to have characteristics being measured=1-p
d = the level of statistical significance/ degree of accuracy
desired, usually set at the 0.05 level, corresponding with
95% confidence level.
• If there is no estimate available of the proportion in the
target population assumed to have the characteristics of
interest, 50% should be used as recommended by Fischer’s
et al.
• For example, if the proportion of a target population with a
certain characteristic is 0.50, the Z statistic is 1.96, and we
desire accuracy at the 0.05 level, then the sample size is

(1.96)2× (0.50)× (0.50) = 384.16

n=
(0.05)2
• If the target population is less than 10,000, the required
sample size will be smaller. In such cases, calculate a final
sample estimate (nf) using the following formula:
n
nf = {1+ (n/N)}
Where:
nf = the desired sample size (when the population is less
than 10,000)
n = the desired sample size (when the population is more
than 10,000).
N = the estimate of the target population size
• For example: if n = 384 and now our N is 1000, what is our
nƒ?
384/(1+384/1000)
= 384/1.384= 277 respondents
Commonly used confidence coefficients & their z values
Ρ Z
0.90 1.64
0.95 1.96
0.96 2.00
0.98 2.33
0.99 2.58
Rule of 30
• According to this rule there should be 30 subjects
for each group or 30 subjects for each variable.

• This is based on the central limit theorem which

states that in randomly generated samples of 30 or
more subjects, the mean characteristic will
approximate the population mean
Power analysis
• This is a statistical calculation of the number of
subjects needed in order to accurately reject the
null hypothesis.

• Sample size can be calculated using the following

Cochran’s formula: no = Z 2 p q /e 2
Cochran’s formula
cont…
• Where:

• no is the desired sample size (for target population

greater than 10,000)

• z is the standard normal Deviate at the required

confidence interval set at 95% (1.96)

• p is the estimated proportion of the target population

that has the characteristics being measured
Cochran’s formula
cont…
• q is the proportion of the target population
estimated not to have the characteristic being
measured (q = 1- p)

• e is the level of precision set at 5% (0.05)

• When there is no estimate available of the

proportion of the target population who has the
characteristics under study, 50% is used as p.
Sample size In
qualitative studies,
• Relatively small non-random samples are employed
because the aim of qualitative studies is to describe
and analyze the meaning and experiences of
particular individuals or groups.

• Sample size should be determined according to the

need for sufficient information to answer the
research question based on the principles of data
saturation and redundancy.
In qualitative studies,
• Participants continue to be enrolled until no new
information is being uncovered (saturation); In
which case redundancy occurs in all subsequent
data collection encounters.

• This may be achieved with limited number of

participants if the sample is homogenous.
SAMPLING
SAMPLING
• Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the
population to represent the entire population

• Quantitative researchers desire samples that will allow

them to achieve statistical conclusion validity and to
generalize their results; representative sample

• A sample is a subset of population elements

• A representative sample is one whose main characteristics

closely approximate those of the population
SAMPLING….
• Quantitative studies develop a sampling plan that
specifies in advance how participants are to be
selected and how many to include.

• Qualitative researchers make sampling decisions

during the course of the study based on
informational and theoretical needs,
Terms
• A population is the entire aggregation of
cases/elements in which a researcher is interested.

• Sampling Frame: Is a comprehensive list of all the

sampling elements in the target population, for
example, the list of all the households in a village.
Terms cont…
• Strata; are mutually exclusive segments of a population
based on a specific characteristic; subpopulations

• Subject: a single member of a sample

• Response rate%; proportion of the sample who

participated in the study in %

• Statistics; sample measurements

• Parametric; population measurements

Terms …..
• Representative Sample: the sample that resembles the
population from which it is drawn in all aspects.

• Sampling Bias: is the systematic overrepresentation or

underrepresentation of some segment of the population in
terms of a characteristic relevant to the research question

• Occurs when the researcher has not carefully selected the

samples that are expected to represent the general target
pop.
Terms cont…
• Sampling Error: Refers to the difference between
population parametrics (è.g, the average of the
population) and the sample statistics. (for e.g, the
average of the sample group).

• It is the degree of deviation of the sample from the

population from which it was drawn.
Terms cont…
• Non sampling errors;
• These are errors which arise from sources other
than sampling.
• They include errors of observation,
measurement and errors of responses

• Non sampling biases

• They consist of biases of observation and non-
observation, response biases and process biases
Terms cont…
• Total error
• This is the square root of the sums of squares of
variable errors and squares of biases.

• Volunteers
• Are subjects who approach the researcher
asking to participate in the study.

• Element; a single member of a pop.

Purpose of sampling
• Economical –needs fewer resources than entire pop.

• Timeliness;

• Size of the pop. Big pop. Census difficult

• Inaccessibility of some pop.; prisoners/ mentally ill

• Destructiveness of the observation; study result in

some destructions, select a few

• Accuracy; more accurate than census

Advantages of sampling…
• Economy in expenditure. if data are collected for the
entire population, cost will be very high

• Economy in time. Sampling is less time consuming than

census technique

• There’s a greater scope & flexibility of studies when a

sample is used

• Greater accuracy. Sampling ensures completeness & high

degree of accuracy due to a limited area of operation
Advantages of sampling

• It’s possible to collect intensive & exhaustive data

as the number is limited

• Allows the researcher to work even with limited

resources

• Better support: - easier to develop better rapport

with a portion of the population than entire pop of
study.
 DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

• Chance of bias: - it may involve biased selection and thereby lead to draw
erroneous conclusions, may be due to various reasons

• Difficult in getting representative: - selection of a truly representative sample is

very difficult particularly when the phenomena under study are of a complex
nature

• Need for specialized knowledge: - it requires the knowledge otherwise they may
commit serious mistakes

• Changeability of units: - since some may refuse to co-operate and some may be
inaccessible and sometimes the selected cases may have to be replaced by others.

• Impossibility of sampling: - sometimes the universe is too small that is it is not

possible to drive a representative sample
 Characteristics of a good sample

• It should be free from error due to bias or due to deliberate selection of the
unit of the sample

• It should be free from random sampling error

• It should reproduce the characteristic of the population with the greatest

possible accuracy.

• It should not suffer from incomplete coverage of the units selected from
the study

• There should not be any substitution of originally selected unit by some

other more convenient in any way

• Small samples properly selected may be much more reliable than large
samples poorly selected
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

1. Purpose of the study:-if you want to generalize

the findings based on the sample survey to the
population

2. Measurability

3. Degree of precision

4. Information about population

5. The nature of the population

CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample

• Sample design must be which results in a small sample error

• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for

the research study

• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be

controlled in better way

• Sample design should be such that the results of the sample study

can be applied in general for the universe with a reasonable level

of confidence
The sampling process
• It consists of seven sequential steps as follows:-
• Define the population
• Specify sampling frame
• Specify sampling unit
• Determine sample size
• Specify sampling method of measurements
• Specify sampling plan
• Select the sample
Quantitative Sampling methods/techniques/ designs

• Scientific/ Probability sampling methods

• Non probability sampling methods

Probability / scientific Sampling methods

• This refers to random sampling strategy that gives each element

in the population an equal independent chance of being
selected.

• It also provides an efficient system of capturing in a small group

the variations or heterogeneity that exists in the target
population.

• Random assignment refers to the process of allocating subjects

to different treatment conditions at random. Random
assignment has no bearing on how subjects in an experiment
were selected in the first place
Probability / Scientific Sampling methods cont..

• Each study unit has an equal or at least a known

non-zero probability of being selected in the
sample.

• Ensures that each unit of the sample is chosen on

the basis of chance.

• It allows the study to be generalized to other areas.

Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

2. Systematic/Interval sampling

3. Stratified Random Sampling

4. Cluster Sampling
Simple random sampling method

• The most basic probability sampling design.

• Each unit (subject) has the chance to be selected.

• It involves one stage selection.

• It also allows the researcher access to the study

population

• guarantee that differences between the sample and

the population are purely a function of chance
Simple random sampling method

• Various ways of selecting the subjects;

• Identifying the specific target population.

• Formulating an appropriate sampling frame.

• Determining the sample size for the study.

• Adapting a consecutive identification number for each

unit in the sampling frame.
• Selecting the desired subjects using a randomized
technique
Simple random sampling method

• Simple random section techniques;

• the lottery method,
• use of random tables, or
• tossing a coin to help you decide where and how
to start.
SRS cont….
• Using table of random numbers
• Establish a sampling frame, list of study
elements/subjects
• The elements are numbered consecutively

• A table of random numbers or a computer program is

then used to draw, at random, the sample
• This is done until the desired sample size is achieved.

• The starting point is selected by closing the eyes and

pointing at the data in the table.
Xteristics of a good sample
frame
• Relevant; contain units/elements that are directly
associated with the research phenomena under study

• Complete; should cover all relevant information e.g

name, telephone number, places of residence

• Precise; exclude all irrelevant information

• Up-to-date; the list should be reviewed again and

again to ensure that lost elements are not existing
SRS cont….
• Lottery
• For example, if you need to select 30 subjects from a
sampling frame of 100, you get 100 pieces of papers and
write 'Yes' on 30 of them and 'No' on the rest. You then
ask all the 100 subjects to pick a piece of paper each.
Those who pick ‘Yes’ are included in the study.
Advantages SRS
• Little knowledge of population is needed.

• Most unbiased of probability methods.

• Easy to analyze data and compute errors.

• Disadvantages SRS
• A complete listing of population is necessary.

• Time consuming.

• Expensive.

• Cumbersome and not the most statistically efficient method

Systematic or Interval Sampling

• This is a modification of simple random sampling,

• The estimated number of elements in the larger

population is divided by the desired sample size,
yielding a sampling interval, n.

• Selection of every nth element from a sampling

frame, where n, the sampling interval, is calculated
as;
n= number in population÷ number in sample
Systematic or Interval Sampling…

• Listing the population elements in an arbitrary

order and selecting every nth case,

• Starting with a randomly selected number between

1 and n.

• The selected study units constitute the sample

Systematic Sampling Techniques Example

• For example, suppose you intend to interview 200 KRCHN in-

service students out of a total of 2000.
• To get the sampling interval you would divide the total number
of students with the desired sample size, that is, 2000/ 200=10.
• Your sampling interval is 10, that is, in a list of 2000 students
you will pick every 10th student.
• The next step is to decide your starting point.
• You may use simple random method to do this by writing the
numbers 1 to 10 on 10 different pieces of paper.
• Ask someone to pick any of the pieces and the number that is
picked will be your starting point.
• If 8 becomes the 1st person, then every 10th person, that is,
18th, 28th, 38th and so on is picked for the study.
Systematic or Interval Sampling…

Advantages
• Easy to draw sample.

• Economical

• Time-saving technique.

Disadvantages.
• Samples may be biased if ordering of population is not
random.
• After the first sampling element is chosen, population
members no longer have equal chance of being chosen.
Stratified Random Sampling:
• Stratification is the process of grouping members of
the population into relatively homogeneous subgroups,
e.g., by education level, gender, race, before sampling.

• When sub-populations vary considerably

(heterogenous), it is advantageous to sample each
subpopulation (stratum) independently.

• the aim of stratified sampling is to enhance

representativeness
Stratified Random Sampling con…

• The strata should be mutually exclusive, that is, every

element in the population must be assigned to only one
stratum.

• The strata should also be collectively exhaustive, that is,

no population element can be excluded.

• Random or systemic sampling is then applied within each

stratum, which improves the representativeness of the
sample by reducing sampling error
Stratified Random Sampling con…

• Is appropriate when the researcher is interested in

issues related to gender, race or age disparities in
the population.

• The goal of this technique is to achieve desired

representation from various groups.
Stratified Random Sampling con…

• Advantages
• Increased probability of sample being representative.
• Assures adequate number of classes for subgroups.

• Disadvantage
• Requires accurate knowledge of population.
• May be costly to prepare stratified lists.
• Statistics are more complicated.
Cluster Sampling method

• Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when 'natural'

groupings are evident in the population

• The total population is divided into these groups (or clusters), and a
sample of the groups is selected.

• The required information is then collected from the elements within

each selected group.

• This may be done for every element in these groups, or a subsample

of elements may be selected within each of these groups.

• there is a successive random sampling of units, usually

Cluster Sampling method ….

• Elements within a cluster should ideally be as

homogeneous as possible.

• However, there should be heterogeneity between

clusters.

• Each cluster should be a small scale version of the total

population.

• The clusters should be mutually exclusive and

collectively exhaustive.
Cluster Sampling method ….

• A random sampling technique is then used on any

relevant clusters to choose which clusters to
include in the study

• Because of the successive stages in cluster

sampling, this approach is often called multistage
sampling
Cluster Sampling method ….

• Advantages
• Saves time and money

• Arrangements made within small number of sampling units

• Characteristic of clusters as well as those of population can be

estimated

• Disadvantages
• Larger sampling errors than other probability samples

• Requires assignment of each member of population uniquely

to a cluster.
• Statistics are more complicated.
Advantages of probability sampling methods

• Results can be generalized

• Allows use of inferential statistics

• Sampling bias is minimized as every member has an

equal chance of being selected

• Large populations can be analyzed

Disadvantages of probability sampling methods

• Non-responsive rate maybe high as the

respondents are unpredictable

• Selection of the first sample member or

preparation of the random table may result in a
bias in the entire sample

• Requires expertise
Non Probability
Sampling
Non Probability Sampling

• Non-probability sampling refers to the selection of

a sample that is not based on known probabilities.

• There is no way of ensuring that every element has

a chance for inclusion in the non probability
sample.

• Less likely than probability sampling to produce

representative samples
Non Probability Sampling…

• Mostly used in qualitative studies because the focus

is on in-depth information and not generalizations
or making inferences

• E.G, it is usually necessary to use non-probability

samples when studying sex workers and their
clients, injecting drug users, gay men and lesbians
Examples of non probability methods

• Convenience/accidental sampling

• Purposive/judgmental

• Snowball/networking

• Quota sampling

• Voluntary sampling

• Expert sampling
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

• is based on the belief that researchers’ knowledge

about the population can be used to hand-pick sample
members.

