Thermal Engineering

ME 1105 | Chapter: Pure Substance

Sourav Karmaker
Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering and
Technology, Khulna
Mechanical Engineering?
 Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics,
and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical
systems.
Scopes in ME
Course Content
 Why should we learn this course?
 Thermal engineering aims at designing heating systems and explore ways to
improve on and take advantage of renewable energy sources.
 Why should we learn this course?
 Thermal Engineering concerns with the field of thermodynamics and the process to
convert generated energy from thermal sources into chemical, mechanical or
electrical energy.
 Why should we learn this course?

 A thermal engineer is able to improve an

existing system and make it more efficient
than the current system. Besides, it is an
introductory course before learning
thermodynamics, heat transfer and power
plant.
Chapter 1
 Pure Substance refers to a material with a uniform and consistent chemical
composition.

 This consistency means that it is homogeneous in nature and doesn't change

its composition even when it undergoes phase changes, like going from solid
to liquid or liquid to gas.

 Pure substances are fundamental in thermal engineering for understanding

heat transfer, thermodynamics, and energy conversion.
Our aim is to observe different types of properties of water and steam ( Pure substance).
 Phase Transformation

AB - Warm up ice/solid until melting point

BC – Latent heat of fusion
CD – Sensible heat
DE – Vaporization
EF - Superheating

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

 Phase Transformation

# Why temperature change in Segment AB but

not changed in Segment BC with heat addition?

# Why temperature change in Segment CD but

not changed in Segment DE with heat addition?

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

 Phase Transformation

AB - Warm up ice/solid until melting point

BC – Latent heat of fusion
CD – Sensible heat
DE – Vaporization
EF - Superheating

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

 Phase Transformation

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

 Phase Transformation

Latent heat of fusion of water 334 kJ/kg

 When a solid is heated, it absorbs energy, and its

particles begin to vibrate more vigorously.

 As the temperature reaches the melting point, particles

have enough energy to overcome the rigid structure
of the solid, allowing them to move more freely. This
transition to a liquid phase is melting.

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

 Phase Transformation

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

 Phase Transformation
 As a liquid is heated, particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.

 At the boiling point, particles gain enough energy to completely

overcome intermolecular forces, allowing them to escape into the
gas phase.

Latent heat of Vaporization of water 2260 kJ/kg

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

Stages Of Heat Absorbed In Water
Formation of Steam at a constant pressure from water
Formation of Steam at a constant pressure from water
Formation of Steam at a constant pressure from water
 A fixed weight is placed on the piston to keep the
pressure of the water constant at all times. If
we heat the water contained in the cylinder, it will
be converted into steam as discussed below:
i-ii : The volume of water will increase slightly with
the increase in temperature. It will cause the piston to
move slightly upward.
ii-iii:Heating goes on and temperature reaches boiling
point. The boiling point of water at normal
atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar is 100℃. When
the boiling point is reached, the temperature remains
constant and the water evaporates.
iii-iv:At this stage, the steam will have some
particles of water in suspension and is termed as
wet steam. This process will continue till the whole
water in converted into wet steam.
iii-iv: On further heating, the water particles in
suspension will be converted into steam. The entire steam
in such a state is termed as dry steam or saturated
steam. This dry steam behaves like a perfect gas.
iii-iv:If we continue heating this steam (quality of
steam is 100%) the temperature of steam is increased.
This position of steam is called superheated steam.
Temperature vs Total Heat Graph During Steam Formation

1
Heat Added 0
Temperature vs Total Heat Graph During Steam Formation

P = Critical P

P2 > P
T0 C

P = 101325 N/m2

P1 < P

Enthalpy represents the total

heat content of a system.

Entlapy 1
0
 Temperature vs Total Heat Graph During Steam Formation

ABCD –the temp. vs. heat graph at a specific Pressure of P.

P = Critical P

 AF – Sensible heat (hf)

 FG – Latent heat (hfg)
P2 > P
TC
0
 GH – Heat of super heat.
D
When,
P = 101325 N/m 2
 P1 < P; Boiling point temperature decrease
B C and latent heat of vaporization increase.
P1 < P
 P2 > P than boiling point temperature
increased and latent heat of vaporization is
decreased.

