Responsibilities of a Beginning Nurse Researcher -Abstract thinkers tend to look at the broader situation or system for

meaning, patterns, and relationships rather than at a specific

Definition of Nursing Research
behavior or incident.
-the root meaning of the word research is “search again” or
-Example of Philosophy (Abstract): Nightingale’s Environmental
“examine carefully”
Philosophy
-research is the diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to
-Example of EBNP (Concrete): Ventilation, light, sanitary condition.
validate and refine existing knowledge and generate new knowledge
Significance and Purpose of Nursing Research
-Nursing Research is defined as a scientific process that validates
and refines existing knowledge and generates new knowledge that -It improves methods of care and can help develop new ideas in the
directly and indirectly influences the delivery of evidence-based health care and nursing profession. However, to develop these new
nursing (Gray, Groove, & Sutherland, 2017) ideas, different forms of research including tests and experiments
that must be carried out. The result found from the conducted
-Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a conscientious, problem-solving
research can help improve the quality of care and develop new
approach to clinical practice that incorporates the best evidence from
treatments (Langford 2001).
well-designed studies, patient values and preferences, and a
clinician’s expertise about a patient’s care. -The specific purposes include the following:
 To extend the base of knowledge in nursing.
 To formulate or refine a nursing theory.
Linking Nursing Research to the World of Nursing
 To enhance the immediate utility of evidenced-based
-Concrete thinking is oriented toward and limited by tangible things practice.
or by events that we observe and experience. Thus, the focus of  To study the effectiveness of a nursing interventions.
concrete thinking is immediate events that are limited by time and  To help nurses make evidence-based treatment decisions.
space. Many nurses believe they are mainly concrete thinkers  To determine the benefits and risks of the newly developed
because they focus on the specific actions in nursing practice. or existing interventions.
Abstract thinking is oriented toward the development of an idea  To assess the cost-effectiveness of nursing interventions.
without application to, or association with, a particular instance
(Chinn & Kramer, 2015).
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Levels of the Research Evidence
-The levels of the research evidence can be visualized as a pyramid
with the highest quality of research evidence at the top and the
weakest research evidence at the top and the weakest research
evidence at the base (Craig & Smyth, 2012; Higgins & Green;
Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2015)

Definition of Mixed Methods Research

-collecting, analyzing, and interpreting qualitative and quantitate
data in single study
-Integrating/mixing quantitative and qualitative data, findings,
and/or interpretations
Essence of Mixed Method Research
1) Enriching the findings
2) Increasing the depth and breadth
3) Testing a theory or model
4) Seeking for participants’ inputs
5) Improving the trustworthiness
Processed Used to Synthesize Research Evidence

II. Design and Planning Phase

Phases of Research Process
-the phase of making methodology to use in collect the
I. Conceptual Phase data and analyze them. It includes: Selecting a research
-the researcher develops the question to be studied. It design; Defining the population and sampling;
includes: Identification of research problem; Literature Specifying the methods to measure the variables;
review; Developing a theoretical framework Collecting the data;
 Obtaining informed consent; Conducting a pilot study Pinpoint a problem
III. Empirical Phase
-Should be specific enough so that research tasks can be easily and
- It is the phase of analyzing (e.g. statistical analysis)
quickly accomplished
and interpreting the data
IV. Analytical Phase -Select what is of most interest to you
-the phase in which the researcher: Organizes and make
-Dissect the broad area into subareas; narrow the scope of study (ex.
sense of the data; Test the research hypothesis
How ER nurses deliver health education in the emergency room.)
V. Dissemination Phase
-the phase in which the findings from the study are -A research problem is an area of concern where there is a gap in the
presented and possibly recommended knowledge base needed for nursing practice.
Formulate research objectives or questions
THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE
-Formulate one or more research objectives that will answer what
• Identification of research problem you wish to find out.
• Literature review
• Developing a theoretical framework Ex: 1.) To determine the experiences of emergency room (ER)
nurses in conducting health education inside the ER, and
Identifying a research problem
2.) To identify its most common barriers therein.
Choose your topic
-The objectives should start with words such as ‘to determine ‘, ‘to
-Kerlinger (1973) said: If one wants to solve a problem, one must find out’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to measure’, ‘to explore’, ‘to identify’.
generally know what the problem is.
Research questions:
-Research topics are concepts, phenomena of interest, or broad
problem areas that researchers can focus on to enhance evidence- -There are three basic types of questions that research projects can
based nursing. address:

-Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you (ex: Health  Descriptive. The study is designed primarily to describe
Education, Emergency Room, ER Nurses) what is going on or what exists. (Ex: How much fast food do
Filipinos consume per week?)
-Must have clear idea about what you want to find and make sure
that idea is researchable
  Comparative. The study analyzes the difference between -Clinical practice. Problems can evolve from clinical observations.
two or more variables or groups. (Ex: What is the difference For example, while watching the behavior of a patient and family in
in attitude towards rock music between Gen-Z and crisis, you may wonder how you as a nurse might intervene to
Millennials?) improve the family’s coping skills.
 Relationship-Based. The study is directed toward
-Researcher and peer interactions. Interactions with researchers
identifying the causal relationships, associations, trends,
and peers offer valuable opportunities for generating research
and/or interactions between two or more variables or
problems.
between variables and one or more groups. (ex: What is the
relationship between age and fast-food preference in the -Literature review. Reviewing research articles enables you to
Philippines?) identify an area of interest and determine what is known and not
-The research question/objective should be specific enough to be known in this area. It is also a way to identify a study to replicate.
strong and it is answerable using applicable qualitative or -Theories. They are an important source for generating research
quantitative research methods. problems because they set forth ideas about events and situations in
-Define the concepts or terms/variables used in the the real world that require testing (Chinn & Kramer, 2008).
objectives/questions. (Ex: Age – define by age group classification: -Research priorities identified by funding agencies and specialty
Child (0-12 years), Adolescence (13-18 years), Adult (19-59 years) groups. (Refer to NUHRA, RUHRA, WMSU & CN Research
and Senior Adult (60 years and above) Agenda for 2017-2022)
-Aside from a problem statement, a research problem also includes Review of related literature (RRL)
significance and background.
The literature review gives you a chance to:
-The significance of a problem indicates the importance of the
problem to patients and families, nursing, healthcare system, and -Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly
society. context