• The researcher determines/ decides who should be

included in the study or not

• It is, the researcher’s opinion that the sample is

representative of the target population.

• Commonly used in qualitative studies.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling…

• Advantages
• Gives the researcher a free hand to respond
according to their judgment.
• It is very simple to draw
• It is less costly and involves less field work since
those units can be selected which are close to
each other
• often used when researchers want a sample of experts
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling…

• Disadvantages
• Sampling biases, the possibility of unrepresentative
samples
• Lack of generalisations of the study findings.

• It requires from the researcher considerable knowledge

about the population which he usually does not posses
Quota (Proportional) Sampling

• In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into

mutually exclusive sub-groups/strata, just as in stratified
sampling.

• Then judgement is used to select the subjects or units from

each segment based on a specified proportion i.e selection of
the subjects is then done through convenience, purposive or
snowballing

• The researcher tries to match the proportion of subgroups in

the sample as closely as possible to show that every group is
Quota Sampling

• Advantages
• It is less costly

• It is administratively easy

• Disadvantages
• The investigator selects respondents whom he knows

• It is not possible to estimate sampling errors because

quota sampling does not meet the basic requirement of
randomness
Convenience or Accidental
Sampling
• Convenience sampling is also referred to as accidental
or availability sampling.

• involves selecting elements to be in the sample simply

because they are readily available.

• This is the simplest with potentially the least

representativeness of all the sampling strategies.

• It is currently the most frequently used sampling

strategy in nursing studies.
Convenience or Accidental Sampling …

• This type of sampling allows the utilization of any

available target population.

• Sometime called voluntary sampling

• For example, if you need to assess the blood pressure of
females using depo provera who are above 40 years of
age, you will need to check the blood pressure of any
female patient above this age irrespective of her parity
or other characteristics.

• In such circumstances there is no sample

representation.
Convenience or Accidental
Sampling…
• Advantages

• It is the cheapest and simplest

• It does not require a list of population

• It does not require any statistical expertise

• Disadvantages

• It is highly biased

• It is the most reliable sampling method

• The findings cannot be generalized

Snowball/networking/chain sampling

• Participants already in the study are asked to provide

referrals to potential study subjects.

• Initial study subjects are selected using purposive

sampling method .

• Few identified then name others who have the

required characteristics

• Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling

snowball.
Snowball/networking…
• This sampling technique is often used in hidden populations
which are difficult for researchers to access.

• Example populations include drug users and commercial sex

workers.

• Sample members are not selected from a sampling frame,

therefore, snowball samples are subject to numerous biases.

• For example, people who have many friends are more likely
to be recruited into the sample
Snowball/networking…
• Advantages

• It is very useful in studying social groups

• It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames

are readily available

• Disadvantages

• It does not allow use of probability statistical methods

• It is difficult to apply this method when the population is

large
• It does not ensure the inclusion of all elements in the lists
Consecutive Sampling
• Involves recruiting all of the people from an accessible
population who meet the eligibility criteria over a
specific time interval, or for a specified sample size.

• Consecutive sampling is a far better approach than

sampling by convenience, especially if the sampling
period is sufficiently long to deal with potential biases
that reflect seasonal or other time-related fluctuations
Expert sampling

• It is a procedure in which the researcher selects study

participants based on the need to ascertain how experts
in a field would react to or judge the phenomena of
interest for the study.
Advantages of non-probability sampling

• Useful when sampling frame/parameters of the

population is not known

• Doesn’t require any expertise

• Useful when in-depth information is required

• Response rate is high

• Saves time and costs

Disadvantages of non-probability sampling

• The findings cannot be generalized

• Data obtained cannot be used to test hypothesis

• High sampling bias and sampling error.

Summary Sampling techniques
Summary Sampling
techniques…
Summary Sampling
techniques…
Summary Sampling techniques…
Types of Qualitative Sampling

• Convenience Sampling
• Qualitative researchers often begin with a convenience
sample, which is sometimes referred to as a volunteer
sample.
• Volunteer samples are especially likely to be used when
researchers need to have potential participants come
forward and identify themselves
Types of Qualitative
Sampling
• Snowball sampling;
• Asking early informants to make referrals for
other study participants.
• Sometimes referred to as nominated sampling
because it relies on the nominations of others
already in the sample
Purposive Sampling

• A strategy in which researchers deliberately choose

the cases or types of cases that will best contribute
to the information needs of the study
Theoretical Sampling
• Method of sampling that is most often used in grounded
theory studies.

• involves decisions about what data to collect next and

where to find those data to develop an emerging theory
optimally.

• The basic question in theoretical sampling is: “What groups

or subgroups should the researcher turn to next?”.

• Groups are chosen as they are needed for their relevance in

furthering the emerging conceptualization.
Sample Size in Qualitative Research

• Sample size is usually determined based on

informational needs.

• A guiding principle in sampling is data saturation—

that is, sampling to the point at which no new
information is obtained and redundancy is achieved
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• Purpose of the survey: to generalize the findings based

on the sample survey to the population or not. RSM

• Measurability: where research objectives require

statistical inference, sample should be drawn by applying
s.r.s.

• Information about population: where no information

about a population is available, it’s difficult to apply
probability sampling method.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• Nature of the population: variables to be studied. If

the population is homogenous, even s.r.s. will give a
representative sample. If the population is
heterogeneous, stratified sampling is appropriate

• Geographical area of the study & the size of the

population: if the area covered by survey is very
large & the size of population is large, multistage &
cluster sampling may be appropriate
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• Financial resources: if limited, choose a less costly

sampling method like quota sampling

• Time limitation: choose a less time consuming

method like s.r.s. instead of stratified sampling
where time is limited
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• The nature of your research will determine which type of

sampling you should use.
Large-scale exploratory/descriptive studies almost
always use probability sampling techniques.
Intervention studies sometimes use probability sampling
but also frequently use non probability sampling.
Qualitative studies almost always use non-probability
samples
 Difference btwn probability & non-
probability sampling

• The scientific sampling methods offer every member of the

population a chance to be part of the selected sample whereas the
non probability method does not provide for all the members of
the population.
• The non scientific method is prone to contaminating variables, and
the validity of research using them is often questioned.
Other Limitations of
sampling
• Sampling errors; arise when people who are not
part of the sample give different responses

• Sample bias; arise when the sampling frame is not

adequate or precise

• Unavailability of sample frame

 BIAS IN
RESEARCH
 BIAS IN RESEARCH
• Systematic, non-random deviation of results and
inferences from the truth, or processes leading to such
deviation.

• Any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation,

publication or review of data that can lead to conclusions
which are systematically different from the truth.
– (Dictionary of Epidemiology, 3rd Edition)

•Bias can either be conscious or unconscious.

538
 TYPES OF BIAS IN RESEARCH
• There are many types of biases, some studies being particularly
prone to one type or another.

• Two main types:

Selection bias: this occurs when the subjects studied are not
representative of the target population about which conclusions
are to be drawn.
Information bias: results from the different quality of
information and errors in obtaining and classifying information.
539
 TYPES OF SELECTION BIAS
• Migration bias: results from migration of subjects from an exposed status to an
unexposed status during the course of a study.

• Response bias: Those who agree to be in a study may be in some way different
with those who refuse to participate.

 Volunteers may be different from those who are enlisted.

• Membership bias (health worker effect or influencing the direction of the research)

• Prevalence-incidence bias

• Berksonian (admission rate) bias- a type of selection bias arising when both
exposure & the disease under study affect the selection e.g. in facilities/institutions
that are commonly known for a specific task
540
 Types of information bias
• Interviewer bias: An interviewer’s knowledge may influence the
structure of questions and the manner of presentation, which
may influence responses.

• Recall bias: Those with a particular outcome or exposure may

remember events more clearly or amplify their recollections.

• Diagnostic suspicion bias: when potentially exposed subjects are

subjected to more and in-depth diagnostic procedures and tests
(cohort studies?).

541
 Types of information bias cont’d
• Loss to follow-up: Those that are lost to follow-up or who
withdraw from the study may be different from those who are
followed for the entire study.

• Surveillance bias: The group with the known exposure or

outcome may be followed more closely or longer than the
comparison group.

• Observer bias:

• Misclassification bias
542
Data collection methods
and tools
Data collection methods and tools

• Data is anything given or admitted as a fact on

which a research inference will be based.

• Data collection needs to be objective and

systematic to ensure generalizability of the
resulting outcomes to the broader population
Data collection methods and tools…
• It is important to specify:

• What data will be collected – The type of data needed to

answer the research questions or to test the research
hypothesis
• How will data be collected – type of research instruments
needed to gather data.
• Who will collect the data-Training of research assistants for
uniformity, reliability and accuracy of the collected data. Self
administered or researcher administered questionnaires
Data collection methods and tools….

• Where data will be collected – laboratory or natural

settings, any controls

• When will data be collected – the determination

will need to be made of the month, day, and also
how long data collection session will take need to
be determined.
Key Dimensions of Data Collection Methods

• Structure. In structured data collection, the same information is

gathered from all participants in a comparable, prespecified way

• Quantifiability. Data that will be analyzed statistically must be

quantifiable

• Obtrusiveness. researchers level of closeness with the subject of

study and participants awareness of their status as study
participants

• Objectivity. Quantitative researchers objective vs subjective.

The tool reflects
Sources of data

• Entire population
• This is where the subjects earmarked for study
are interviewed directly.
• Data from this population is referred to as
primary/new/novel data.
• It is more accurate and reliable.
Sources of data cont…
• Existing records
• This includes office records such as health institutions
medical records, registers of births and deaths,
government and non-government registers etc.
• Data from this source is referred to as
secondary/existing/accessible data.
• The reliability of secondary data depends entirely on
the original person who collected it.
Data collection methods
• Refers to the mechanism for measuring the variable(s) of interest.

• Data collection method selected depends on:

a) The research questions or hypothesis

b) Design of the study - The nature of the study of the subject

matter

c) Attributes of the subjects i.e. educational level

d) Amount of knowledge available about the variable of

interest - The type and depth of information to be collected

e) Expected results and outcomes- The rate of accuracy and

representative nature of the data required
Data collection method selected depends on:

f) The unit of enquiry: - it may be an individual,

household etc.

g) The size and spread of the sample:- if it is small,

interviewing may be preferable

h) Scale of the survey:- a large scale may require

mailing or interviewing through trained investigators
Data collection method selected depends on:

i) The rate of accuracy and representative nature of

the data required

j) Time factor

k) Availability of funds
Characteristics of data collection methods

1) Structured – collected in a highly structured manner i.e.

same information is collected from all the subjects in a
pre-specified way

2) Quantifiability – data gathered in such a way that they

can be quantified for statistical analysis

3) Obtrusiveness – degree to which subjects are aware of

their subject status. Blinding

4) Objectivity – strive for objectivity rather than

subjectivity
Examples of data collection tools

a) Questionnaires

b) Interviews

c) Observation method

d) Bio-physiological methods

e) Attitude scales
Examples of data collection tools…

a) Preexisting data/records

b) Document analysis (critical incident technique)

c) The Delphi technique

d) Q Methodology

e) Psychological test
QUESTIONNAIRE
S
Questionnaires
• A questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil self-report
instrument containing a set of standardized
questions that respondents are asked to answer in
writing.

• Purpose is to collect a lot of information over a very

short period of time.
Questionnaires….
• Questionnaires can be used to measure knowledge
levels, (opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, feelings,
perceptions,) attributes and behaviour

• A questionnaire can be administered:- In person ,

By mail, Internet

• Can be researcher administered or self-

administered
Principles in development of a questionnaire

• Ensure that tool addresses the research purposes, objectives, goals

and/or questions

• Consider the target population to use the questionnaire so that

administration is easy

• Use simple familiar language without jargon and with correct

grammar

• Consider sequencing of questions from impersonal to personal. Less

sensitive to more sensitive, broad to specific

• Each statement should be short and specific and addressing a single

topic only
Principles in development of a questionnaire cont…

• Use neutral words to avoid leading or embarrassing the

participants

• Group the questions by topic and begin with questions that

stimulate interest.

• In wording of the questions

• State questions in the affirmative rather than a negative manner

• Avoid ambiguous questions - these contain words with more than one
meaning or can be interpreted differently by various people

• Avoid double negative questions - don’t you disagree

• Avoid double barreled questions – ask two questions in one

Types of questions
• Demographic questions gather data on characteristics of the
subject demographic variable/attributes

• Unstructured/Open ended questions – questions that require

the respondents to complete questions in their own words

• Structured/ closed ended questions - most structured type of

questions. Respondents are asked to choose from given
alternatives. The response categories must be exhaustive (all
possible answers are given) and mutually exclusive (no
overlapping).
Types of questions cont…

• Contingency questions – items that are relevant for some

respondents and not others. The determination of whether
respondents should answer certain questions is dependent on
their answers to other questions.

• Matrix questions – questions that share the same set of

response categories. They are common whenever scales are
used.

• Filler questions – questions that the researcher has no interest

but are included in the questionnaire to reduce emphasis on
specific purpose of other questions.
Qualities of an effective questionnaire

• It is simple to understand

• Instructions are clearly given

• Questions are focused and limited to a single idea

• Each item included has a specific response and contributes

to the study

• There are no leading, ambiguous or embarrassing

questions

• There is a balance of questions per topic

Advantages
• Quick and generally inexpensive means of obtaining data

• One of the Easiest to test for reliability and validity

• Administrationislesstimeconsumingthaninterviewsorobservatio
nalmethods

• Data can be obtained from respondents from widespread

geographical areas

• Respondents can remain anonymous

• If anonymity is assured respondents are likely to give more

honest answers
Disadvantages
• Mailing maybe costly

• Response rate may below

• Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers

• Respondents may fail to answer some of the items

• There is no opportunity to clarify items that maybe

misunderstood by respondents

• Respondents must be literate

• Respondents may not be representative of the population

Factors influencing response rate

1. Information in the cover letter

2. Neatness and clarity of the instrument.

3. Time to complete the instrument does not

exceed 20-25 minutes

4. Easy of completion of the instrument.

5. Guarantee of anonymity
Conducting a pre-test or pilot study

• The process of carrying out a preliminary study

going through the entire research procedure with a
small sample

• A small scale rehearsal that proceeds as if it were

the actual study except for the fact that subjects
who will participate in the actual study are not
used.
Conducting a pre-test or pilot study…

• A pre-test usually refers to a small scale trial of a

particular research component.

