Energy and

Disadvantages
a)
Although not much waste is produced, it is very very dangerous. It mus
and buried for many years to allow the radioactivity to die away.
b) Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety - if it does go
wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.

STEAM
All substances under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure can exist
in one of the three states, viz., solid, liquid or gas. But water is one of the pure
substances that exists in all the three phases namely, in the solid phase as ice,
liquid phase as water and gaseous phase as vapour (steam).
Most of the practical problems in thermal engineering are concerned with
liquid and gaseous phase rather than the solid phase. Water, which is liquid at
normal temperature begins to boil to form steam when heated su ciently. The
steam thus formed can be used as a working uid in the operation of steam
turbines. In practice, steam is generated in steam generators or popularly
known as 'BOILERS".

A pure substance is a homogenous material that retains its chemical composition even though
it undergoes a change in phase during a thermodynamic process.

A6) FORMATION OFSTEAM ATCONSTANTPRESSURE

Steam exists in three different states or conditions viz., wet steam, dry steam and superheated
steam. It is important to know the various properties of steam such as pressure, temperature,
enthalpy, speci c volume, internal energy and entropy for different conditions of steam. The
values of these properties are determined by a steam generation experiment.
Consider l kg. of water at °C taken in a cylinder tted with a freely moving piston. A
weight 'w' is placed over the piston as shown in Figure 1.7(a). The weight of the piston and
the weight 'w' placed over the piston exerts a constant pressure 'P' on the water.
Let y' be the volume occupied by the water. The condition of water at 0°C is represented
by a point "A' on the temperature-enthalpy (T-H) iagram as shown in Figure 1.8.
When water is heated at constant pressure it is converted to steam. The various stages
involved in this process are discussed below.
1. On heating, the temperature of the water rises and at a certain temperature water begins
to boil (evaporate). The temperature at which water starts boiling is known as saturation
temperatureand isdenotedby , The heating of water from 0°C to the saturation
temperature (1,) is shown by the line AB on T-H diagram. At this temperature, there is a
slight increase in the volume of water and this is shown in Figure 1.7 (b).
Note The saturation temperature depends on the pressure, i.e., for each pressure, there is
a different boiling point. If the pressure is increased, the saturation temperature also
increases. At atmospheric pressure (1.08 Bar) its value is 100°C.
181ispil

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16 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Saturated liquid
+
Water at boiling water vapour
temp. t. °C at t.°C
Cylinder
Water at
0°C

..:
Piston.

1.
Heat Hcat
(a) (6) (c)
Superhcated
Dry slcam
steam at tsup "C
at °C

Vsup

Heat Heat
(d (e)

Figure 1.7 Formation of steam at constant pressure

'sup-

Superheating
o h, = sensible heat
Vapourizing
hg =latent heat
hsup = Superhcat

beating
tet Liquid + vapour
Superheated
( ,= saturationtemp.
region
mixture sup = Superheat temp.
Liquid
region

0c| hg
h, =h+hg
"sup

+ Enthalpy (H)
Figure 1.8 Temperature-enthalPy diagram

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 sigh no Energy and Steam 19

2. When water is heated beyond the saturation temperature, there will beno rise in
temperature, but evaporation of water takes place. In other words, water starts converting
into steam. At this stage, water exists as a two-phase mixture containing saturated liquid
and water vapour occupying volume V' as shown in Figure 1.7 (c). The steam in this
condition is called 'wet steam'. Evaporation of water continues at the same saturation
temperature until the whole of the water is completely converted into steam. This
process is shown by the line BC on T-H diagram.
3. At point 'C', the steam formed does not contain water vapour (water particles in
suspension) and hence the steam in this state is called 'dry steam' or 'dry saturated
steam'. The volume occupied by the dry steam is shown in Figure 1.7 (d).
4. If heating is further continued at point 'C", the temperature of the steam increases above
the saturation temperature and this temperature is called 'superheat temperature'
denoted by tsun- The steam in this condition is called 'superheated steam'.

The process of heating the dry steam is called 'superheating' and is shown by the line
CD on T-H diagram. The volume occupied by the superheated steam is shown in Figure
1.7 (e).
Thus, the steam generated exists in three different states as wet steam, dry saturated steam
and superheated steam.

1.7 TYPESOFSTEAM/CONDITIONOFSTEAM . 1hstqnexsto4

The steam generated by heating water exists in three different states namely wet steam, dry
steam(drysaturatedsteam)andsuperheatedsteam. T91n e 4a91t isiul) Is9d stai2ns2(d
yWet steam
It is de ned as a two-phase mixture containing saturated liquid and vapour (steam) formed at
the saturation temperature and at a given pressure. The vapour or steam formed contains
small water particles held in suspension that has not yet absorbed the latent heat and
evaporated.