-The background for a research problem briefly identifies what we -Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your
know about the problem area and the issues that surrounds it. (global research
national local) -Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
Sources of Research Problems -Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
-Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your -Make sure the sources you use are credible. (reputable journals,
knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic. peer-reviewed). Peer Review is defined as “a process of subjecting
an author's scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of
How to write a literature review:
others who are experts in the same field”
Step 1. Search for relevant literature
-Take notes and cite your sources. Ex: Rubio, 2019 (APA) (for
-Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly references)
defined topic. Ex. Different types of abuse and neglect experienced
-Citations help readers locate your sources and can help you avoid
by the elderly during the COVID-19 pandemic?
plagiarism. (Turnitin)
-Make a list of keywords/concepts and list any synonyms and
Step 3. Identify themes, debates, and gaps
related terms. Use the keywords to begin searching for sources.
Example: Abuse; Harm, mistreatment, harassment, exploitation, -Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
injury
 Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do
-Search for relevant sources certain theories/approaches become popular over time? (Ex:
Transcultural Nursing of Leininger)
 Some useful search engines and databases to search for
 Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the
journals and articles include: PubMed, Ovid, Ebscohost,
literature?
ProQuest, Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus,
 Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources
Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Yahoo!, MSN Search,
disagree?
PubMED, JSTOR, Medline (life sciences and biomedicine),
and WMSU library catalogue,  Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or
studies that changed the direction of the field?
-You may use a search operator (ex. boolean operators ) to help  Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there
narrow down your search. weaknesses that need to be addressed?
-Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is Step 4. Outline your literature review’s structure
relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article,
you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources. -Chronological - the simplest approach is to trace the development
of the topic over time. Ex: A biography that starts in 1920 and goes
Step 2. Evaluate and select sources through 1997.
-Thematic – organize according to recurring central themes; you  Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other
organize your literature review into subsections that address researchers—add your own interpretations where possible,
different aspects of the topic. Ex, if you are reviewing literature discussing the significance of findings in relation to the
about development and validation of culture competence tool for literature as a whole
Filipino nurses, key themes might include culture care, Filipino  Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of
culture, nursing competence, culture competence, and tool your sources
development.  Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and
topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and
-Methodological - use a variety of research methods. Ex: Look at
contrasts (e.g., in addition to, furthermore, moreover,
what results have emerged in qualitative vs. quantitative research
likewise, similarly, etc.)
-Theoretical - discuss various theories, models, and definitions of
-Conclusion - summarize the key findings from the literature and
key concepts. A literature review is often the foundation for a
emphasize their significance.
theoretical framework.
Step 5. Write your literature review
Conceptual Literature VS Related Studies
-Your literature review should have an introduction, a main body,
-Conceptual literature refers to articles or books written by
and a conclusion. What you include in each depends on the
authorities giving their opinions, experiences theories and ideas
objective of your literature review.
about a topic. (in most research studies, it is referred to as “literature
-Introduction - should clearly establish the focus and purpose of “)
the literature review.
-Research literature pertains to published (in journals) or
-Main Body – may divide the body into subsections. Use a unpublished reports of actual research studies done previously and
subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological usually referred to “studies “. (e.g., theses and dissertations)
approach.
Developing a theoretical/conceptual framework
-Some tips:
What is a theoretical framework?
 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main -A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing
points of each source and combine them into a coherent theories that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you
whole
will use in your own work.
-In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing theories that -By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how
support your research, showing that your work is grounded in other researchers have defined these key concepts and drawn
established ideas. connections between them. As you write your theoretical
framework, your aim is to compare and critically evaluate the
How to write a theoretical framework:
approaches that different authors have taken.
1. Identify key concepts
-After discussing different models and theories, you can establish
-The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem the definitions that best fit your research and justify why. You can
statement and objective or research questions. Concepts often have even combine theories from different fields to build your own
multiple definitions, so your theoretical framework should also unique framework if this better suits your topic.
clearly define what you mean by each term. Example:
-Make sure to at least briefly mention each of the most important
 Problem: There are several metrics for determining cultural theories related to your key concepts. If there is a well-established
competency in nurses, but none of them apply to Filipino theory that you don’t want to apply to your own research, explain
nurses caring for patients with mental health issues in the why it isn’t suitable for your purposes.
Philippine setting.
 Objective: To create a cultural competency tool for Filipino
nurses (CCTFN) caring for patients with mental health
issues in hospitals, communities, or schools.
3. Show how your research fits into existing research
-The concepts of ‘culture’, competency’, ‘tool development’ and
-Apart from summarizing and discussing existing theories, your
‘Filipino nurses’ are clearly central to this study, along with the
theoretical framework should show how your study will make use of
likelihood that the development and validation of the CCTFN was
these ideas and take them a step further.
deemed necessary to improve the quality of nursing care and inform
training programs aimed at improving mental health and reducing -You might aim to do one or more of the following:
stigma in the Philippines. Your theoretical framework should define
these concepts and discuss theories about the relationship between  Test whether a theory holds in a specific, previously
these variables. unexamined context
 Critique or challenge a theory
2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories  Combine different theories in a new or unique way
 Use an existing theory as a basis for interpreting your results
What is a conceptual framework? -To indicate a causal relationship, each arrow should start from the
independent variable (the cause) and point to the dependent variable
-A conceptual framework is a representation of the relationship you
(the effect).
expect to see between your variables, or the characteristics or
properties that you want to study. Conceptual frameworks can be Step 4: Identify other influencing variables
written or visual and are generally developed based on a literature
-Some common variables to include are moderating, mediating, and
review of existing studies about your topic.
control variables.
How to develop a conceptual framework:
-Moderating variables (or moderators) alter the effect that an
Step 1: Choose your research question. independent variable has on a dependent variable.
Your research question guides your work by determining exactly  Example of moderating variable: Let’s add the moderator
what you want to find out, giving your research process a clear “IQ.” Here, a student’s IQ level can change the effect that
focus. the variable “hours of study” has on the exam score. The
higher the IQ, the fewer hours of study are needed to do well
Ex: Let’s say you want to study whether students who study more
on the exam.
hours get higher exam scores.
-Mediating variables link the independent and dependent variables,
Step 2: Select your independent and dependent variables. Identify at
allowing the relationship between them to be better explained.
least two key variables: your independent and dependent variables.
 Example: The mediating variable of “number of practice
Ex. The expected cause, “hours of study,” is the independent
problems completed” comes between the independent and
variable (the predictor, or explanatory variable). The expected
dependent variables. Hours of study impacts the number of
effect, “exam score,” is the dependent variable (the response, or
practice problems, which in turn impacts the exam score.
outcome variable).
-Control variables. These are variables that are held constant so that
Thus, your hypothesis will be that the more hours a student studies, they don’t interfere with the results. Even though you aren’t
the better they will do on the exam. interested in measuring them for your study, it’s crucial to be aware
Step 3: Visualize your cause-and-effect relationship of as many of them as you can be.
 Example: Control variable. It is very possible that if a
student feels ill, they will get a lower score on the exam.
However, we are not interested in measuring health
 outcomes a part of our research. This makes “health” a good -Interval variables have values that lie along an evenly dispersed
candidate for a control variable. It still impacts our results, range of numbers. E.g. Temperature; Blood pressure
but we aren’t interested in studying it.
-Ordinal variables represent categories that can be ordered from
Variables greatest to smallest.; with an order, sequence, or hierarchy
-are properties or characteristics of people or things that vary in  fall, winter, summer, spring
quality or magnitude from person to person or object to object  K-6, junior high, high school, college
(Miller & Nicholson, 1976).
-Ratio variables possess the properties of interval variable and has
-The root word of the word variable is ‘vary’ or ‘can change’ a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that
-The most common variables in social research are age, sex/gender, variable.
education, income, marital status and occupation.  height, weight, and distance.
Exercise 1: Write I if the variable is Interval, N if Nominal, R if
Ratio, and O if Ordinal.