• pre-testing the tool is the process of measuring the

effectiveness of the instrument used to gather data.
E.G A research tool tested on subjects who meet
the criterion of the study sample.
Purposes/rationale of a pre-test or pilot study:

1) To determine whether the proposed study is feasible

2) Identify any problems with the research design

3) To ensure that items in the data collection instrument are

stated clearly and have the same meaning to all research
respondents

4) To assess the time taken to administer the research

instrument

5) Determine whether the sample is representative of the

population
Purposes/rationale of a pre-test or pilot study:

6.)To determine the effectiveness of the sampling

technique used

7) Give the researcher the real experience in the field

8) Determine the human and financial resources

requirement for the study

9) Determine the effectiveness of the training given to

research assistants where necessary

10) Evaluate the procedure for data processing and analysis

Procedure for conducting a pretest:

• Ask colleagues to review the questions critically- to

identify if the questions are clear and whether they meet

study objectives.

• Pretest the questionnaire on people who are very similar

to your target group

• Simulate the actual data collection procedure. If you will

use assistants, they should also be involved in pretesting

Procedure for conducting a
pretest….
• Obtain feedback about the form and content of the

questionnaire

• Check if questions produce the information needed.

• Try out tabulations and analysis procedure to determine

if the questionnaire yields data that can be analyzed

• Revise the tools.

Using the Pre-Test Findings

• It is important that you, as a researcher, utilise appropriately the lessons

learnt from the pre-test or pilot study. For instance:
• Identify any sensitive or irrelevant items in the instruments and
rectify them.
• If there was any question that the interviewers had to repeat and
explain several times for the respondents, this needs to be rectified.
• Analyse the results of the pre-test or pilot study as it helps to
develop dummy tables.
Difference between 'pilot study' and 'pretesting' in
research methodology

• Most of the times these terms are used interchangeably,

but;

• A PRE-TEST usually refers to a small-scale trial of particular

research components.

• A PILOT STUDY is the process of carrying out a preliminary

study, going through the entire research procedure with a
small sample
INTERVIEWS
Interviews
• This is a data collection method that involves
questioning of respondents either individually or as a
group.

• The interviewer obtains responses from a subject in a

face-to–face encounter or through a telephone call.

• An interview schedule is a form with predesigned

questions to be asked by the interviewer and as he
gets answers, he fills them in or completes.
Interviews….
• The source of the information is referred to as the
interviewee and the data collector is an interviewer.

• The foremost variation with the questionnaire

method is the presence of the interviewer.

• Questions in the interview schedule are generally

open ended and responses are documented in
thorough and detailed notes or transcription.
Types of interviews
• Structured interviews;
• This involves asking a set of questions in the same order and in the same
manner to all the respondents in a study

• The main purpose of this method is to produce data that can be

compared across respondents

• Unstructured interview;
• The interviewer is given a great deal of freedom to direct the course of
the interview.

• They are conducted like a normal conversation and topics are pursued at
the discretion of the interviewer.

• These are appropriate for exploratory or qualitative research studies.

Types of interviews…
Semi structured
• An interviewer is required to ask a certain number of specific
questions, but additional probes are allowed or even
encouraged.
• Open and closed ended questions are included in a semi
structured interview.
• In this interview data collected can be compared across all
respondents.
• Additionally individualized data may be gathered that will provide
depth and richness
Types of interviews…
• Respondents’ answers may be entered directly on
the interview schedule or recorded on audiotapes
or videotapes.

• Tape recording is advantageous because:

• Eye contact can be established between the interviewer
and interviewee
• Total process can be captured
Disadvantages of tape recordings
• The entire tape has to be played and transcribed
during data analysis

• Respondents may be reluctant to give permission to

be taped

• Written permission will be required and permission

form should indicate how the information will be
used and how confidentiality will be maintained
Forms of interview
a) Key informant interview

• This involves an interview between the interviewer and a person

who is considered more knowledgeable/ experts in an area of
study.

• Therefore, it relies on opinions of an individual subject or

respondent.

• Key informants should be interviewed individually and not as a

group.

• Information collected from key informants is used to validate data

that has been gathered using other methods such as focused group
discussions.
Forms of interview…
b) Focused group discussion

• This represents coordination of an interview with 5-15

homogenous individuals who are led in the discussion of a
selected topic.

• opinions and experiences are solicited simultaneously

• Each session tends to last 1-3 hours.

• To facilitate collection of data, each session is videotaped or

audio taped for analysis at a later time.

• The researcher acts as a moderator.

Forms of interview…
• The role of the moderator includes:
• Encouraging all participants to participate in the
discussion.
• Stimulate discussion between participants
• Guide the group from one discussion topic to another
• Remain neutral and refrain from expressing personal
opinion on a subject
• Retain control over the discussion
Interview guidelines
• Before the interview:-
• The interviewer should do self-introduction, explain the
purpose of the study
• Potential subjects should be told why they were chosen
and how the information will be used
• The person should be told of how long the interview will
take
Interview guidelines…

• During the interview:-

• Ensure a comfortable interview atmosphere

• Subjects should be seated in a comfortable position or lying down

• Control unnecessary noise as much as possible

• Use language easily understood by the respondents and talk in a

conversation tone.
• Inform respondents that there is no right or wrong answers and no
pressure should be applied to answer.
• Sensitive questions should be asked at the end of the interview-
rapport is fully established
Interview guidelines…

• After the interview:-

• Ask if the respondents have any questions
• Further explanations of the study may be done
• Thank the respondents
• Indicate how the respondents may obtain
results of the study.
Advantages
• Responses can be obtained from a wide range of subjects

• Response rate is high

• Most of the data obtained is usable

• In-depth responses can be obtained

• Nonverbal behavior and verbal mannerisms can be observed

• Data collected is quantifiable

• Allows collection of data without the requirement that the

respondent can read and write
Disadvantages
• Interviews are time consuming and expensive

• Subjects may provide socially acceptable answers

• Subjects may be influenced by interviewer’s characteristics

• Interviewers may misinterpret nonverbal behavior

• Researcher may miss out on some important points that are

not included in the questions formulated

• Analysis of data collected is time consuming

• Subjects may be anxious because answers are being recorded.

OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation method
• This is a method of collecting descriptive, behavioral data.

• It is concerned with collection of data through visual observation.

• The research question or hypothesis should determine the behavior

to be observed

• It is important to have more than one observer to increase reliability.

• The training of the observers is probably the most crucial phase of

the observation research to increase interrater reliability - the
degree to which two or more observers assign the same score/rating
to an observation.
Characteristic of observation as a scientific method

• There should be a limited amount of information to

be collected.

• The data should be recorded systematically and

analyzed over a period of time.

• The data should be congruent with the aims.

• The observation session must be planned.

• The observation and analysis must be objective.

Types of observation
1) Structured/controlled;
• A predetermined observation checklist/guide is prepared and the
observer observes and records only those behaviors.
• This is used when the researcher has prior knowledge of the
phenomenon of interest.

2) Unstructured/controlled
• The observer attempts to describe the behaviors as they occur with
no preconceived ideas of what will be seen.
• The observer observes everything and anything

• Frequently, a combination of structured and unstructured

observations is used.
Levels of observation
i. Complete participant
• The observer takes the role of member within the sample.

• The data is collected via covert/hidden/undercover process.

• Members of the group are not informed about the data collection
process

ii . Participant-as-observer

• Observer continues to work from within the group but does collect
the data through an overt/informed process;

• The members of the group are aware that the observer is taking on
the dual roles of member of the group and spectator.
Levels of observation….
iii. Observer –as-participant
• The observer does work from within the group but
spends more time in the role of spectator instead of
member of the group.
• Data is obtained through overt manner

iv. Complete observer

• The observer is totally in the role of complete spectator.

• Covert observations are used to collect the data.

Levels of observation….
• v. Direct observation:- observation of the event
personally by the observer when it takes place

• vi. Indirect observation:- it does not involve the

physical presence of the observer, and the
recording is done by mechanical, photographic or
electronic devices
Advantages
• Provides highly detailed information from an
external perspective of what usually occurs

• Can be used by any individual regardless of

educational preparation

• Relatively cheap

• Important technique for human behavior.

Advantages…
• Subjects are usually available

• Is most open to using recording devices such as

video

• Observation can begin and stop at any time

• Instrument is quite simple to develop compared

with the questionnaire
Disadvantages
• Time consuming

• Labor intensive

• Expensive

• Bias may compromise the integrity of the study

Disadvantages…
• Presence of an observer creates an artificial
situation

• Extensive training is necessary if more than one

observer is used to collect data.

• Events that occur rapidly or suddenly may be

missed
Non Participatory Structured Observation

• It is observing a given situation from the outside.

• The observer declares their intention to observe and goes ahead to watch
the activities being carried out without asking questions or interfering in
any way.

• As the activities to be observed progress, the obse- rver remains in the

background, keenly observing and noting down events without comment.

• It provides the in-depth and variety of information.

• The observers are used as measuring instruments and provide a uniquely

sensitive and intelligent tool.
Advantages

1. Allows one to directly see what people do

without having to rely on what they say they do.

2. Provides firsthand experience, especially if the

observer participates in activities.

3. Can provide relatively objective measurement of

behavior (especially for standardized
observations).

4. Observer can determine what does not occur.

Advantages…

5. Observer may see things that escape the awareness of

people in the setting.

6. Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting.

7. Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills.

8. May provide information on things people would

otherwise be unwilling to talk about.

9. Good for description.

Disadvantages

1. Reasons for observed behavior may be unclear.

2. Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are

being observed (e.g., people being observed may behave in
atypical ways).

3. Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective perception

of observers)

4. Sampling of observed people and settings may be limited.

5. Cannot observe large or dispersed populations.

Disadvantages…

6. Some settings and content of interest cannot be

observed.

7. Collection of unimportant material may be

moderately high.

8. More expensive to conduct than questionnaires and

tests.

9. Data analysis can be time consuming

Factors that interfere with objective observations

• Emotions, attitudes and values of observers may result

in faulty inference

• Personal interest and commitment may color what is

seen in the direction of what observers want to see.

• Anticipation of what is to be observed may affect what

is observed.

• Hasty decision before adequate information is

collected may result in erroneous classification
Types of observational bias by the
observer.
• Enhancement of contrast effect:- the observers
distorts observations in the direction of dividing
content into entities

• Central tendency:- occurs when extreme events are

distorted toward a middle ground

• Assimilatory: - occurs when the observer distort

observations in the direction of identity with
previous input.
Types of observational bias by the observer.

• Halo effect: - is the tendency of observers to be

influenced by the characteristic in judging other
unrelated characteristic

• Error of leniency: - is the tendency for observers to

rate everything positively.

• Error of severity: - is the constructing tendency to

rate harshly
Bio-physiological
methods
Bio-physiological
methods
• This involves the collection of physical data from the
subjects.

• These types of data are generally more objective and

accurate than many of the other data collection
methods.

• This method necessitates the use of specialized

equipment to establish the physical and/ or biological
condition of the subjects.
Bio-physiological methods
• Types of physiological measures

1) In vivo
• This requires the use of some apparatus to evaluate one or more
attributes of a participant within or on the body E.g. Height,
weight, BP

2) In vitro
• This requires the extraction of physiological materials from the
participants then doing laboratory analysis;RBS, HB
• This type of data collection process is frequently used with
experimental and quasi experimental designs
Advantages
• Very objective

• Precise and accurate

• Disadvantages

• May be expensive

• Time consuming

• Lack of willingness of the accessible population to participate in the

study
• Special expertise may be necessary to use some of the devices

• Presence of certain data collection instruments may adversely

influence the subjects
ATTITUDE SCALES
Attitude scales
• These are self-report data collection instruments that ask the
respondents to report their attitudes or feelings on a
continuum.

• They are composed of a number of related items and

respondents are given a score, then the item responses are
totaled.

• Commonly used rating scales are:

• Likert scale

• Semantic differential
Likert scale (summated rating scale)

• A type of composite measure of attributes that

involves summation of scores on a set of items
(statements) to which respondents are asked to
indicate their degree of agreement or
disagreement.

• The scale consists of several declarative statements

that express a viewpoint on a topic.
Likert scale (summated rating scale)…

• The person’s attitude is generally rated on a 5 point scale

where:

• 1-strongly disagree

• 2- Disagree

• 3-undecided

• 4-agree

• 5-stronglyagree

• High scores indicate a favorable attitude

Semantic differential
• This consists of a particular object, situation or event which
people then rate on a series of bipolar adjectives such as
good-bad, fast-slow, weak-strong.

• The adjectives used are those that reflect:

• Evaluation–good-bad, helpful-unhelpful, flexible-

inflexible.
• Perceived strength or potency - strong weak

• Activity - fast –slow

Preexisting data/records
Preexisting data/records
• This involves the use of information that has not
been collected for research purposes.

• This may involve use of patient charts, records from

agencies such as hospitals, letters, diaries, Family
pictures etc.

• The researcher has to explain what pieces of the

primary data will be used in the reassessment of the
information
Advantages
• Records are readily available hence data can be
collected without any intrusion into peoples’ lives

• Saves time

• Allows for reevaluation of alternative conclusions

• Researcher can identify trends because the entirety

of the incident can be manipulated

• Less expensive
Disadvantages
• Data source is restricted since only the data that was initially
amassed can be used

• Potential for data to be outdated

• Restriction on accessing certain documents such as those

controlled to protect individual privacy

• Original sampling, inclusion and exclusion criteria could

negatively affect secondary assessment of archived data

• Lack of open ended or qualitative data related to the

question
Document analysis (critical
incident technique)
Document analysis (critical incident
technique)

• This is the critical examination of public or private

recorded information related to the issue under
investigation.