) Drysaturated
steam(Drysteam) h
Dry steam is a pure steam that does not contain water particles in suspension. It is de ned as
the steam that exists completely in pure vapour form at the saturation temperature and at a
given pressure.

YSuperheated
steam
It is de ned as the steam that is heated beyond its dry saturated state to a temperature higher
than its saturation temperature at a given pressure. The temperature at which the superheated
steam is formed is called the 'superheat temperature denoted by tsun:

Advantages of superheated steam

Superheated steam is extensively used in process industries and steam power plants due to its
superior properties. The following are some of the advantages of superheated steam.
1. The heat content of superheated steam is high and hence the capacity to do work is
greater.Thismakesit touseforpower
generation. o nuune.0 se lovqlatinal

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 20 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

2. Due to high temperature, superheated steam gives higher thermal ef ciency and
minimizes the speci c consumption of steam when used in turbines.
3 As there is no moisture content in superheated steam, erosion/corrosion of turbine blades
are minimized.
4. Superheating is done in a superheater, that obtains heat from waste burnt gases. This
improves ef ciency of the boiler.

1.8 STEAM PROPERTIES

Note Students are advised to refer temperature-enthalpy (T-H) diagram shown in gure 1.8
for clear understanding of the following de nitions.
ayDrynessfraction
It is de ned as the ratio of mass of dry steam present in a known quantity of wet steam to the
total mass of wet steam. The dryness fraction refers to the quality of steam or an indication
of the extent of dryness of steam. It is denoted by 'x'.
mass of dry steam present in wet steam m.
Dryness fraction (x) =
mass of wet steam m, +m,
where m, = mass of dry steam and

m,= massofsuspendedwaterparticles.
For example, if 1 kg. of wet steam contains 0.9 kg. of dry vapour, then dryness fraction
x=0.9. Forwetsteam0 <x <l andfor drysteam x=1.
6) Sensibleheat (Total heat of water or enthalpy of saturated water) sta
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg. of water from 0°C to
saturation temperature (1) at a given pressure. It is denoted by h,

é) Latent heat of evaporation (Enthalpy of evaporation)

It is the amount of heat required to convert 1 kg. of water at the saturation temperature ()
to 1 kg. of dry saturatedsteam at the sametemperature () and at a given pressure.
á)Superheat
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of dry saturated steam above its
saturation temperature at a given pressure. The process is known as superheating.

e) Degree of superheat
It is de ned as the difference between the superheat temperature )and the saturation
sup

temperature(1,).|Degreeofsuperheat=pup -!,
f) Enthalpy of steam
Enthalpy (total heat) is de ned as the sum of Internal energy (U) and the product of pressure
(P) and volume (V). It is denoted by h' and expressed in kJ/kg.

Enthalpyh= U+ Pv
Enthalpy of steam is the amount of heat energy contained in a unit mass of steam.

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 anonigrd iooin EnergyandSteam 21

) Enthalpy of wet steam

Enthalpy of wet steam is de ned as the amount of heat required at a given pressure to
convert 1 kg. of water at 0°C to 1 kg. of wet steam at a given dryness fraction. It is denoted
by 'h' andisgivenby h, =h, + xh, kJ/kg!
where h, =sensibleheat
0 n h, =latentheatorlatentheatofevaporationand
x=dryness
fraction.
i) Enthalpy of dry saturated steam
It is de ned as the amount of heat required at a given pressure to convert 1 kg. of water at
0°C to 1 kg. of dry saturated steam at the saturation temperature. It is denoted by h,' and

isgivenby|4, =h, thạ'

btu9esqelosuioritraqe i
(We known that h, =h, + xh. Dry steamexistscompletely in pure vapour form. Hence
x=l. .h, =h, +h,)
ii) Enthalpyofsuperheatedsteam
It is de ned as the amount of heat required at a given pressure to convert 1 kg. of water at
0°C to 1 kg. of superheated steam at the given superheat temperature. It is denoted by hup

and is given by} A =h,+Ck 4)

where h, =enthalpyofdrysteam se 1onulo nuo e iozesnoal
Isup Superheat temperature
1, = saturation temperature and
Cp = Speci c heat ofsuperheatedsteam

PSpeci c heat of a substance is de ned as the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a
unit mass of substance through one degree. It is different for different substances.

Speci c volume ofsteam

Speci c volume of steam is de ned as the volume occupied by a unit mass of steam at a
given temperature and pressure. It is expressed in m’/kg.