A F Enthalpy G H
 Temperature vs Total Heat Graph During Steam Formation

T0 C
P = Critical P

E
B2 C2  Line AB1 B2E – Saturated liquid line or liquid line.

 Line EC1C2CA1 – Dry saturated vapor line or Dry steam line.

B1 C1

B C

A A1
Enthalpy
Temperature vs Total Heat Graph During Steam Formation

Critical Point:
The latent heat of vaporization of water is
decreasing when the pressure and saturation
temperature is increasing and becomes zero at a
specific point, which is known as critical point.

 Critical point is that point where liquid line and vapor

line merge.

The temperature corresponding to critical point is known as

critical temperature and the pressure is known as critical
pressure.
For steam: The critical temperature is 374.150C and critical
pressure is 221.2 bar.
Steam

Steam, which is gaseous form of pure water, is an excellent

working medium in various thermodynamic systems because of
its following properties:
 It can carry large quantities of heat.
 It is produced from water which is cheap and readily
available.
 It can be used for heating purposes after its duty as working
substance is completed.
 It can be used purely as a heating medium in food
processing industries because of a fast, easily controllable
and hygienic method of heating.
  Appears cloudy or misty because it contains suspended
water droplets.
 If you were to pass your hand (safely and from a distance)
near wet steam, it would feel cooler compared to dry or
superheated steam due to the water droplets.

 Almost invisible because it doesn’t contain water droplets

to scatter light. It may appear as a clear vapor or be
completely transparent.

 Completely invisible in open air because it contains no liquid

droplets and is at a temperature above the boiling point at its
pressure.
 Won’t see any mist or cloudiness.
 Tends to spread out quickly in the air without forming any visible
cloud, and it can create a shimmering effect similar to heat waves
due to the temperature difference with the surrounding air.
 T0 C
Wet Steam
 When the steam contain moisture or particles of
water in suspension, it is said to be wet steam.
 It means that evaporation of water is not complete.
Wet Steam
 Region between saturated liquid line and dry saturated
vapor line (indicated by color) is wet steam.
Enthalpy

T0 C
Saturated Steam
 When the wet steam is further heated at constant
pressure, and it does not contain any suspended
particles of water, it is known as dry saturated steam. Dry
Saturated
 Steam on the dry saturated vapor line (indicated by Vapor Line
bold red) is dry saturated steam.
Enthalpy
Superheated Steam
T0 C
 When the dry saturated steam is further heated at a
constant pressure, thus rising its temperature, it is said to
be superheated steam.
 Region right side to the dry saturated line and above the
critical point (indicate by blue color) is known as
superheated region.
Enthalpy
Dryness Fraction

It is the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to

the mass of wet steam. Generally denoted by “x”.
Mathematically,
x= mg /(mg + mf )
= mg / m
where,
mg = Mass of actual dry steam
mf = Mass of water in
suspension, and m = Mass
of wet steam = mg + mf
 Dryness Fraction

T0 C

x=0
x=0  on saturated liquid line and left side of this line. x=1

0 < x < 1  wet region.

Wet Steam
x=1  on dry saturated vapor line and right side of 0<x<1
this line and also above the critical point.
Enthalpy
 Enthalpy
Sensible Heat
It is the amount of heat absorbed by 1 kg of water, when heated at a constant pressure, from
the freezing point to the temperature of formation of steam i.e. saturation temperature.
The sensible heat is also known as liquid heat. It is denoted by hf.

T0 C
Sensible heat = Mass ×Sp. heat× Rise in temperate
= 1×4.2×[(t+273)-(0+273] (at 1 atm)
= 4.2t kJ/kg.
B

AE= hf = 4.2t kJ/kg. h

f

Enthalpy
A E
For ice near its melting point at 0°C (273.15 K), this rate is approximately −0.0072 °C per (or about −0.072 °C per MPa ).
 Enthalpy
Latent Heat
It is the amount of heat absorbed to evaporate 1 kg of water at its boiling point or
saturation temperature without change of temperature. It is denoted by hfg and its value
depends upon the pressure. T0 C

It has been experimentally observed that that

the value of hfg decrease as the pressure
increases and becomes zero at critical pressure. C
B
EF= hfg = 2260 (at 1 atm)

kJ/kg. hfg
E F Enthalpy
 Enthalpy

Total Heat of Steam or

Enthalpy
It is the amount of heat absorbed by water from freezing point to saturation temperature
plus heat absorbed by during evaporation and superheating at constant pressure.
Enthalpy of steam = Sensible heat + Latent heat + Heat for super heated steam.