Variable: “any entity that can take on a variety of different values” ___1. Military title
(Wrench et al, 2008, p. 104) :sex; self-esteem; agreement ___2. Temperature in degree Fahrenheit
An attribute: a specific value on a variable. Ex: Variable: sex, the ___3. Birthplace
attributes: male and female/ Variable: self-esteem, the attributes
according to level: High, Medium, Low ___4. Year level

Varieties and types of variables ___5. Type of music

-Nominal variables represent categories that cannot be ordered in ___6. Clothing item-pants, skirts
any particular way. ___7. A score in 10-item quiz
 religions; Christians, Muslims, Jews, etc. ___8. Feeling for today
 marital status; single, married, divorced
 sex: males vs. females ___9. Means of transportation
___10. BP of 110/70 mmHg
Independent variable Exercise 2: Write IV for independent variable and DV for dependent
variable
-the variable that is manipulated either by the researcher or by
nature or circumstance Phenomenon A: Climate Change
-independent variables are also called “stimulus” “input” or Sea level ___
“predictor” variables
The amount of rainfall ____
-analogous to the “cause” in a cause-effect relationship
Phenomenon B: Crime & Violence on streets
-Examples are age, gender, what people eat, how much time they
3. Number of law enforcers ___
spend using gadgets, how much television they watch
4. Number of robberies ____
Dependent variable
Phenomenon C: Performance of students in college entrance exams
-a variable that is observed or measured, and that is influenced or
changed by the independent variable 5. Number of hours devoted to studying ___
-also called “outcome variable” is the result or effect of the changes 6. Entrance exam score ___
brought about by another variable (usually independent variable).
Hypothesis
-analogous to the “effect” in a cause-effect relationship
What is hypothesis?
- what the researchers are interested in
It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen
-Examples: test scores (dependent) depends on how much you in a study
studied (independent); sea level (dependent) is influenced by
temperature (independent) Types of Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis can be classified into seven categories :
 Example study: Effectiveness of aroma therapy to the
1. Simple Hypothesis - It predicts the relationship between a
reading comprehension of high school students.
single dependent variable and a single independent variable.
o Independent variable: aroma therapy
o Dependent variable: reading comprehension
 2. Complex Hypothesis - It predicts the relationship between • Specifying the methods to measure the variables
two or more independent and dependent variables. • Collecting the data
• Obtaining informed consent
• Conducting a pilot study
3. Directional Hypothesis - It specifies the expected direction
Selecting a Research Design
to be followed to determine the relationship between
variables and is derived from theory. Furthermore, it implies Research design defined
researcher’s intellectual commitment to a particular outcome.
-The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to
Types of Research Hypothesis integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and
4. Non-directional Hypothesis - It does not predict the exact logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the
direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables. research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
Non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no theory involved measurement, and analysis of data (De Vaus, 2001).
or when findings contradict previous research.
-Research design is the blueprint for research.
5. Associative and Causal Hypothesis - Associative hypothesis
defines interdependency between variables. A change in one -It is the skeleton for the research project.
variable results in the change of the other variable. On the other -Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means
hand, causal hypothesis proposes an effect on the dependent due to concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research
manipulation of the independent variable. design.
6. Null Hypothesis - It states a negative statement to support the -The research problem will determine the design, not vice-versa.
researcher’s findings that there is no relationship between two The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how
variables. they are used.
7. Alternative Hypothesis -It states that there is a relationship Types of Research Design
between the two variables of the study and that the results are
significant to the research topic. Qualitative Research Design

DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE What is Qualitative Research?

• Selecting a research design
• Defining the population and sampling
-Qualitative research involves looking in-depth at non-numerical 3. Phenomenological Study - A person’s construction of the
data. Think of the word 'quality' when you think of qualitative data - meaning of a concept (phenomenon)
you are taking a deep, quality look at a phenomenon.
 Attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and views
-its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal descriptions of a of social realities
particular social context being studied  Attempt to understand what a specific experience is like by
describing it as found in concrete situations as it appears to
-Is useful for describing or answering questions about particular,
people living it.
localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a
 The researcher often has personal experience with the
participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices
phenomenon
-a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about  Example of topics -“being left out”, “falling asleep”, “being
which little is known afraid of the dark
Characteristics of Qualitative Research 4. Grounded Theory

 Use words rather than numbers to describe findings -A general research method
 Emphasize seeing the world from the perspective of the
 Generate or discover Theory-That is “grounded” in data that
participants
is systematically collected and analyzed.
 Goal is understanding rather than prediction
 Recursive process of sampling and analysis
 Emphasize the subjective dimensions of human experiences
 Theory is developed during the course of the study.
Types of Qualitative Research:
5. Case Study - Develops an in-depth analysis of a single case or
1. Historical Study – studies available data to study, understand, multiple cases.
and interpret past events
-Much can be learned from study one individual, one classroom, one
2.Biographical Study - A study of an individual and her or his school, or one school district. e.g., study of a teacher who uses
experiences phonics.