• It enables the researcher to access data at his

convenient time hence saving time & money in
transcribing.
The Delphi
technique
The Delphi technique
• It’s a device for tapping the ideas of a
knowledgeable group of people by mail survey.

• The purpose is usually to arrive at a consensus of

opinion or an important subject for the purpose of
predicting the future, developing program planning
or for project evaluation.
Steps in Delphi
technique
i) Selecting a representative panel that agrees to participate in the
survey. These are contacted personally or by mail to explain about the
survey & request their participation.

ii) Get opinion on the panel members of the subject under study. They
are requested to list a specified number of ideas or opinions.

iii)These opinions are then combined & returned to the panel members
who are asked to select a specified number of the most important
ones.

iv) Later the opinions may be further reduced to limited number of the
most important.
Steps in Delphi
technique
• This technique provides a way of obtaining opinions
of a large group of experts & obtaining consensus
upon them without face to face contact.

• It preserves anonymity, provides controlled

feedback & control group consensus.
Q Methodology
Q Methodology
• It is also called Q-SORT is a means of obtaining data
in which subjects sort statements into categories
according to their attitudes towards, or rating, of
the statements.

• Subjects are presented with a number of words or

statements that are written on cards or pieces
Psychological
test
Psychological test
• These are method used to assess the personality characteristic of
people.

• The most commonly methods are:-

a). Personality inventories: -

• are self – report measures used to assess the differences in personality

traits, needs, or values.

• They seek information about a person by asking questions or requesting

response to statements that are presented.

• They are grouped as norm or average and then scores are awarded.
Psychological test…
b). Projective technique: -

• A subject is presented with stimuli that are designed to be

ambiguous or to have no definite meaning.

• Then the person is asked to describe the stimuli or tell what they
appear to represent.

• The responses reflect the internal feelings of the subjects that are
projected onto external stimuli.

• It is the best method of collecting physiological data.

• They prevent subjects from providing socially acceptable responses

to questions.
The approach of collecting data

1. When approaching a new interviewee or

household do self-introduction & show your
identification.

2. Explain carefully why you have come & the

purpose of the survey.

3. If explanations are understood seek permission to

start interviewing.
The approach of collecting data…

4. Establish rapport during the interview ( by good

listening, observing non-verbal communication &
being sensitive to others feelings)

5. Fill all the responses at the time they are given.

6. Keep forms or carry them in a file or folder. Use

pencil to fill the forms.
The approach of collecting data…

6. Keep forms or carry them in a file or folder. Use pencil to

fill the forms.

7. Any measuring instrument should be carried in a pack or

case for convenience.

8. Make a daily check on the condition of the equipment to

ensure it’s kept clean & in good working order.

9. Before you leave the individual recheck all the forms to

verify that all the responses have been filled in. All lab work
specimens should be numbered properly.
The approach of collecting data…

• 10.At the end of each day all forms that have been
filled should be checked by somebody else. Any
data missing can be filled the next day by returning
to the appropriate person & complete or collect the
information.

• 11.After checking the forms tallying the results can

be done each day.
Qualities of Data Collection
Instruments
Qualities of Data Collection Instruments

• These are validity and reliability.

• Validity is the ability of the data collection

instrument to measure what it is meant to
measure.

• Validity refers to the degree to which a study

accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept
that the researcher is attempting to measure.
Qualities of Data Collection Instruments…

• Types include face, content, criterion related and

concurrent validity.

• Reliability is the ability of the instrument to give the

same or similar results with repeated use.

• While reliability is concerned with the accuracy of the

actual measuring instrument or procedure, validity is
concerned with the study's success at measuring what
the researchers set out to measure.
Qualities of Data Collection Instruments…

• The reliability could be established using different

correlation methods like split half, test retest,
Cronbach’s Alpha etc.

• These qualities are checked through the pilot study

of the instrument before the full data collection is
undertaken.
Types of validity
• External validity refers to the extent to which the
results of a study are generalizable or transferable.

• Internal validity refers to

• (1) the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the
study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and
decisions concerning what was and wasn't measured) and
• (2) the extent to which the designers of a study have taken
into account alternative explanations for any causal
relationships they explore
Types of Validity…
• Face validity – It is a method of deciding on the ability of the
instrument to do what it should based on the face value. It is
subjective.

• Content validity – It refers to the comprehensiveness of the

instrument, the ability of the measuring instrument to cover
all the relevant areas, and is usually determined by expert
opinion.

• Is the adequacy of the sampling of the domain being studied.

Types of Validity…
• Concurrent validity – It shows how valid an instrument is by
comparing it with an already valid instrument. compares an
instrument ability to obtain a measurement of subject’s behavior that
is comparable to some other criterion of that behavior.

• Predictive validity– This implies the ability of the measure to predict

expected outcomes. Correlation is used to compute this and the
higher the correlation, the more evident the predictive validity.

• Criterion validity: Represents the relationship between one measure

& another measure of the same phenomena.e.g. subject
performance on measurement tool & the subjects actual behavoiur.
Types of Validity…
• Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with
whether the conclusions about relationships drawn
from statistical analysis are an accurate reflection of
real world.

• Construct validity examines the fit between the

conceptual(dictionary) and operational
(researcher’s) definitions of variables.
Reliability
• Is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any
measuring procedure yields the same result on repeated
trials.

• Reliability is concerned with consistency, accuracy,

precision, stability, equivalence & homogeneity.
• Stability- produces the same results with repeated testing.

• Homogeniety- all the items in a tool measure the same

characteristic.
• Equivalence- same results with parallel instruments.
Types of reliability…
• Inter rater or inter – observer reliability,

• Test – retest/Stability Reliability

• Parallel forms/ Equivalency

• Internal consistency reliability.

Types of Reliability…
• Inter rater or inter observer reliability
• This estimation is used to assess the degree to which different
raters/observers give consistent estimates of the same event.
• For example in observing a student perform a task in the
clinical setting, two observers using a checklist may rate the
student.
• At the end the ratings of the two observers could be
correlated to give an estimate of the reliability or consistency
between the two raters
Types of Reliability…
• Test retest/ stability reliability
• This is used to assess the consistency of a measure from one time to
another. Consistency over time

• The same test could be administered to the same sample on two

different occasions.

• It is assumed that there is no substantial change in what is being

measured in the two occasions.

• The interval between the two tests matters and the shorter the gap,
the higher the correlation.

• Different estimates may therefore be obtained depending on the

interval.
Types of Reliability…
• Parallel form/ equivalence reliability
• It is used to assess the consistency of results of two tests
constructed in the same way from the same areas.

• The researcher constructs large number of test items

from for example human biology course, Respiratory
system, and randomly divides them into two equal halves.

• Both tests are administered to the same group, and the

scores correlated to estimate the reliability.
Types of Reliability …
• Internal consistency/ scale homogeneity reliability
• It is used to assess the consistency of results across
items within a test.
• A single measurement is used to estimate how the items
yield similar results.
• The most commonly used is the split half method,
where the total items are divided into two sets.
Types of Reliability…
• The entire instrument is then administered to a group of
people, and the total score for each randomly divided half is
calculated.

• The split half reliability will be the correlation between the total
scores.

• This is often called the odd-even method due to the way the
split is made for the two halves

• Another measure to assess internal consistency is the

Cronbach’s Alpha or Coefficient Alpha.
Relationship between Validity and Reliability

• The validity and reliability indices of measuring

instruments in research give credibility to the research.

• An instrument that is valid most often is reliable, but an

instrument may be reliable without being valid.

• It is therefore very important that researchers pay

attention to these qualities to ensure that the data
collected in research is not only adequate, but useful and
amenable to data analysis procedures.
Criteria for selecting a data collection
instrument
1) Practicability

• This concerns its cost and appropriateness for the study

population in terms of ;
• The length of time required to administer the tool,

• Physical/mental stamina required to complete the tool,

• Special motor/physical skills required of the subjects,

• Special training required to administer or score the

instrument etc.
Criteria for selecting a data collection instrument….

2) Reliability

• This refers to the consistency, stability and repeatability of a

data collection instrument.

• A reliable instrument does not respond to chance factors or

environmental conditions; it will have consistent results if
repeated overtime on the same person or if used by two
different investigators on the same subject.

• In general, the more items the instrument has the greater is

the reliability.
Criteria for selecting a data collection instrument….

3) Validity

• This refers to the ability of the tool to gather data that it is

intended to gather.

• The content of the tool is of prime importance in validity

testing.

• The greater the validity of an instrument, the more

confidence you can have that the tool will obtain data that
will answer the research questions or test the research
hypotheses.
Types of errors in validity and reliability

• Random errors:-are found in validity which means that they are

unsystematic in the nature and are a result of s transient state in
the subject, in the context of the study or in the administration of
the instrument. Unpredictable. Can be observational or
environmental

• Systematic errors/ construct error: - occurs in reliability, it is

measurement error that is attributable to relatively stable
characteristic of the study, population that may bias that
behavior and / or cause incorrect instrument calibration.
predictable
Sources of error in data collection

• Instrument inadequacies.

• Instrument administration bias.

• Environmental variation during data collection.

• Temporary subject characteristics during data

collection
DATA COLLECTION
PROCESS
Data collection process
• Data collection refers to the process of gathering information to serve
or prove some facts.

• This will determine the findings of the entire research study.

• Purpose of data collection

• To stimulate new ideas because data collection helps in identifying areas

related to the research topic that need improvement or further evaluation

• To highlight a situation and there4 create awareness and improvement

• To influence legislative policies or regulations

• To provide justification for an existing programme or need for a new

programme

• It is the only reliable way to evaluate the responsiveness and effectiveness of

the study
Data collection plan
• Before beginning data collection process, a plan should be
drawn up.

• This will ensure that:

• One has a clear overview of what tasks have to be carried

out, who should perform them and the duration of the tasks
• Human and material resources for data collection can be
organized in the most efficient way
• Problems that will require modifications to the proposal are
identified.
Steps in developing a plan
1) List the tasks that have to be carried out and who will
be involved

2) Make a rough estimate of the time needed for different

parts of the study.

3) Identify the most appropriate period in which to carry

out the research

4)Schedule the different activities that have to be carried

out each week in a plan.
Factors consider when planning for data
collection
• In developing a plan the following factors should be
considered:
• Type of data to be collected and demands of the
project
• Availability of research team members and research
assistants
• Appropriate season(s) to conduct the field work
• Accessibility and availability of the sample population
• Public holidays and vacation periods.
Stages of data collection

1. Permission to proceed

• Consent must be gotten from relevant authorities, individuals and the

community in which the study is to be carried out.

• This may involve organizing meetings at

National/County/Sub-county/Institutional and at the village level.

2. Data collection

• When collecting data it is important to consider the logistics.

• Identify who will collect what, when and with what resources.

• When allocating tasks for data collection, it is important that tasks should
be listed, then identify who can best implement each task.
Stages of data collection…

• Where research assistants have to be used:

• They should be from the same educational level

• They should be knowledgeable concerning the topic and

local conditions but not object of the study themselves
• They should be adequately trained

• Ongoing supervision should be arranged especially if the

area to be covered is large.
Stages of data collection…

• It is important to devise methods to ensure data quality by:

• Requiring interviewers to check whether the questionnaire is

filled before finishing each interview.

• Asking supervisors to check at the end of each day whether the

questionnaires are filled completely and whether recorded

information makes sense

• Having the researchers review the data during the data analysis

stage to check whether data are complete and consistent.

Stages of data collection…

• 3. Data handling

• Once data has been collected, a clear procedure should be developed for handling

and storing them.

• During this stage:

• a) Check that all the data are uniform, complete and accurate

• b) At some stage number the questionnaires either at the time of data collection

or when questionnaires are stored

• c) Identify the person responsible for storing data and the place where it will be

stored

• d) Decide how data should be stored either:

• Paper storage - where coded data is written on paper before analysis

• Electronic storage - using a computer.

Sources of error in Data Collection
• i) Instrument inadequacies. This is concerned with the
items used to collect data and the instructions to the
subjects that are contained in the instrument.

• ii ) Instrument administration biases. This may occur if the

instrument is not administered in the same fashion to all
subjects.

• iii ) Environmental variations during data collection

• iv) Temporary characteristics of the subjects during data

collection such as levels of anxiety, tiredness, influencing
MEASUREMENT
Measurement
• Quantitative studies derive data through the

measurement of variables

• Measurement involves rules for assigning numbers

to qualities of objects to designate the quantity of

the attribute.

• Attributes do not inherently have numeric values;

humans invent rules to measure attributes

Measurement
• Attributes are not constant; they vary from day to
day, from situation to situation, or from one person
to another.

• This variability is capable of a numeric expression

that signifies how much of an attribute is present.
Measurement
• Measurement requires numbers to be assigned to
objects according to rules.

• Rules for measuring temperature, weight, and

other physical attributes are familiar to us.

• Rules for measuring many variables for nursing

studies, however, have to be created.
The Importance of Measurement in Research

• The variables in research may not be directly

observable, like satisfaction, motivation, self
esteem etc; necessary to assign numbers that
would enable the researcher to decide on that
variable
The Importance of Measurement in Research

• Knowledge of measurement enables the

researcher;
• i. decide how to interpret the data from that
variable
• ii. decide what statistical analysis is appropriate
on the values that were assigned
Advantages of Measurement

• Removes guesswork and ambiguity in gathering and

communicating information; is a language of communication.
Numbers are less vague than words and can thus
communicate information more clearly

• Because measurement is based on explicit rules, resulting

information tends to be objective, that is, it can be
independently verified

• Measurement also makes it possible to obtain reasonably

precise information. 2M, instead of tall
Levels/classes of Measurement

• The statistical operations available to researchers

depend on a variable’s level of measurement.

• There are typically four levels/classes of measurement

that are defined.
• Nominal

• Ordinal

• Interval

• Ratio
Levels of Measurement

• There is a hierarchy implied in the level of measurement

idea.

• At lower levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be

less restrictive and data analysis is less sensitive.