Wet Steam T0 C
D
h= AE+BB1 B1
= hf + x B C
DryhSteam
fg xhfg
h= AE+EF
hf hfg
= hf + hfg = hg A E Enthalpy F G
 Enthalpy

Superheated Steam
h= AE+EF+FG T0 C

hsup = hf + hfg + Cp (t sup -t) D

=hg + cp (t sup -t) (t sup -t)

Cp = Mean specific heat at constant pressure for B C

Superheated steam.

(cp lies between 1.67 to 2.5 kj/kgK)

tsup= Temperature of the superheated steam
hf h’
t = Saturation temperature at the given Pressure. hfg
A E Enthalpy F G
(t sup -t) is known as degree of super heat.
Superheated steam : Whenever dry steam or saturated steam is further heated at
constant pressure then the steam is known as superheated steam.

The value of saturation temperature, specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy
at a given pressure of the superheated steam are also given in the tabular form is known as
steam tables of superheated steam.
Advantages of superheated steam:

 The superheated steam contains more heat content, and

hence its capacity to do work is also increased without
increasing its pressure.

 The superheating is done in a super heater, which obtains

heat from waste furnace gases.

The high temperature of the superheated steam results in an

increase of thermal efficiency.

 Since the superheated steam is at a higher temperature than

that corresponding to its pressure, therefore it can be
considerably cooled during expansion in an engine cylinder or
turbine and, thereby, becomes wet. It is thus obvious, that heat
losses due to condensation of steam on cylinder walls or
turbine blades, etc., are avoided to a great extent.
Specific volume: It is the volume occupied by the steam per unit mass at a given temperature and pressure,
and is expressed in m3/kg.

A. Wet steam:
volume of 1 kg wet steam = xvg + (1 –x)vf
where,
vf indicates volume of 1 kg saturated water and [liquid phase but @ Tsat ]
vg indicates volume of 1 kg of saturated steam.

Since vf << vg. So that, we can write, volume of 1 kg of wet steam = xvg
 x=1
xvg vg

C. Superheated steam:
B. Dry steam: vsup / Tsup = vg /T.

volume of 1 kg of dry steam = vg Or, vsup = vg Tsup /T

Where, T = Boiling point temperature at corresponding

.
pressure
Steam Tables:
The properties of dry saturated steam like its saturation
temperature, sensible heat, latent heat of vaporization,
enthalpy, specific volume etc., vary with pressure, and can be
found by experiments only. These properties have been
carefully determined, and made available in a tabular form
known as steam tables.

It may be noted, that there is a slight difference in the value

which is noted in various book.

There are two important steam tables,

1. in terms of absolute pressure and
2. in terms of temperature.
 External Work Done during Evaporation

Whenever water at boiling temperature is heated at a constant pressure it gets

converted into steam after absorbing the latent heat. This latent heat is utilized in the
following two ways:

 In overcoming the internal molecular resistance of water in changing its state

from the saturated water to dry saturated steam.

In overcoming the external resistance to the movement of the piston due to
increase in volume during evaporation.

The first effect is called internal work or internal latent heat, as the change takes
place within the body of the steam, and represents energy stored in the steam.

The second effect is called external work of evaporation, and represents the energy
which has been taken out of the steam.
 External Work Done during Evaporation

Let,
p = Pressure on the piston in bar = p × 105 N/m2.
vf = Volume of water in m3 at pressure p, and
vg = Volume of steam in m3 at pressure p.

We know that work done during evaporation,

W = Pressure × Change in volume
= p × 105 × (vg - vf ) J
= 100 p × (vg - vf ) kJ

At low pressure, the volume of water (vf ) is very small, as compared to the volume of
steam (vg) [vf << vg]. Therefore neglecting the value of vf in the above equation,
W = 100p vg kJ
If the steam is not completely dry, and has dryness fraction x, then the work done,
W = 100p x vg kJ

If the steam is superheated, then the work done,

W = 100p vsup kJ
Internal energy of steam : It is the actual heat energy stored in steam, above the
freezing point of water. The internal energy may be calculated by subtracting the
external work done during evaporation from the enthalpy or total heat of steam.