 As told to the researcher 6. Action Research - Conducted by one or more individuals for the
 As found in documents purpose of solving a problem. Typically motivated by an immediate
 As written by the individual problem.
o Biography - written by someone other than the individual
-Types: -Quantitative research is an objective, systematic empirical
investigation of observable phenomena through the use of
 Practical Action Research - Primary purpose is to improve computational techniques.
practice.
 Participatory Action Research - Primary goal is empower -It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers
individuals and groups to bring about social change. yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger
population and explain a particular observation.
Importance of Qualitative Research
-Simply, quantitative research is concerned with numbers and its
-Sociologist William Bruce Cameron stated, “Not everything that
relationship with events.
can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be
counted.” Characteristics of Quantitative Research
-Qualitative research allows investigators to develop a deeper 1.Objective. Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and
understanding of a topic. analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere intuition and
guesses. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or solution
-It explains, clarifies, and validates quantitative results.
to a problem.
2. Clearly defined research questions.  The researchers know in
advance what they are looking for. The research questions are well-
defined for which objective answers are sought. All aspects of the
study are carefully designed before data are gathered.
3. Structured research instruments. Standardized instruments
guide data collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and
validity of data. Data are normally gathered using structured
research tools such as questionnaires.
4. Numerical data. Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized
data collection in order to show trends, relationships or differences
among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the
Quantitative Research Design evidence collected.
5. Large sample sizes. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a -Example:The relationship between diet and anxiety.
normal population distribution curve is preferred. This requires a
Casual-Comparative Research Design
large sample size, depending on how the characteristics of the
population vary. Random sampling is recommended in determining -This design seeks to show the cause-effect relationships among the
the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results. variables.
 6. Replication.  Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify -It measures the impact of an independent variable (causing effect)
findings in another setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing validity has on another variable (being affected).
of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions. 
Examples: The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at
7. Future outcomes.  By using complex mathematical calculations the end of the first grade.
and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated
thus predicting future results. Quantitative research puts emphasis Experimental Research Design
on proof, rather than discovery. -Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where
Types of Qualitative Research: one or more independent variables are manipulated and applied to
one or more dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter.
Descriptive Research Design
-This allows the researcher to control the situation. In doing so, it
-This design seeks to explain the current status of an identified allows the researcher to answer the question, “What causes
variable. The aim of descriptive research is to explain and interpret, something to occur?”
the current status of people, settings, conditions, or events.
-Types of Experimental Research Design:
-It helps provide answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and the how of a particular research study.  Pre-Experimental Research Design
-The simplest form of research design. In a pre-experiment,
-Example: Description of different kinds of physical activities that either a single group or multiple groups are observed
occur in schools. subsequent to some agent or treatment presumed to cause
change. Very weak design.
Correlational Research Design
-There are 3 types:
-Correlational research seeks to determine the extent of relationship o One-shot Case Study Research Design: In this type of
between two or more variables with the use of statistical data. experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is
considered. The study is carried out after some treatment
 which was presumed to cause change, making it a posttest o The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control
study. group design, subjects are randomly assigned to the 2
o One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design: This research groups, both are presented, but only the experimental group
design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-
out a test on a single group before the treatment is tested to measure the degree of change in each group.
administered and after the treatment is administered. With o Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the
the former being administered at the beginning of treatment pretest-only and the pretest-posttest control groups. In this
and later at the end. case, the randomly selected subjects are placed into 4 groups.
o Static-group Comparison: In this study, 2 or more groups are
placed under observation, where only one of the groups is
subjected to some treatment while the other groups are held Quasi-Experimental Research Design  
static. All the groups are post-tested, and the observed -The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the
differences between the groups are assumed to be a result of quasi-experimental research bearing a resemblance to the true
the treatment. experimental research, but not the same.  In quasi-experiments, the
 True Experimental Research Design- This design relies on participants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in
statistical analysis to approve or disprove a hypothesis. It is settings where randomization is difficult or impossible.
the most accurate type of experimental design and may be
carried out with or without a pretest on at least 2 randomly -This design is suitable for real-world natural settings than true
assigned dependent subjects. The true experimental research experimental research design.
design must contain a control group, a variable that can be -Example: You hypothesize that a new after-school program will
manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be lead to higher grades. You choose two similar groups of children
random. who attend different schools, one of which implements the new
-The classification of true experimental design include: program while the other does not.
o The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design,
subjects are randomly selected and assigned to the 2 groups
(control and experimental), and only the experimental group Strengths of Quantitative Research
is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-
1.It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding
tested, and a conclusion is drawn from the difference
results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving it. Because
between these groups.
of bigger number of the sample of a population, the results or
generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides 3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results
numerical data, it can’t be easily misinterpreted. or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the
distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further
2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses
information unlike the qualitative research.
and allows you to comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics
of data.
3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it 4. Much information are difficult to gather using structured research
filters out external factors, and so can be seen as real and unbiased. instruments, specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex,
domestic violence, among others.
5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may
4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By
be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out
employing statistically valid random models, findings can be
on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument.
generalized to the population about which information is necessary.
5.Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow
Exercise 1. Put a check (✔) if it describes the characteristics of a
the study to be replicated in different areas or over time with
formulation of comparable findings. quantitative research, or (X) if it describes qualitative research.
___1. Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects.
6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained
by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and ___ 2. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
narrowing down of possible directions to follow. ___3. It is not based upon numerical measurements and does not use numbers and
statistical methods as key research indicators and tools.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research ___4. It tends to be associated with small-scale studies and a holistic perspective,
often studying a single occurrence or small number of occurrences/case studies in
1.Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is great depth.
assumed that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate
___5. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high
the findings are. reliability.
2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to ___6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables,
qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
these people and in reproducing questionnaires.
___7. its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal descriptions of a particular social Why sampling?
context being studied.
-Get information about large populations
___8. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the
population.  Less costs
___ 9. A helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little  Less field time
is known.  More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of data collection
___ 10. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective  When it’s impossible to study the whole population
answers are sought.
Determining the Sample Size
Defining the Population and Sampling
Approaches to determining the sample size
Important statistical terms
-There are several approaches to determining the sample size. These
Population (N): A set which includes all elements or measurements include using
of interest to the researcher (The collection of all elements,
1. A census for small populations (entire pop, 200 or less)
responses, measurements, or counts that are of interest)
2. Imitating a sample size of similar studies.
Sample (n): A subset of the population; representative of the total
population 3. Using published tables
Target Population: The population to be studied/ to which the
investigator wants to generalize his results
Sampling Unit: smallest unit from which sample can be selected.
Ex. Households in an urban area or targeted individuals (e.g.
children under 18 or adults over 60).
Sampling frame: List of all the sampling units from which sample
is drawn. Ex. List of children under 18 years of age.
Sampling scheme: Method of selecting sampling units from
sampling frame (e.g., simple, stratified, cluster)
 population’s behavior (or the distribution of a behavior) to otherwise know
the appropriate sample size.