• At each level up the hierarchy, the current level includes all

of the qualities of the one below it and adds something new.

• It is desirable to have a higher level of measurement than a

lower one.
Levels of Measurement

• Nominal level – It is the weakest/lowest level, and the attributes are

only named/categorized. involves using numbers simply to categorize
attributes.

• There is no ordering of the cases implied. Example gender, residence,

race, marital status, ethnicity

• The numbers used in nominal measurement do not have quantitative

meaning.

• If we coded males as 1 and females as 2, the numbers would not have

quantitative implications—the number 2 does not mean “more than” 1
Levels of Measurement

• Ordinal level – The attributes can be ordered

according to rank, on top of being categorized.

• The distances between the attributes however do

not have any meaning.

• Numerals are used to represent relative position or

order among the values of the variables
Levels of Measurement

• For example, one could assign 0 in educational

attainment to someone who has none, 1 to one with
primary education, 2, to one with secondary, 3, to
another with tertiary education, and so on and so forth.

• In this measure, higher numbers mean more education,

but the interval between values cannot be interpreted,
and the distance between them is not the same.
Levels of Measurement

Interval level –

• The numerals are assigned to each measure and ranked in

an order and the intervals between the numerals are equal.

• Mathematical operations are limited to additions and

deductions; multiplication and division are not applicable.

• An interval scale does not have a true zero point.

• The minimum and maximum points of the scale are only

arbitrary
Levels of Measurement…

• Interval scale….
• For example, when we measure temperature in
centigrade, the distance between 37.4 and 38.4 is the
same as from 36.4 – 37.4.
• It is possible to compute an average of an interval
variable, but it is not possible to do so with ordinal
variable
• IQ tests
Levels of Measurement …

• Ratio level – The ratio level of measurement is the

strongest/highest, and has an absolute/ true zero that is very
meaningful.

• It is the most precise method of measuring variables.

• It has all the characteristics of the other scales.

• The only additional characteristic is that it has a true zero

point and all the mathematical operations can be applied to
yield meaningful values.
Levels of Measurement …

• Most physical objects can be measured at the ratio scale.

E.g. height, weight, distance, age, area,
• it is possible to construct a meaningful fraction (or ratio) with a

ratio variable. Weight is a ratio variable.

• Count variables are ratio, like the number of patients seen in a

clinic in the past five months.

• There may have been zero patients or twice as many patients in

the past five months than was the case in the previous five
months.
. Errors of Measurement

• Obtained score =True score +_Error

• The obtained (or observed) score could be, for example, a

patient’s heart rate or score on an anxiety scale.

• The true score is the true value that would be obtained if it

were possible to have an infallible measure.

• The true score is hypothetical—it can never be known

because measures are not infallible
Sources of error in
measurement
• Situational contaminants. Scores can be affected by
the conditions under which they are produced. For
example, environmental factors (e.g., temperature,
lighting, time of day) can be sources of measurement
error

• Response-set biases. Relatively enduring

characteristics of respondents can interfere with
accurate measurements
Sources of error in measurement

• Transitory personal factors. Temporary states, such as

fatigue, hunger, or mood, can influence people’s motivation
or ability to cooperate, act naturally, or do their best.

• Item sampling. Errors can be introduced as a result of the

sampling of items used to measure an attribute. For
example, a student’s score on a 100-item test of research
methods will be influenced somewhat by which 100
questions are included
Sources of error in
measurement
• Administration variations. Alterations in the
methods of collecting data from one person to the
next can affect obtained scores. For example, if
some physiologic measures are taken before a
feeding and others are taken after a feeding, then
measurement errors can potentially occur.
DATA ANALYSIS AND
PRESENTATION
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

• Data analysis;
• This is the process of examining what has been
collected in a survey or experiment and making
deductions and inferences.
• Deals with the organization, interpretation &
presentation of collected data.
Data processing
• Refers to the transfer of quantified data on computer storage to
facilitate electronic computation of data.

• Once data has been entered, the choice of statistical procedure

will depend on:
• Proposed hypothesis and objectives- for exploratory study,
descriptive analysis is adequate. If hypothesis will be tested,
inferential statistics will be used.
• Research design- experimental design which comprises of
various groups calls for analysis of variance
• Type of measurement scale used
Types of analysis
a) Quantitative analysis

• Steps

i) Data organization

• This is done immediately the tools have been received from the field.

• All the tools are checked for accuracy, completeness and uniformity.

• Those that are incomplete or do not make sense are left out.

• A record of the decision should be kept.

• A unique identifier such as a serial number is assigned to the remaining

questionnaires.

• The data is then entered manually or by computer.

Quantitative analysis …

• STEPS cont…

• ii) Coding

• This is the process of assigning numerals or other symbols

to answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories or classes.

• The classes should be appropriate to the research problem

under consideration.

• The coding process starts with the preparation of a code

book
Quantitative analysis …

• STEPS cont…

• iii) Classification/categorization
• This is grouping of related facts into classes according to some
predetermined characteristics.
• Data classification is important because:

• It facilitates comparison

• It gives prominence - top the important information gathered

while dropping out unnecessary elements
• It enables statistical treatment of materials collected

• It pinpoints the most significant features of data at a glance

Quantitative analysis …

• Steps cont..

• v) Tabulation

• This is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form.

• Tabulation is essential because:

• It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statements to
minimum
• It facilitates process of comparison

• It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions

• It provides a basis for various statistical comparisons. It involves calculation of

mean, median mode etc.
Quantitative analysis …

• Steps cont…

• v) Interpretation

• This is the process of attaching meaning to data.

• It is here that inferential deductions are made from the data from
which it would help in testing the hypothesis and thus solving the
research problem.

• It is done within the frame of reference of the research problem and

hypothesis.

• Interpretation requires careful judgments because often the same data

can be interpreted in different ways.
Quantitative analysis …

• Some of the techniques for interpreting data

include:
• Extending the analysis by raising questions
• Connect findings to personal experiences
• Seek the advice of critical friends, colleagues
• Contextualize findings in the research
• Turn to theory
Common errors in quantitative analysis:-

• Use of incorrect denominator when calculating the

percentages

• Averaging percentages

• Using a single average that distorts misrepresents

the range of information
b) Qualitative analysis
• Qualitative data consists of words and observations
rather than numbers.

• Analysis and interpretation of narrative data is

often referred to as content analysis.
Sources of narrative data for analysis:

• Open ended questions and written comments on questionnaires

• Testimonials; in person or in written correspondence.

• Individual interviews; summary of the individual’s interview or

word-for-word transcripts

• Discussion groups or focus group interviews; transcripts and

notes from a moderator or observer.

• Logs , journals and diaries might provide structured entries or

free flowing text that you or others produce
Sources of narrative data for analysis…

• Observations recorded in filled notes as a result of

watching and listening

• Documents , reports and news articles or any published

written material may serve as evaluation data

• Stories may provide data from personal accounts of

experiences and results of programs in people’s own
words

• Case studies typically include several of the above.

Steps in qualitative data analysis
• Steps 1; Get to know your data

• This means you read and re-read the text.

• If you have tape records, you listen to them several times and
transcribe data.

• Write down any impressions you have as you go through the

data.

• Check the quality of the data.

• Is it complete and understandable?

• Is it likely to add meaning and value?

• Was it collected in an unbiased way?

Steps in qualitative data analysis…

• Step 2; Focus the analysis

• Review the purpose of the evaluation and what you

wanted to find out.

• Based on your ‘getting to know your data, think

about a few questions that you want your analysis
to answer and write them down.
Steps in qualitative data analysis…

• You might focus your analysis by:

• i) Question, topic, time, period or event.

• In this approach you look at how all individuals or
groups responded to each question or topic or for a
given period or event.
• You organize data by question to look across all
respondents and their answers in order to identify
consistencies and differences
Steps in qualitative data analysis…

• Step 2; Focus analysis cont…

• ii ) Case, individual or group

• You may want an overall picture of:

• One case such as one family, or one agency

• One individual such as a teen participant in the program

• One group such as all teens 13-19 yrs.

• Rather than grouping these respondents’ answers by question or topic,

you organize data from or about the case, individual or group and
analyze it as whole.

• You may want to combine the two approaches and analyze the data by
Steps in qualitative data analysis…
• STEP 3: Categorize information

• This is sometimes referred to coding or indexing the data.

• However, categorizing doesn’t involve assigning numerical codes as you do in quantitative

analysis.

• To bring meaning to the words:

• i) Identify themes or patterns- ideas, concepts, behaviors, interactions, phrases used etc.

• ii ) Organize them into coherent categories that summarize and bring meaning to the text.

• This involves reading and re-reading the text and identifying coherent categories. You may

want to assign abbreviated codes of a few letters, words or symbols and place them next

to the themes and ideas you find.

Ways of categorizing narrative data

i) Using preset categories

• You start with a list of themes or categories in advance
and then search the data for these topics
• These themes provide direction for what you look for in
the data.
• You identify the themes before you categorize the data
and search for data for text that matches the themes.
Ways of categorizing
narrative data
• ii) Using Emergent categories

• You read through the text and find the themes or issues that
recur in the data.

• These become your categories.

• They may be ideas or concepts you had not thought about.

• Sometimes you may combine these two approaches by

starting with some preset categories and adding others as they
become apparent.
Steps in qualitative data analysis…
4) Identify patterns

• Once you have identified the categories, you might:

• Sort and assemble all data by theme. It is important to capture

the similarities and differences in peoples’ responses within a
category. It is helpful to write a summary for each category that
describes these points.

• Sort and assemble data into larger categories- you may want to
create larger super categories that combine several categories.

• You can work from more specific categories to larger ideas and
concepts then see how the parts relate to the whole
Steps in qualitative data analysis…

• Count the number of times certain themes arise to show

relative importance (not suitable for statistical analysis)

• Show relationships among categories.

• You may also discover that two or more themes occur

together consistently in the data.

• Whenever you find one, you find the other.

• You may decide that some of these connections suggest a

cause and effect relationship or create a sequence through
time
5 Interpretation
• Use your themes and connections to explain your
findings-attaching meaning and significance to the
analysis.

• Start by developing a list of key point or important

findings you discovered as a result of categorizing
and sorting your data.
Typical errors in qualitative data analysis

• Listing all narrative comments without doing any

analysis

• Including information that makes it possible to

identify the respondents

• Generalizing from comments to the whole group.

• Using quotes to provide positive spin.

Statistics used in data
Analysis
Quantitative statistics
• Without statistics, quantitative data would be a chaotic mass
of numbers.

• Statistical procedures enable researchers to organize,

summarize, interpret, and communicate numeric information.

• Statistics are either descriptive or inferential.

• Descriptive statistics are used to synthesize and describe data.

• Averages and percentages are examples of descriptive

statistics.
Quantitative statistics …..

• When such indexes are calculated on data from a

population, they are called parameters.

• A descriptive index from a sample is a statistic.

• Most scientific questions are about parameters;

researchers calculate statistics to estimate them
and use inferential statistics to make inferences
about the population
a) Descriptive statistics

• Are used to synthesize and describe data.

• A set of data can be described in terms of three

characteristics: the shape of the distribution of
values, central tendency, and variability

• Averages and percentages are examples of

descriptive statistics.
Classification of Descriptive Analysis

1. Frequency Distribution: is a systematic

arrangement of numeric values from the lowest
to the highest, together with a count (or
percentage) of the number of times each value
was obtained
Frequency
Distribution…
• Some researchers display frequency data
graphically in a frequency polygon .

• In such graphs, scores typically are on the

horizontal line, with the lowest value on the left,
and frequency counts or percentages are on the
vertical line
Frequency
Distribution…
• Data distributions can be described by their shapes.

• Symmetric distribution occurs if, when folded over, the

two halves of a frequency polygon would be
superimposed.

• In an asymmetric or skewed distribution, the peak is

off center, and one tail is longer than the other.

• When the longer tail is pointed toward the right, the

distribution has a positive skew,
Frequency
Distribution…
• If the longer tail points to the left, the distribution
has a negative skew, as in the second
Frequency Distribution…

• Another aspect of a distribution’s shape concerns

how many peaks or high points it has.

• A unimodal distribution has one peak , whereas a

multimodal distribution has two or more peaks—
that is, two or more values of high frequency.

• A multimodal distribution with two peaks is a

bimodal distribution,
Frequency
Distribution…
Frequency Distribution…

• Normal distribution (sometimes called a bell-

shaped curve).

• A normal distribution is symmetric, unimodal, and

not very peaked.

• Many human attributes (e.g., height, intelligence)

approximate a normal distribution
Classification of Descriptive Analysis…

2. Measures of central tendency: Is a statistical index

that describes the average of the set values.

3. Measure of variability: Are concerned with the degree

to which the scores in a distribution are different from or
similar to each other.

4. Bivariate descriptive statistics: Are derived from the

simultaneous analysis of two variables to examine the
relationships between the variables
Descriptive statistics….

• These are categorized into:

• i) Measures of central tendency; These are

statistics that describe the average, typical or most
common value for a group of data.

• Tendency – this is the general trend of the numbers

to cluster in a certain way.
Descriptive statistics….

• Measures of central tendency include:

• 1) Mean

• This refers to sum of all values divided by the number of

units/ participants ; average sum of a set of values.

• It is appropriate for interval and ratio data.

• Most stable and best measure of central tendency if the

distribution is normal; if repeated samples were drawn from
a population, the means would fluctuate less than the modes
or medians
Descriptive statistics….

• 1) Mean ….

• For example, the median is a better central tendency

measure of family income than the mean because
income is positively skewed.

• Mean of 85 109 120 135 158 177 181 195 =145

• affected by the value of every score

• In research reports, the mean is often symbolized as M

or x
Descriptive statistics….

• 2) Mode

• This refers to the category or value that occurs most

often in a set of data under consideration.

• Most frequent score in a data set

• It is the only measure of central tendency appropriate

for nominal data.

• Most popular

• the mode is 53: 50 51 51 52 53 53 53 53 54 55 56

Descriptive statistics….

• 2) Mode ….

• Category with the greatest frequency is called the modal class.