Enthalpy=Internal Work + External Work

Mathematically,
Internal energy of steam (u)
= Enthalpy or total heat – External work done during evaporation.

 For wet steam

u = h – 100 p x vg = hf + x hf g - 100p x vg kj/kg

 For dry saturated steam

u = hg – 100 p vg = hf + hf g - 100p vg kj/kg
 For superheated steam
u = hsup – 100 p vsup = hg + cp(tsup - t)- 100pvsup kj/kg
Different Equations
 Enthalpy
 For wet steam
h = hf + x hf g kj/kg
 For dry saturated steam
h = hg = hf + hf g kj/kg

 For superheated steam

h = hsup = hg + cp(tsup - t) kj/kg
 Specific Volume

Wet steam:
volume of one of wet steam = xvg + (1 –x)vf

Dry steam:
volume of one of dry steam = vg

Superheated steam:
vsup / Tsup = vg /T
Or,
vsup = vg Tsup /T
 External Work Done during Evaporation
W = 100 p × (vfinal - vf ) kJ/kg

Wet steam:
W = 100 p × [xvg +(1 - x) vf - vf ] kJ/kg
If, [vf << vg] W = 100p x vg kJ

Dry saturated steam:

W = 100 p × (vg - vf ) kJ/kg
If, [v << v ]
f gW = 100 p × vg kJ/kg

Superheated steam:
W = 100p (vsup - vf ) kJ/kg
If, [v << v ]
f g
W = 100p vsup kJ/kg

Second equation can only applicable when vf is comparatively small respect to vg .

 Internal Energy
 For wet steam
u = h – 100 p × [xvg +(1 - x) vf - vf ]
= hf + x hf g - 100 p × [xvg +(1 - x) vf - vf ] kj/kg
Or,
u = h – 100 p x vg = hf + x hf g - 100p x vg kj/kg
 For dry saturated steam
u = hg – 100 p × (vg - vf )
= hf + hf g - 100 p × (vg - vf ) kj/kg
Or,
u = hg – 100 p vg = hf + hf g - 100p vg kj/kg
 For superheated steam
u = hsup – 100p (vsup - vf ) = hg + cp(tsup - t)- 100p (vsup - vf ) kj/kg
Or,

u = hsup – 100 p vsup = hg + cp(tsup - t)- 100pvsup kj/kg

Phase:
A quantity of matter homogeneous throughout in
chemical composition and physical structure is
called a phase.
Every substance can exist in any one of the three
phases, viz., solid, liquid and gas.
 Phase Transformation

AB - Warm up ice/solid until melting point

BC – Latent heat of fusion
CD – Sensible heat
DE – Vaporization
EF - Superheating

For all type of typical pure substances.

Fig: Phase transformation diagram at constant pressure.

Phase Transformation for normal substance

Normal substance : Increase volume during melting.

Water : Decrease volume during melting.

Specific volume
Phase Transformation for water

Water have maximum density or lowest specific volume a 4℃

due to Anomalous behavior of water.
Phase Transformation for water

Temperature Effects:
 Cooling below 4°C: As water cools, the molecules slow down, allowing
hydrogen bonds to form more efficiently. This causes the molecules to
arrange themselves in a more open, crystalline structure, similar to ice. This
structure takes up more space, so the density decreases.
 Warming above 4°C: As water warms above 4°C, the increased kinetic energy of
the molecules overcomes the hydrogen bonds, causing the molecules to move
further apart. This also leads to a decrease in density.
 The Sweet Spot at 4°C: At 4°C, there's a balance between the formation of
hydrogen bonds and the thermal motion of the molecules. This balance
results in the closest packing of water molecules, leading to the highest density.
Phase Transformation for water: : P-v-T Data
Phase Transformation for water: : P-v-T Data

 When pressure increases, it typically compresses

the solid phase, making it even harder to
transition to the liquid phase (which requires
more energy to overcome the ordered structure).