n = _N__
1 + Ne²
Slovin’s Formula
Answer:
4. Applying formulas to calculate a sample size n = 35,000
1 + (35,000) (.05)²
= 35,000
Cochran Formula: 1 + (35,000) (.0025)
= 35,000
1 + (87.5)
= 35,000
(88.5)
Yamane Formula:
n = 395
Types of Sampling
Probability sampling
-The most important characteristics of probability sampling
procedure is the random selection of the samples. Specifically, each
Slovin’s Formula This is used to calculate the sample size necessary to sample (n) or element from the population (N) has an equal chance
achieve a certain confidence interval when sampling a population. This of selection under a given sampling technique.
formula is used when you don’t have enough information about a
-Ensure representativeness and precision  Say you chose 5 as your starting point. The 10 th from 5 will
be your sample and so on until you reach the desired sample
-Simple random, Systematic, Stratified, Cluster sampling
size of 500. (e.g. 5, 15, 25. 35, 45...)
Simple random sampling
-The most frequently used type of probability sampling technique.
This is characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the
same for every member of the population.

Cluster sampling
-It is used when the target respondents in a research study is spread
across a geographical location.
Systematic Random sampling - Cluster sampling may be classified as:
-Follows specific steps and procedures in doing the random  Single-stage cluster – all members from each of the
selection of the samples. --Example: You have a list of 5,000 selected clusters are used in the sampling process
persons and you need a sample of 500, here are the steps to follow:
 Two-stage cluster – a subset of elements with each
 Divide 5,000 by 500 which gives a value of 10. selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusion in
 Choose a number between 1 and 10 and used it as your the sample.
starting point.
  Multi-stage cluster – more than two steps are taken in Snowball sampling (friend of friend..etc.) – the researcher may ask
selecting clusters from clusters. the respondent to refer or identify another respondents who can
participate in the study.
Stratified sampling
Purposive sampling – sometimes called judgemental or subjective
-The population is divided into two or more mutually exclusive
sampling. It employs a procedure in which samples are chosen for a
categories based on your variables of interest in the research studies.
special purpose.
The population is divided into subpopulation called strata.
Quota sample – gathering of a representative sample from a group
-Example: The population of Junior high school students is 1,200.
based on certain characteristics of the population chosen by the
The desired sample size is 300.
researcher. With that, the researcher needs to meet the required
number of samples.
 Get the population of JHS students per level.
Methods to Measure the Variables
 Divide per level by the total population then multiply by the
desired sample size. In this case, the ff. data were recorded: -To be able to measure the variables of your study, first thing to do
is to their type (e.g., discrete/continuous, independent/dependent).