• It is possible to have no mode.

• Data can also have one or more modes.

• Unimodal- a set of data with one value most frequent.

• Bimodal- a set of data with two values/categories with the same

high frequency

• Multimodal- a set of data with more than two values/categories

with same high frequency.
Descriptive statistics….

3) Median

• This refers to the middle score or value (50 th percentile) in a

group of data when data is arranged in ascending or
descending order.

• With interval or ratio data, median divides the frequency

distribution of data in half.

• Consider the following set of values: 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The

value that divides the cases in half is midway between 4 and 5,
and thus 4.5 is the median
Descriptive statistics….

• 3) Median…

• It does not take into account individual values and is

thus insensitive to extremes.

• Because of this property, the median is the preferred

index of central tendency to describe a highly skewed
distribution.

• It is appropriate for ordinal, ratio, as well as interval

data.
Descriptive statistics….

• ii ) Measures of variability

• These describe how values differ among themselves in a

distribution of values i.e. the distribution of scores around
a particular central value or score and in this case the
mean.

• Two distributions with identical means could differ

markedly with respect to shape (e.g., how skewed they
are) and how spread out the data are (i.e., how different
people are from one another on an attribute
Descriptive statistics….

• ii ) Measures of variability

• 1) Range

• This is the difference between the highest and the lowest

value in a group of values or scores

• the range is unstable: from sample to sample from the same

population, the range tends to fluctuate considerably, also is
influenced by extreme values.

• To correct this influence, inter-quartile range may be reported

Descriptive statistics….
Descriptive statistics….

• ii ) Measures of variability cont…

• 2) Percentile This is a datum point below which lie

the values in a frequency distribution.

• E.g. 80 th percentile of a score means 80% of the

subjects received lower score or 20% of the
subjects higher score.
Descriptive statistics….

• 3) Standard deviation

• Represents the average of deviations from the mean

• It involves subtracting the mean from each score to

obtain the deviation. Summing the squares of the
differences, then getting square root
• The most widely used variability index when interval or
ratio data is obtained.
Descriptive statistics….

• 3) Standard deviation

• more difficult to interpret than the range

• Same mean different SD for 2 sets of data possible

• For example SD of 3 vs 7: 3 means data set more homogenous,

(scores more similar to one another) 7—more heterogenous

• A SD might thus be interpreted as an indication of our degree

of error when we use a mean to describe an entire sample

• 4.The variance; the value of the standard deviation squared

3) Standard deviation….

• The mean tells us the single best point for summarizing an

entire distribution, and a standard deviation tells us how
much, on average, the scores deviate from that mean

• In normal and near-normal distributions, there are roughly

three standard deviations above and below the mean; +-1,
+-2 & +-3

• Of all cases, 68% fall within 1 SD above and below the

mean.

• 95% of the scores fall within 2 SDs from the mean

Descriptive statistics….

• iii ) Measures of relationship/ Bivariate Descriptive Statistics ;

• These are concerned with the correlations between variables i.e.

how values of one variable are related to the values of another
variable.

• Relationship is examined through:

• 1) Correlational coefficients

• Describe relationships between two variables;

• The correlation question is: To what extent are two variables

related to each other

• Describes the intensity and direction of a relationship

Descriptive statistics….

• iii ) Measures of relationship/ Bivariate Descriptive Statistics ;

• 1) Correlational coefficients …

• The possible values for a correlation coefficient range from

1.00 through .00 to 1.00.

• If height and weight were perfectly correlated, the

correlation coefficient expressing would be 1.00

• Height and weight have a positive relationship because

greater height tends to be associated with greater weight.
1) Correlational coefficients …

• When two variables are unrelated, the correlation

coefficient is zero.

• Correlation coefficients between .00 and -1.00

express a negative (inverse) relationship.

• When two variables are inversely related,

increments in one variable are associated with
decrements in the second
1) Correlational coefficients …

• The most commonly used correlation index is the

product–moment correlation coefficient (also
referred to as Pearson’s r), which is computed with
interval or ratio measures.

• If we were to measure patients’ body temperature

both orally and rectally, a correlation (r) of .70
between the two measurements would be low
Descriptive statistics….
• 2) Scatter plots/scatter diagrams/scattergram;
• This is a Graphic representation of the relationship
between two variables.
• The X variable is plotted on the X-axis and the Y
variable on the Y-axis.
• Dots are used to indicate where X and Y intersect.
• The concentration of the dots in the graph
indicates positive/negative correlation.
Descriptive statistics….

• 3) Contingency tables

• A contingency table (or crosstab) is a two-

dimensional frequency distribution in which the
frequencies of two variables are cross tabulated.
E.g. relationship between gender and smoking
status

• Contingency tables usually are used with nominal

data or ordinal data that have few ranks
Describing Risk
• Many of these indexes involve calculating changes
in risk—for example, a change in risk after exposure
to a potentially beneficial intervention.
2 by 2 contingency
table for calculating
risks
• Cell a is the number with an undesirable outcome

• cell b is the number with a desirable outcome (e.g.,

survival) in an intervention/protected group; and

• cells c and d are the two outcome possibilities for a

nontreated or unprotected group.
Absolute Risk
• Absolute risk can be computed for both those
exposed to an intervention or protective factor, and
for those not exposed.

• Absolute risk is simply the proportion of people

who experienced an undesirable outcome in each
group.
Absolute Risk

• To illustrate, suppose 200 smokers were randomly

assigned to a smoking cessation intervention or to a
control group .

• Smoking status 3 months after the intervention is the

outcome variable. In this example, the absolute risk
of continued smoking is .50 in the intervention group
and .80 in the control group
Absolute Risk Reduction
• The absolute risk reduction (ARR) index represents a
comparison of the two risks.

• It is computed by subtracting the absolute risk for the

exposed group from the absolute risk for the unexposed
group.

• This index indicates the estimated proportion of people

who would be spared from the undesirable outcome
through exposure to an intervention or protective factor.
Odds Ratio
• The odds; is the proportion of subjects with the adverse outcome
relative to those without it.

• In our example, the odds of continued smoking for the experimental

group is 50 (the number who continued smoking) divided by 50 (the
number who stopped), or 1.

• The odds for the control group is 80 divided by 20, or 4.

• The odds ratio is the ratio of these two odds, or .25 in our example;
odds of continued smoking is four times higher among smokers who
do not get the intervention as among those who do
Inferential
statistics
Inferential statistics
• Descriptive statistics are useful for summarizing
data, but researchers usually do more than simply
describe.

• Inferential statistics, which are based on the laws of

probability, provide a means for drawing
conclusions about a population, given data from a
sample and to test hypotheses
Inferential statistics….
• All inferential statistical tests are based on the
assumption that chance is only explanation for the
relationships that are found in research studies.

• A researcher wants to demonstrate that chance is

not the reason for the relationships found in
research.
Inferential statistics
• Choosing a statistical test

• There are two types of inferential tests

• Those that search for differences in sets of data.

• These are used when you want to determine if there is a

significant difference between groups
• Those that search for correlations between sets of data.

• These are used when you want to determine if there is a

significant correlation between variables within one
group.
Choice of the statistical test is based on:

• The hypotheses for the study or the research questions.

• Sample size

• Number of groups or sets of scores to be compared

• Whether the scores / observations are dependent or

independent
• Whether you are comparing groups or sets of scores or
correlating variables
• The number of observations available for each group.
i) Parametric
• These are concerned with population parameters and
thus make assumptions about the population from which
a sample was drawn.

• For a parametric test to be used it is assumed that:

• The level of measurement of data is interval or ratio

• Data is taken from population that are normally distributed

• Data are taken from population that has equal variances on

the variable being measured
• Examples: t-test
Non parametric
• These do not make assumptions about the
population from which a sample was selected.

• These are used

• With nominal or ordinal data.

• When sample sizes are small Examples: wilcoxons

Types of Inferential Statistics

• 1.Correlation:

• It is a statistical measure that expresses the extent to which

two variables are linearly related. −

• Perfect correlation: If the value is near ± 1, then it said to be

a perfect correlation: as one variable increases, the other
variable tends to also increase (if positive) or decrease (if
negative).

• High degree correlation: If the coefficient value lies between

± 0.50 and ± 1, then it is said to be a strong correlation
Types of Inferential Statistics…

• 2. Chi-square:

• It is a statistical method used for assessing the goodness of fit

between observed values and those expected theoretically.

• For a Chi-square test, a p-value that is less than or equal to

your significance level indicates there is sufficient evidence to
conclude that the observed distribution is not the same as the
expected distribution.

• You can conclude that a relationship exists between the

categorical variables
Types of Inferential Statistics…

3. Regression:

• It is a measure of the relation between the mean

value of one variable (e.g. output) and corresponding
values of other variables (e.g. time and cost).

• Regression is a statistical method used to determine

the strength and character of the relationship
between one dependent variable (usually denoted
by Y) and a series of independent variables
Types of Inferential Statistics…
4. Analysis of variance:

• It is a statistical method that separates observed

variance data into different components to use for
additional tests.

• A one-way ANOVA is used for three or more groups

of data, to gain information about the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables.
Types of Inferential
Statistics…
• 4. Analysis of variance: …

• A two-way ANOVA, there are two independents.

• For example, a two-way ANOVA allows a company to

compare worker productivity based on two independent
variables, such as salary and skill set.

• It is utilized to observe the interaction between the two

factors and tests the effect of two factors at the same time
Types of Inferential Statistics…
• 5. T-test:

• A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a

significant difference between the means of two groups, which may be
related in certain features.

• A t-test is used as a hypothesis testing tool, which allows testing of an

assumption applicable to a population.

• The t-test is a test in statistics that is used for testing hypotheses

regarding the mean of a small sample taken population when the
standard deviation of the population is not known.

• The t-test is used to determine if there is a significant difference

between the means of two groups
Level of Significance
• This is an important factor in determining the
representativeness of the sample population and the
degree to which the chance affects the findings.

• The level of significance is a numerical value selected by

the researcher before data collection to indicate the
probability of erroneous findings being accepted as true.

• The values are usually 0.05 equivalent to 95% confidence

level, or 0.01 equivalent to 99% confidence level
Common errors that arise during data analysis.

• Type I error:

• it is when a null hypothesis is rejected when it is actually true;

• a decision is made that a relationship exists between variables

when it does not.

• Type II error:

• a decision is made not to reject the null hypothesis when it is

false;
• a decision is made that no relationship exists between
variables when, in fact, a relationship does exist.
Bias during data
analysis
• Response bias: - it is the tendency of respondents to distort their responses.

• Social desirability response bias: - refers to the tendency of some individuals

to misrepresent their responses consistently by giving answers that are

congruent with prevailing social values.

• Extreme response rate:- results when a person characteristically endorses

extreme responses alternatives e.g. strongly agree / disagree

• Acquiescence :- which is yea-sayer’s tendency to agree with statements

regardless of their content

• Nay –sayer’s:- disagree with most statement

Common errors of interpretation
which need to be avoided:
• Failure to see the problem in proper perspective

• Failure to appreciate the relevance of various elements

• Failure to recognize limitations in the research evidence

• Misinterpretation due to unstudied factors

• Ignoring selective factors

• Inadequate attention to individual case

 DATA
PRESENTATION
DATA PRESENTATION
• a) Narrative presentation of findings

• The findings of a study should be clearly and concisely

presented in the text

• Certain information should always be included in the text

when discussing the study hypothesis:
• Statistical test that was used

• Test results

• Degrees of freedom(df)

• Probability value(p-value)
b. Tables
• These are means of organizing data so they may be more easily
understood and interpreted.

• Guidelines concerning tables

• Tables should appear as soon as possible in the report after they have been
referred in the text
• Information presented in tables should also be discussed in the narrative of the
report
• Titles should be clear, concise and contain the variables that are presented in
the data.
• The name of the statistical test should not be used

• All data entries should be rounded to the same number of decimal places (1-2
commonly used)
Guidelines concerning
tables…
• Decimal points if present should be lined under
each other in the data columns

• If data are not available for a section of the table, a

dash (-) should be entered rather than leaving a
blank space, to make it clear that no data have
accidentally been left off the table
Examples of tables

1) Frequency distribution tables

• Frequency distribution is appropriate for reporting

all levels of data.

• All values or scores are listed and the number of

times each one appears is recorded.

• Values may be listed from the highest to the lowest.

• This is depicted using a frequency distribution table.

Frequency distribution tables

• Frequency distribution table can be:

i) Simple table

• A single line of characters explain in a single column of

information.

• It shows the distribution of scores in a sample for a

specified variable.

• Size of the frequencies should always be equal to the

sample size “n”
Frequency distribution tables

ii ) Compound table

• A single line of characters has been described by

two or more compounds of information

• iii. Grouped frequencies

• When the range of scores is large, it may be helpful

to group the scores into smaller groups before
counting the frequencies.
Frequency distribution tables

• Other instances when data is grouped include when:

• The scores are distributed in such a way that certain

scores are not obtained by any subject
• The sample is very big since the frequency would be too
long
• Information sought is sensitive such as annual income,
age and the response categories in the questionnaire
are given in intervals
Frequency distribution tables

• Grouped frequencies tables

• Class intervals normally start with the lowest score as a

multiple of the interval width.
• Interval width refers to the size of the class interval.

• Class interval depends on the sample size and range of

scores but should be between 10-15 in number.
Principles governing conversion of raw scores into
group score

• All intervals should be the same width

• Intervals should be continuous throughout out the

distribution i.e. even if there are no scores in a particular
class interval, the class interval must be retained and a
frequency of zero indicated against it.

• Too few intervals lead to loss of accuracy and too many class
intervals result in inconveniences and range between10-15

• Intervals must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive;

c) Figures
• Term used to indicate any type of visual presentation other than a table.

• Figures may help enliven a narrative presentation since they have a visual
appeal and should be considered as a valuable means of displaying
research results

• Figures include:

• 1) Graphs

• Graphical representation of a frequency distribution is a valuable

supplement to statistical analysis.