 For substances like water, bismuth, and gallium,

however, the solid phase is less dense than the
liquid phase. For these substances, the solid takes
up more volume than the liquid. So, under high
pressure, there’s a thermodynamic incentive to
shift to the denser (liquid) phase, even at lower
temperatures.
T – v phase diagram
Phase diagram:
A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy, and materials
science is a type of chart used to show conditions (pressure, temperature, volume,
etc.) at which thermodynamically distinct phases occur and coexist at equilibrium.

Types of phase diagram:

 2-D phase diagram : P – T , P – v , T – s , h – s

 3 – D phase diagram : P – v – T .
For water For normal substance

P – T phase diagram
P – T phase diagram of Water
 Sublimation curve: Separate solid and gaseous phase.
Vaporization curve: Separate liquid and gaseous
phase.
Melting or fusing curve: Separate solid and liquid.

Sublimation: Sublimation is a chemical process

where solid change to gaseous phase directly
without going through liquid stage.

Melting curve shows that:

 It has positive trend for normal substance, which
increase volume when melt from solid to liquid.
Triple point: Triple point of a substance is Indicate melting temperature increase slightly with
the temperature and pressure at which the increasing pressure.
three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance  Curve have negative trend for water. Indicate
coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium.
melting temperature decreasing with increasing
The triple point of pure water is at 0.01°C (273.16K, pressure.
32.01°F) and 611.2Pa.
P – v phase diagram
P – v- T phase diagram for normal substance
P – v- T phase diagram for normal substance
P – v- T phase diagram for normal substance
 Draw the p–v–T surface
diagram for a substance
expands upon freezing.

P – v- T phase diagram for normal substance

 Draw the p–v–T surface
diagram for a substance
contract upon freezing.

P – v- T phase diagram for water

Pressure

P – v- T phase diagram for water

 Mollier diagram ( h – s diagram)

Can use to get approximate value, whereas use

steam table for accurate value.

Sensible heat can not determine. Use steam

table for that.
Example 7.1 : i. Calculate the enthalpy of 1kg of steam at a constant pressure of 8 bar
and dryness fraction of 0.8.
ii. How much heat would be required to raise 2 kg of this steam from water
at 20 C
Example 7.2 : Determine the quantity of heat required to produce 1 kg of steam at a
pressure of 6 bar at a temperature of 25 C ,under the following conditions:
i. When the steam quality is 0.8.
ii. When the steam is dry saturated. (just invisible)
iii. When steam is at temperature 250 C at the given pressure.
Assume of vapor=2.3 kJ/kgK.
Example 7.3 : Determine the condition of steam in the following cases:
a) at a pressure of 10 bar and temperature 200 ℃.
b) at a pressure of 10 bar and volume 0.175 m3/kg.
Example 7.10 : Find the internal energy of 1 kg of superheated steam at a pressure of 10
bar and 280℃. If this steam be expanded to a pressure of 1.6 bar and 0.8
dry, determine the change in internal energy. Assume specific heat of
superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg K.

P (bar) t (C) v (m3/kg) hf (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg) hfg (kJ/kg)

Example 7.11 : A Closed Vessel contains 2 kg of steam at a pressure of 8 bar. Find the amount
of heat, which must be rejected, so as to reduce the quality of steam in the
cooker to be 70 % dry. Neglect the volume of water.

P (bar) t (C) v (m3/kg) hf (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg) hfg (kJ/kg)

Example 7.12 : Steam at 18 bar and dryness 0.9 is heated at constant pressure until dry and
saturated. Find the increase in volume, heat supplied and work done per kg
of steam.
If the volume is now kept constant, find how much heat must be
extracted to reduce the pressure to 14 bar.

P (bar) t (C) v (m3/kg) hf (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg) hfg (kJ/kg)

Example 9.3 :
A closed vessel of 0.2 contains steam at a pressure of 10 bar and a temperature
of 250 C. The vessel is cooled till the pressure of steam in the vessel drops to
3.5 bar.
Calculate:
i. The dryness fraction and temperature of the steam after it cools down.
ii. Change in internal energy.
iii. Heat Transfer.
 Home Work:
7.4 to 7.9 and 9.1,9.2
Thank You