1st year 350/1,200 x 300 = 87.5 or 88 -Second, is to operationally the variables. Operational definitions
define a variable in terms of the procedures used to measure or
2nd year 300/1,200 x 300 = 75 manipulate it, which enables one to precisely communicate with
3rd year 280/1,200 x 300 = 70 others about what something is.

4th year 270/1,200 x 300 = 67.5 or 67 -Third, is the process of systematically assigning values to represent
attributes of organisms, objects, or events. There are four scales of
TOTAL 1,200 300 measurement, each of which defines rules for assigning scale values
Non-Probability Sampling Procedures to measurements – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.

-Kinds of Non probability samples 1. Nominal scales of measure represent only qualitative
differences of the attribute of interest. That is, they
Convenience samples (ease of access) -sample is selected from categorize data based on type (i.e., political party). Nominal
elements of a population that are easily accessible. Sometimes called scales create a set of labels for categories (Democrat,
haphazard or availability sampling. Republican, Independent) that are mutually exclusive and to
 which participants are assigned. Nominal scales are the -Data is an existing   information / knowledge represented or
weakest form of measurement because they assume equality coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing.
among members of a particular category and differences
-Data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables.
between categories. In addition, the numerical value assigned
to each category is arbitrary. -Quantitative data are anything that can be expressed as a number or
2. The values in Ordinal Scales represent relative differences quantified. These data may be represented by ordinal, interval or
in the amount of some attribute such that the value assigned ratio scales and lend themselves to most statistical manipulation.
to someone, or something reflects its rank among the rest of
the data. An example is U.S. News & Report’s “America’s -Qualitative data is a categorical measurement expressed not in
Top College.” Unlike nominal scales, ordinal scales indicate terms of numbers, but rather by means of a natural language
how much scores differ from one another. description. In statistics, it is often used interchangeably with
3. Interval scales also reflect quantitative differences among "categorical" data. For example: favorite color = "blue"
data, but unlike ordinal scales they assume equal differences Sources of Data
in the amount of the attribute being measured. Temperature
measured on the Fahrenheit scale is an interval measure Primary and Secondary Data
because each incremental change in temperature (70,71, 72,
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for
etc.) is the same.
the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data -
4. Ratio scales are the most sophisticated form of
primary and secondary.
measurement. There are equal distances between values on
the scale and the scale has a true zero (0) point. That said, a Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first
score of 0 indicates a true absence of the attribute in time and thus happens to be original in character. It is the real time
question. This enables one to create meaningful ratio, such as data which are collected by the researcher himself. A “first hand
“10 is twice as much as 5.” Interval scales cannot make these data”.
statements because their 0 point is arbitrary.
Secondary Data – are those in which information has already been
Data Collection published from different sources like books, online portals, journals,
Sources of Data newspapers, magazines and other sources.

What is data? Data Collection Methods

-The methods of collecting data mainly refers to collecting primary  Structured Interview. The researcher asked a fixed set of
data, because secondary data are already available. questions during the interview. This is good as it gives a
consistent data which guarantee the comparability of data
-Sources of primary data are:
3. Questionnaire. A written catalog of questions projected to
1. Observation Method
provide answers to the research problems. The content of the
2 Types of Observation: questionnaire has to undergo content and construct validation before
it can be administered to the respondents. The aim of the
o Participant Observation. The principal investigator engaged
questionnaire is to receive a comparable answer from all the
in activities of the group watched. The members may or may respondents.
not be aware that they are being observed.
o Non-Participant Observation. The principal investigator Exercise 4: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
does not engage in activities of the group being observed. __1. What is “firsthand” data?
The researcher just watches and listen in the group’s
A. Primary data B. Secondary data
activities and draw conclusions.
__2. An example of secondary data.
2. Interview. This is defined as a person to person A. Field inquiry B. Journals
communication (Kumar, 2011). It can also be through
telephone/mobile and internet is also emerging as an __3. Data that is expressed by means of a natural
interview tool nowadays forms between two or more persons language description is
with a definite purpose in mind. It is used conversation used
A. Quantitative data B. Qualitative data
to gather information whereby the researcher will manage
the process of conversation and ask questions while the ___4. This type of data collection method requires a person-to-person
respondents will answer the questions. communication.