• The graph enables the reader to see the trend of distribution more easily
than is possible by looking at numbers in a frequency distribution.
Graphs …

• Types of graphs commonly used to present data include:

• i) Bar graph/chart

• Figure used to represent frequency distribution of nominal data and some

type of ordinal data

• It is especially useful when the categories of variables are qualitative

rather than numerical.

• The length of the bar represents frequency of occurrence of the category.

• To show that data being presented are separate categories, the bars do not
touch each other.

• Data are presented on only one variable in a bar graph; simple

Graphs cont..
• ii ) Histogram Graph

• Uses bars to represent frequency distribution of a variable

measured at the ordinal, interval and ratio.

• Data are presented on one variable in a histogram

• Bars are of equal width and touch each other to indicate that data
are being presented in a continuum

• Width of the bar represents the size of the class interval

• The height of the bar represents the frequency of occurrence of

each class interval
Line Graphs …

• ii) Frequency polygon

• This is a graph that is obtained by joining the midpoints of class

interval.

• The midpoint is established by summing up the lower and upper class

limits of each class interval and dividing by 2.

• A dot is placed above the midpoint of each class interval.

• These dots are connected.

• It is used for grouped data.

• It represents the frequency distribution of ordinal, interval or ratio

data.
3. Charts
3) Charts

Figure used to present data but data has to be converted.

The mostly commonly used is the pie-chart.

• 4) Photographs

• In form of pictorials.

• d) Percentages

• This is a statistic that represents the proportion of a subgroup to

a total group expressed as a percentage ranging from 0-100

• Minimum number for computation should be at least 20

BIOETHICS IN
NURSING
Bioethics
• Ethics is a branch of philosophy which deals with one’s conduct and serves as
a guide to behavior.

• Ethos- character

• The issue of ethics is very important to research & despite high value of
knowledge gained through research, knowledge cannot be pursued at the
expense of human dignity.

• A researcher should describe how he or she will ensure that ethical

requirements are upheld in the study.

• Major ethical issues of concern are informed consent, privacy and

confidentiality, anonymity and researchers responsibility.
Bioethics cont…
• Bioethics is a branch of applied ethics that studies
the philosophical, social and legal issues arising in
medicine and the life sciences.

• It is chiefly concerned with human life and well

being, though it sometimes also treats ethical
questions relating to non human biological
environment
History of Ethics in nursing research

• There are also some founding principles recognized

in research and we are going to learn about some
of them in this unit.

• They include the Belmont Report, with the three

major ethical principles, the Nuremberg Code and
the Helsinki Declaration
Codes of Ethics
• In response to human rights violations, various codes
of ethics have been developed.

• One of the first international efforts to establish ethical

standards Nuremberg Code, developed in 1949 after
the Nazi atrocities were made public.

• Declaration of Helsinki, which was adopted in 1964 by

the World Medical Association and most recently
revised in 2000, with clarifications published in 2004
Codes of Ethics ct…
• In the United States, the American Nurses Association (ANA) issued
Ethical Guidelines in the Conduct, Dissemination, and
Implementation of Nursing Research in 1995 (Silva, 1995).

• ANA also published in 2001 a revised Code of Ethics for Nurses with
Interpretive Statements, a document that covers primarily ethical
issues for practicing nurses but that also includes principles that
apply to nurse researchers.

• In Canada, the Canadian Nurses Association most recently published

its Ethical Research Guidelines for Registered Nurses in 2002
Government regulations for protecting study participants

• Governments throughout the world fund research

and establish rules for adhering to ethical
principles.

• For example, Health Canada specified the Tri-

Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for
Research Involving Humans as the guidelines to
protect human subjects in all types of research.
Government regulations for protecting
study participants

• In the United States, an important code of ethics was adopted

by the National Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The
commission issued a report in 1978, referred to as the Belmont
Report, which provided a model for many of the guidelines
adopted by disciplinary organizations in the United States.

• The Belmont Report also served as the basis for regulations

affecting research sponsored by the U.S. government,

• In kenya we have NACOSTI

Belmont Report
• There are three basic principles emanating from the
Belmont Report that are of importance in the ethics
of research.

• They are the principles of:

• Respect for human dignity

• Beneficence (doing good and avoiding harm); and

• Justice (fairness to all subjects irrespective of status, race

or ethnic origin).
Ethical issues in nursing research.

• Researcher must inform the subject s about the research.

• Research must be for the good of the society.

• Research must be conducted on animal experiment if

possible.
• Researcher should avoid injury to research subject.

• Researcher must be qualified to conduct the research.

• Both the researcher and subject should be able to stop

the research study if problems occur.
Ethical issues in nursing research.

• Every researcher is expected to work honestly, and not

fabricate data, or plagiarize other people’s work etc.

• Institutions and organizations have ethical review

boards and ethical policies on research with human
beings which are protective of the subjects, and provide
scientific basis for the researcher.

• One must recognize that every research has potential to

harm
Importance of ethics in
research:
• To ensure that human subjects are not harmed

• To ensure that human subjects are not wronged by

being treated as mere means or objects

• Access to research may provide benefits to

participants that are otherwise unavailable

• Health benefits to society results from research.

Access to Research Population
• Prior to commencing the study, a formal application to the government of
Kenya for permission to conduct the research must be written.

• This should include two or more copies of the research proposal,

accompanied by a recommendation letter from the supervisor(s) as
required by the Kenyan authorities.

• If your institution is authorized to conduct research, there may be a

‘Research and Ethics Committee’.

• Such a committee is usually vested with the authority of granting research

permits, which you could use.

• As a requirement, each research respondent should be requested to

accept in writing and sign or affix a thumb print.
Ethical principles in research

• There are three principles that guide researchers each

with rights that need to be observed

• 1) Principle of beneficence

• This is a fundamental principle that seeks to protect

subjects from harm, exploitation and maximize
benefits.

• Discomfort and harm can be physical, emotional,

spiritual, economic, social or legal.
1) Principle of beneficence…

• i ) Freedom from exploitation- Subjects should not be placed at

disadvantages or exposed to situations for which they have not
been explicitly prepared.

• Therefore, subjects should be explained that their participation

or information they might provide would not be used against
them in any way.

• The subjects enter into a special relationship with the

researcher.

• This relationship should not be overtly or maliciously exploited.

1) Principle of beneficence…

• ii ) Risk/benefit ratio- Researchers are expected to carefully assess the

risks and benefits that would be incurred in conduct of a study before
its inception both to the researcher and the subjects.

• Research should not be undertaken when perceived risks outweighs

the anticipated benefits of the research.

• Only scientifically qualified persons should conduct research especially

if potentially dangerous equipment or specialized procedure are used.

• Avoid inflicting psychological harm by phrasing questions carefully,

debriefing and providing the researcher’s contact.
2) Principle of respect for human dignity

• i) Right to self determination.

• Prospective subjects have the right to decide voluntarily

whether or not to participate in a study without the risk of
incurring any penalties or prejudiced treatment.

• Subjects have the right to decide at any point to terminate

their participation , to refuse to give or withhold information or
to ask for clarifications or specific questions

• Humans should be treated as autonomous agents capable of

controlling their own activities and destinies
2) Principle of respect for human dignity

i) right to self-determination ct..

Includes freedom from coercion of any type. Coercion involves

explicit or implicit threats of penalty from failing to
participate in a study or excessive rewards from agreeing to
participate

For example, a generous monetary incentive (or stipend)

offered to encourage the participation

Individuals with diminished autonomy should be protected e.g

prisoners, children, mentally impaired
2) Principle of respect for human dignity

• ii ) Right to full disclosure- The researcher should fully describe the

nature of the study, the subject’s right to refuse participation, the
researcher’s responsibility and likely risks and benefits so that the
subjects can make informed voluntary decision about their
participation in a study.

• Full disclosure can sometimes create two types of bias: biases

affecting the accuracy of the data and biases reflecting sample
recruitment problems

• Deception and covert data collection/ concealment techniques may

be used to limit such bias, though considered unethical
2) Principle of respect for human
dignity

• iii ) Informed consent

• This implies that there search subjects /interviewees

/participants /observant / respondent have been informed
about the procedures of a study in which they have been asked
to participate.

• The researcher should provide information on purpose of

research, expected duration, any unforeseen risks/ discomforts
to the participants, benefits, extent of privacy & confidentiality
Elements of informed
consent:
• The purpose of the research study

• Foreseen risks

• A guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality

• Identification of the researcher ; Participant’s status .e.g.

“ I am a nursing student at--------conducting a research
study as part of the requirements for--------”
• Number of subjects involved

• Benefits and compensation or lack of them

Preconditions for informed consent

• Competence to understand and decide

• Voluntary willingness in deciding without coercion.

Informed consent is based on the right to full
disclosure and right to self-determination.

• Consent form documents the consent process

Preconditions for informed consent…

• Vulnerable subjects
• These are special subjects who need additional procedures since
they cannot give fully informed consent or may be at a higher
risk of unintended side effects due to their circumstances.
• These include:
• Mentally or emotionally disabled people

• Physically disabled people

• Children
• Pregnant women
• Prisoners
3) Principle of justice
• i) Right to fair treatment

• Subjects have the right to fair and equitable treatment/ distribution of

benefits and burdens of research before, during and after their
participation in the study.

• The selection of study participants should be based on research

requirements and not on the vulnerability or compromised position of
certain people

• Distributive justice also imposes duties to neither neglect nor

discriminate against individuals and groups who may benefit from
advances in research (women and children)
3) Principle of justice ct…

• i) Right to fair treatment ct..

• Researchers must treat people who decline to participate in a

study or who withdraw from it in a nonprejudicial manner;

• Researchers must honor all agreements made with participants,

including the payment of any promised stipends;

• Demonstrate sensitivity to (and respect for) the beliefs, habits,

and lifestyles of people from different backgrounds or cultures;
and

• Afford participants courteous and tactful treatment at all times.

3) Principle of justice ct…
• ii ) Right to privacy- This is the freedom of an individual to
determine the time, extent and the circumstances under which
private information will be shared with or withheld from
others.

• The privacy of the subject is considered to be protected if the

voluntarily shares private information with a researcher.

• Right to Anonymity and Confidentiality; respondents’ identity is

not revealed and the information collected is not linked to the
respondent
3) Principle of justice ct…
• ii ) Right to privacy ct…

• Maintaining identifying information in locked files to which

few people have access;

• Substituting identification (ID) numbers for participants’

names on study records and computer files to prevent any
accidental breach of confidentiality; and

• Reporting only aggregate data for groups of participants or

taking steps to disguise a person’s identity in a research report
3) Principle of justice ct…
• ii ) Right to privacy ct…

• protect all data gathered within the scope of the project

from being divulged or made available to any other person,
which means the research data should never be shared
with outsiders.

• A breach of confidentiality can occur when a researcher

allows an unauthorised person(s) to gain access to the raw
data of a study or when the researcher accidentally reveals
the identity of the research respondents
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY PARTICIPANTS

1. Risk–Benefit Assessments ; designed to determine

whether the benefits of participating in a study are in line
with the costs, be they financial, physical, emotional, or
social (i.e., whether the risk-to-benefit ratio is acceptable)

• Minimal risk is defined as a risk expected to be no

greater than those ordinarily encountered in daily life
or during routine physical or psychological tests or
procedures.
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY PARTICIPANTS

• Major Potential Benefits to Participants

• Access to a potentially beneficial intervention that might
otherwise be unavailable to them
• Comfort in being able to discuss their situation or
problem with a friendly, objective person
• Increased knowledge about themselves or their
conditions, either through opportunity for introspection
and self-reflection or through direct interaction with
researchers
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY
PARTICIPANTS

• Major Potential Benefits to Participants ct..

• Escape from a normal routine, excitement of being part
of a study
• Satisfaction that information they provide may help
others with similar problems or conditions
• Direct monetary or material gain through stipends or
other incentives
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY PARTICIPANTS

• Major Potential Risks to Participants

• Physical harm, including unanticipated side effects

• Physical discomfort, fatigue, or boredom

• Psychological or emotional distress resulting from self-

disclosure, introspection, fear of the unknown,
discomfort with strangers, fear of eventual
repercussions, anger or embarrassment at the type of
questions being asked
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY
PARTICIPANTS

• Major Potential Risks to Participants

• Social risks, such as the risk of stigma, adverse effects on
personal relationships, loss of status
• Loss of privacy

• Loss of time

• Monetary costs (e.g., for transportation, child care, time

lost from work)
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY
PARTICIPANTS

• 2. Informed Consent

• Informed consent means that participants have

adequate information regarding the research,
comprehend the information, and have the power of
free choice, enabling them to consent to or decline
participation voluntarily.

• Researchers usually document the informed consent

process by having participants sign a consent form
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY PARTICIPANTS

• 3. Confidentiality Procedures

• Anonymity; the most secure means of protecting

confidentiality, occurs when even the researcher cannot
link participants to their data

• Confidentiality in the Absence of Anonymity ; A promise of

confidentiality is a pledge that any information participants
provide will not be publicly reported in a manner that
identifies them and will not be made accessible to others.
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY
PARTICIPANTS

4. Debriefings and Referrals

• Communicate respect and concern for participants’ well-
being
• Be gracious and polite, phrase questions tactfully, and be
sensitive to cultural and linguistic diversity
• it is sometimes advisable to offer debriefing sessions
after data collection is completed to permit participants
to ask questions or air complaints.
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY
PARTICIPANTS

• 4. Debriefings and Referrals ct…

• Share study findings with them once the data have been
analyzed
• Important when the data collection has been stressful or
when ethical guidelines had to be “bent” (e.g., if any
deception was used).
• Researchers may need to assist study participants by
making referrals to appropriate health, social, or
psychological services
PROCEDURES FOR PROTECTING STUDY
PARTICIPANTS

5. Protection of Vulnerable Groups

• May be incapable of giving fully informed consent

• Children, Mentally or emotionally disabled people,

Severely ill or physically disabled people, The terminally
ill, Institutionalized people, * Pregnant women.

6. External Reviews and the Protection of Human Rights

• Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Ethical Dilemmas in Conducting
Research
• There are research problems in which participants’
rights and study demands are put in direct conflict,
posing ethical dilemmas for researchers.