A. Interview B. Questionnaire
2 Types of Interview
 Unstructured Interview. The researcher has the complete
autonomy to use words, content, structure of the interview DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
and sequence of questions according to the context of the
study. this is usually used in a qualitative research.
-A questionnaire is an instrument for collecting data. It consists of a high school student. (Pls use “5” as the most important
series of questions that respondents provide answers to a research activity, “1” is the least important activity.
study. o Rating scale question – you construct a scale like those
examples given for Likert scale ratings.
Steps in Designing a Questionnaire:
Step 3 – Establish the Validity of the Questionnaire
Step 1 – Background
-Validity is traditionally defined as “degree to which a test measures
Know your variable or construct.
what claims, or purports, to be measuring” (Brown, 1996)
Step 2 – Questionnaire Conceptualization
Ways to assess the validity:
-Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire based
 Face validity – this is superficial assessment. The
on the purpose and objectives of the research study. Keep in
questionnaire appears to measure the construct or variable
mind the ff:
that the research study is supposed to measure.
 Questions should be clear, concise and simple using
 Content validity – experts are asked to provide feedback on
minimum number of words
how well each question measures the variable or construct
 Classify your questions under each statement based on your under study. The experts make judgments about the degree
problem statement to which the test items or statements match the test
 Questions should be consistent with the study objectives or specifications
 Avoid sensitive or highly debatable question.  Criterion-related validity – measures the relationship
-Choose the types of questions in developing statements: between a measure and an outcome.
 Dichotomous question – ex. Yes/No  Construct validity – concerned with the extent to which a
 Open-ended question – usually answers the question “why” measure is related to other measures as specified in a theory
 Closed questions – or previous research.
o Multiple-choice questions, ex: What is the highest level of
education your mother has completed? _ elementary _high Step 4 – Establish the Reliability of the Questionnaire
school _college _don’t know -Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring
o Rank-order scale questions – respondents are ask to rank instrument (Norland, 1990). It refers to a condition where
their choices on each statement or item. Ex: Pls. rank the ff. measurement process yields consistent responses over repeated
activities in order of importance in your work as a senior measurements.
Ways to assess reliability of a questionnaire: and in sequential order. The questionnaire should match with the
research objectives.
 Test-retest reliability – the same questionnaire is
administered twice and correlation between the two sets of Forms of Questionnaire:
scores is computed.
-Self-administered surveys
 Split-half method – also called equivalent or parallel forms.
In this method, two different tests covering the same topics • Respondents complete on their own
are used and the correlation between the two sets of scores is • Best designed for measuring variables with numerous values
calculated. or response categories
 Internal consistency (inter-item)– reliability of questions are • Investigating attitudes and opinions not usually observable
measured on an interval or ratio scale. One popular formula • Describing characteristics of a large population
used to measure internal consistency is Cronbach’s alpha, • Response rates tend to be lowest for mailed questionnaires,
which ranges from 0 (poor reliability) to 1 (perfect as low as 20 – 30%. Low response rate affects
reliability). Anything above .70 is considered sufficiently generalizability
reliable. • More standardization of the questions
• Response patterns can vary
Step 5 – Pilot Testing the Questionnaire
• Not suitable for young children, visually impaired, with
-Pilot testing is very important before you use it to collect data. learning/reading disabilities
Through this process, you can identify questions or statements -Face-to-face interviews
which are not clear to the participants or there might be some
problems with the relevance of the questionnaire to the current • Response rates tend to be highest with face-to-face
study. 10-15 people are needed for pilot testing. interviews
• Excluding ‘street corner’ technique
• More time
Step 6 – Revise the Questionnaire • Smaller samples
• Higher cost
-After identifying the problem areas in your questionnaire, revise the
instrument as needed based on the feedback provided during the pre- Two types of interviews: unstructured & structured
testing or pilot-testing. The best questionnaire is one that is edited -Telephone surveys
and refined towards producing clear questions arranged logically
• Most popular
 • Less costly
• Less time
• Less subjective to interviewer as compared to face-to-face
• Often conducted with computers
• Can probe for information/clarification
• Threshold about 20 minutes
-Computer assisted Surveys
• Way to create and administer self-administered
questionnaires
• Marketing researchers find response rates increase
• Questionnaires (especially short ones) can be sent via email
or provide internet link to site which hosts survey
-Web-Based Surveys
• Create own web page or hire a commercial company
(example: www.hostedsurvey.com)
• Allow for instant data coding
• Need to be able to write code or use software
• Maybe less time and costs
• Access is a huge issue (affecting generalizability)
• Internet access