• For example;

• 1. Research question: Are nurses equally empathic

in their treatment of male and female patients in
the ICU?
Ethical Dilemmas in Conducting Research

• Research question: What are the coping mechanisms

of parents whose children have a terminal illness?

• Research question: Does a new medication prolong

life in patients with cancer?

• Research question: What is the process by which

adult children adapt to the day to-day stresses of
caring for a parent with Alzheimer’s disease?
INTRODUCTION TO
BIOSTATISTICS
 Introduction to
Biostatistics
• What is statistics?

Statistics is the summary of information (data) in a

meaningful fashion, and its appropriate presentation.

• Bio-statistics is the segment of statistics that deals with

data arising from biological processes or medical
experiments
• Two broad branches in statistics

1. Descriptive statistics

Once data has been collected, normally the step that follows is to
summarize the data, if possible, with one or two summary statistics.
Summary or descriptive statistics describe the original data set (the
set of responses for each question) by using just one or two numbers
– typically an average and a measure of dispersion.

2. Inferential Statistics

This is the branch of statistics that makes use of sample data to make
generalization concerning the population parameters. Here
theoretical distributions become handy.
Data analysis
• Data analysis involves the processing of the coded data into
some orderly and summarized pattern in order to recognize
relationships and meet the objectives of the study.

• Data analysis is the process of summarizing, presenting and

describing the data collected from research in such a way
that relationships can be established and inferences drawn.

• Statistical methods are used to facilitate the interpretation

of results obtained from data.
The Descriptive and Inferential Statistical

• The descriptive statistics are those measures that

enable the researcher to describe the data or facts
as contained in them.

• Examples include the simple arithmetic mean or

average, while the inferential statistics are those
that enable the researcher to make inferences or
draw conclusions.
The Descriptive Statistical Method

• The descriptive statistical methods comprise two major groupings –

• the measures of central tendency and

• measures of dispersion.

• Measures of Central Tendency:

• These are those measures that indicate or best represent the whole
distribution of data or observations.

• When the researcher wants to use one score as the typical score, the
average score is used, which is the arithmetic average or the mean.

• The measures of central tendency are the mean, median and the mode.
The mean
• Is the typical score and is computed when the
greatest reliability is required.

• It is like the centre of gravity of a sample.

• The mean is computed by totaling all the individual

scores in a distribution and dividing by the number
of observations or subjects
The median
• Looks at how the scores are ranked.

• It is the point in the distribution above and below

which 50% of the frequencies lie.

• In order to calculate the median, the scores or

observations have to be arranged in ascending or
descending order.
The median…
• For an odd numbered set of scores e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
the number 3 represents the media.

• For an even number, the median would be

calculated using the total of the two middle values
divided by 2; e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4 – median will be 2 +3
divided by 2 = 2.5.
The mode…
• Is the score that occurs most frequently, the
popular score.

• In the example we had in the frequency

distribution, score 50 occurred most with a
frequency of 10.

• For that set of score the mode is 50.

Measures of Dispersion:
• The measures of dispersion or variation refer to the
spread or dispersion of the data.

• The range, variance and standard deviation are the

measures used for this purpose.
The range
• Is the difference between the highest and the
lowest score in a set of observations.

• In the test scores of 40 students that we are using,

the range is the difference between 76 (highest)
and 26(lowest), i.e. 50.

• The range gives limited information as a measure of

dispersion.
The variance
• Is the standard deviation squared of the value of
the standard deviation before the square root is
taken.

• It shows the dispersion from the mean in both the

negative and positive directions. It is denoted as s².
The Standard Deviation
(SD)
• Is an estimate of how much all the individual values
deviate from the group mean (a summary measure
of the differences of each values from the mean).

• When summed, the negative and positive values

balance each other, and their sum is zero
The Standard Deviation
(SD)
• 1. Find the mean of the observations
• 2. Subtract the mean from each raw score to obtain
a deviation score
• 3. Square each deviation score ( x² )
• 4. Sum the squared deviation ∑x²
• 5. Obtain the SD by finding the square root of the
sum of the squared deviations divided by N i.e. √∑x²
N.
The Inferential Statistical Method

• Inferential statistics are the statistics that enables

inferences or conclusions to be made in a study
about a population or given data from a sample.
Inferential statistics are based on the laws of
probability.

• Statistical inferences consist mainly of estimating

parameters and testing hypothesis.
The Inferential Statistical Method

• Examples of inferential statistics include

• t test,
• Analysis of Variance ( ANOVA),
• Chi square test,
• Analysis of Covariance ( ANCOVA);
The Inferential Statistical Method

• The correlation coefficient is often called a bi-variate statistics

because it can be used as an inferential and descriptive statistics.

• The t test is the statistic most commonly used for the testing of
hypotheses that applies to differences between two groups,

• Analysis of Variance procedure can handle three or more groups

as well as more than one independent variable.

• The Chi square is most frequently used in connection with

hypothesis relating to differences in proportions.
Hypothesis Testing and Levels of Significance

• The null hypothesis is a statement that no relationship

exists between the variables under study, and that
any observed relationships are due to chance or
sampling fluctuations.

• It is the null hypothesis that is often used in

hypothesis testing.

• The level of significance is always specified for

statistical tests once testing of hypothesis is involved.
Hypothesis Testing and Levels of Significance

• The level of significance attaches a probability error

to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

• The level often adopted in most studies is 0.05 or

5% level.

• Rejecting the null hypothesis of no difference

means that there is less than 5% chance of
observing the data if null hypothesis is true.
Errors
• Two types of errors are possible with the rejection and/or
acceptance of the null hypothesis.

• Type 1 Error: This error refers to rejection of the null

hypothesis when it is true. The researcher in this situation
concludes falsely that a difference is there when in fact,
there is no difference.

• Type 2 Error: It is to accept the null hypothesis when it is

false; to conclude wrongly that a difference does not exist
when in reality, there is a difference
Errors
• Type 1 and Type 2 errors could occur when the null
hypothesis is rejected wrongly and when it is
accepted where it should be rejected respectively

• One strategy to avoid both errors is to ensure that

the sample size is increased in the study.
Interpretation and discussion
of findings
Interpretation and discussion of findings

• The research findings are discussed in relation to the

purpose, objectives research questions and hypotheses of
the study, and relevance made with similar studies in
literature.

• The researcher is the most suitable to give meaning to the

results based on the methods of analysis.

• The descriptive and inferential statistical results need to be

explained, and should be presented in tables, graphs or
figures as appropriate.
Interpretation and discussion of findings

• For the hypothesis, each is stated, and then the

findings discussed depending on what statistical test
was used in the analysis.

• Efforts are made not to commit the type 1 or type 2

error mentioned in the earlier unit.

• The level of significance accepted for the study is also

used to describe the nature of the results and
enhance acceptability of the research.
Explaining the Results of Study
• With the discussion, the researcher explains the
results of the study in terms of relationship of the
variables studied in experimental studies, or in relation
to the occurrences of phenomena under study.

• Each finding is explained and related to any existing

finding that is similar or that has produced different
result, and possible explanation given as to why the
results differ.
Explaining the Results of Study

• The discussion must point out whatever significant

contributions the result has to the body of
knowledge or practice.

• Any new results should be explained fully. The

researcher also acknowledges any limitations while
explaining and emphasizing on the strengths of the
research.
Conclusions and Recommendations

• Every research apart from results, is expected to

yield some implications to the field of study (in this
case nursing) and should have some conclusions
that are drawn from the findings of the research.

• The conclusions should be such that would be

convincing for any reader of the research.
Conclusions and Recommendations…

• In the course of the study, and with the analysis and findings,
there may have been influences or situations that would
require modification or special treatments in order to study
aspects of the problem.

• These are called recommendations or suggestions that

emanate from the study.

• The recommendations should be focused, and indicate

specifically what is being suggested.

• Suggestions for further studies are also encouraged

References and Appendices
References and Appendices
• References are important because they allow
others to build on your research, and also reveal
those you consulted in the process of your own
research.

• The readers are able to know that your work is

credible when the references are there.
References and Appendices

• Only references cited in the work should be

included.

• Reference styles differ and you should always use

the style approved by your institution or the people
you want to submit your research study to.

• The most commonly used reference style is the

American Psychological Association (APA) format.
References and Appendices

• The reading references you have at the end of each

unit of this course are examples from the APA style,
and show the author, year of publication, title of
book, city of publication, publisher;

• while for journal, it shows author, year, article title,

journal name, volume, number, and page.
Appendices (x)
• Refer to all the materials that were used for the
study and could include
• the letters of permission, and replies;

• the data collection instruments and other materials

mentioned in the research report.
• It may also include tables, figures and forms.
COMMUNICATING/ DISSEMINATING
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Communicating/Disseminating research findings

• One of the major expectations in research is that

the findings or results need to be shared with
others.

• The process of sharing the findings of a research is

called communicating the findings.

• Research findings could be communicated in

various ways, to different groups or audience
depending on why that research was conducted.
Communicating research findings…

• The report must be comprehensive, and convey the

relevant information so that other people can
utilize the work or conduct further studies based on
the findings.

• The reports are usually written in an orderly form

Types of research reports.
• There are four major kinds of research reports

• I. Thesis and dissertations

• II. Traditional journals articles

• III. On line report

• IV. Presentations at professional meetings where

we have two methods oral presentation and poster
presentation
Purpose of Research Reports
• Communicating results of research implies the
researcher providing in-depth information on what
was done, who it was done with, how, where it was
done, the results and conclusions.

• It is also called the research report, and could take

on different forms depending on the audience.
Research could be communicated in;

• An educational institution,

• To an academic audience,

• In partial fulfillment of the requirements for a

degree, or diploma etc; or

• For publication in a journal; or

• Could be communicated to a live audience at

conferences, workshops etc..
Roles of a nurse in disseminating research
findings
1. Selecting a communication outlet: decide on the method of
communication.

2. Knowing the audience: - good research communication

depends on providing information that can be understood
by consumers.

3. Developing a plan: - part of the plan involves decision

about the communication outlet and the audience for the
report.

4. Writing effectively.
The major areas of the research
report
• The title page;

• The abstract;

• Introduction;

• Literature review;

• Method;

• Results;

• Discussion;

• Conclusion and recommendations;

• References and appendix.

Utilization of research
findings
Utilization of research
findings
• Benefits of Research Findings to Practice
• Provide the basis for the practice and education of any professional
group.
• In nursing, research ensures the development of theories
applicable to practice,
• The development of new procedures that would benefit patients
better; and
• Better ways of providing quality care to patients.

• Research enables the profession to work at par with other

professions and
• To update and maintain the competency of nursing professionals.
Factors influencing utilization of Research
Findings to Practice

• the relevance of the research to the needs of the field

or facility;

• the involvement of the practitioners in the research;

• the cost of implementing the findings; and

• the benefits of the research to the consumers.

• Access to information about research

• time to read research and so are not able to utilize the

findings.
Facilitators to Research Utilization
• research findings that address the problems of
practitioners;

• nurses knowledgeable in research and who are able

to read and interpret research results;

• access to information;

• participation of the research personnel in the

implementation process. Such participation would
instill confidence in the practitioners;
Facilitators to Research
Utilization
• Cost of implementation also could determine how
readily the managers or policy makers would be
willing to utilize findings.

• Constant continuing professional development and

education of nurses on research and research
utilization for evidence based practice.
Barriers to utilization include:
• Inadequate facilities for implementation;
• Lack of competency in reading and interpreting research by
practitioners;
• Relevance of research findings to practice;
• Lack of knowledge as to how to implement the findings;
• Inability of researchers to explain the value of the research.
• Time
• Cost
• Non involvement
CRITIQUING
RESEARCH
REPORTS
Critiquing research
reports
• A research critique is a careful and objective appraisal of a
study’s strengths and limitations.

• The aim of critiquing of research reports is to establish how

well the research was conducted, and the credibility, and
value of the findings.

• The critique is performed by going through the research

report step by step and checking on what and what the report
contains and how complete, relevant and adequate they are.
Major Areas of Emphasis
• The major areas include the title, abstract, the author
credentials, the style of presentation, the
purpose/objectives of the study, problem, literature,
method, data collection and analysis, discussion,
recommendations, conclusions and references and
appendix.

• They are really scrutinized to note their compliance with

accepted research guidelines and ethics of research
Guidelines for Critiquing Research Reports

• The guideline is usually presented in the form of

questions that anybody reading the research can
answer through the report, and from that arrive at
a decision on the research report.

• The following guideline could be used or you may

find more in literature, but generally the content is
often emphasizing the same areas.
Questions ask when critiquing research
report
A. General Questions
• Does the title accurately reflect the content of the
report?

• Is the style of presentation acceptable?

• Is the presentation well organized?

• Is the study within the field of study?

B. Introduction and Literature Review

• Has related research been adequately evaluated

and critiqued?

• Is literature review relevant and up to date?

• Is the review comprehensive?

• Does it contain irrelevant sources?

• Is the purpose of the study clear and explicit?

C. Research Questions and
Hypothesis
• Is the research question well formulated?

• Are the aims, objectives and hypothesis related?

D. Methods -
• Is the study design appropriate?

• Can it be replicated?

• Is the sample appropriate?

• Is the sampling method adequately described?

• Is the sample size quiet representative?

• What ethical considerations were addressed?

• Was access properly negotiated?

• Was data collection appropriately carried out?

• Are instruments valid, reliable, and appropriate?

• What statistical procedures for data analysis were used?

• Are they clearly described

E. Results -
• Is the results section well organized?

• Are results complete? Is the data clear?

• Does the analysis relate to the study objectives?

• Do the findings support the researcher’s

predictions?
F. Discussion
• Does the discussion follow logically from the
results?

• Are the results reliable and valid?

• Have the study objectives been met?

• Are conclusions neatly and clearly expressed?

• Is the researcher aware of the study limitations?

• Are suggestions for further research provided?

G. References -
• Are the references in the correct format?

• Are they complete, accurate, and current?

• Do they correspond with the text?