Speci c volume of saturated water

It is de ned as the volume occupied by 1 kg. of water at the saturation temperature and at a
given pressure. It is denoted by Ve

(in Speci c volume of wetsteanm

Wet steam contains a two-phase mixture of saturated water and vapour (steam). Hence
speci c volume of wet steam is de ned as the volume occupied by the saturated water and
vapour at a given pressure. It is denoted by V,, and is given by:

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 22 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

V,=(1-x)-V,+*V,
where x =dryness fraction ofsteam
V, = speci c volume of dry steamand

V,= speci cvolumeofsaturatedwater

X At low pressure, V, is very small compared to V, and hence the term (1-x): V, can be
neglected.Hencespeci cvolumeof wet steam V, =xV,

ii) Speci cvolumeof drysaturatedsteam

It is de ned as the volume occupied by 1 kg. of dry saturated steam at the saturation
temperature and at a given pressure. It is denoted by V,

iv) Speci cvolume ofsuperheatedsteam

It is de ned as the volume occupied by 1 kg. of superheated steam at the superheat
temperature suJand at a given pressure. It is denoted by Vsup

Superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas. Therefore, according to Charles law, we have

I'sup
V V,sup where
where supand t, are in Kelvin.

Density of steam
It is the mass of steam per unit volume of steam at the given pressure and temperature. It is
the reciprocal of speci c volume.
1

t
p=; whereV=speci cvolumeofsteam.
1

am PwxV
NoteDensityof wetsteam =P, = and

Densityofdrysteam =P= because x=1 for dry steam.

yBxternal work ofevaporation

When water at saturation temperature is heated at constant pressure, it gets converted into
steam by absorbing the latent heat. A part of this latent heat is used to move the piston due to
the increase in volume of steam during evaporation. Refer Figure 1.7. The work done, due to
change in volume of steam from V, to V, is called external work of evaporation.

Externalworkofevaporation = W = 100.P(V, -V,)

where P = pressure in bar.

At low pressure, V, is very small and hence can be neglected. Hence W =100.P.V,

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 nnig is Energyand
Steam 23

For wetsteamofdrynessfraction '*', W, =100.P.x.V,

rdrysteamW, =100.P.V.
Forsuperheatedsteam, Weup=100.P.Vu
Note The remaining part of the latent heat is used to overcome the internal resistance of
water molecules to the change of phase of substance. It is called the internal latent heat and
may be obtained by subtracting the external work of evaporation from the latent heat.

Therefore internal latent heat = xh, -100PXV, kJ/kg.

itnternal energy
Every substance has de nite amount of heat energy stored in it. The actual heat energy
stored in the steam is known as 'internal energy of steam' and can be obtained by subtracting
the external work of evaporation from enthalpy of steam.
For example, enthalpy of dry steam is equal to the sum of sensible heat, internal latent heat
and external work of evaporation. But work of evaporation is not stored in the steam, as it is
utilized in doing external work, say movement of piston. Hence, internal energy of steam is
found by subtracting external work of evaporation from enthalpy of dry steam.
Internal energy = Enthalpy of steam - external work ofevaporation
Forwetsteam, U,, =h, +x hp -100.P.x.V, kJkg
For drysteam, U, = h, -100.P.V,. kJ/kg
For superheatedsteam,U,sun h,u-100.P,Vu kJ/kg

-b, +ct.g-4) -100.PV,,KJK8

1.9 STEAM BOILERS
A boiler is a closed metallic vessel in which steam at the desired pressure and temperature
can be generated from water by the application of heat. Boilers are also called 'steam
generators'. The steam thus generated can be used to generate power as in the case of steam
turbines and for other industrial purposes (Sugar factories, Breweries etc.).

Function of boilers
The function of a boiler is to supply steam at the desired constant pressure. The steam
supplied may be either dry saturated or superheated steam.

1.10 CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

Boilers are classi ed as follows.

a) According to the circulation of water and hot gases

- Fire Tube boiler
- Water tube boiler

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 24 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

21119

d Fire tube or
ue tube ofde
Flow of
hot gas

Water tube Water

Water

8 Grate :Grate
Figure 1.9 Flow of water and hot Figure 1.10 Flow of water and hot
gas in re tube boiler 1 gas in water tube boiler

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 yritssgrd laoinEnergyandSteam

Fire tube boiler

In re tube boilers, the hot ue gases produced by the combustion of fuel pass through the
tubes which are surrounded by water. The tubes used may be single tube or a nest of tubes.
Example Cochran boiler, Cornish boiler, Lancashire boiler Locomotive boiler, Scotch
marine boiler etc., The ow of water and hot gases is shown in Figure 1.9.
Water tube boilers
In water tube boilers, water circulates inside the tubes while the hot gases produced by the
combustion of fuel pass around the tubes. The ow of water and hot gases are shown in
Figure 1.10. Example of water tube boilers include Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling
boiler, Yarrow boiler, etc.
b) According to the location of furnace
Internally red and
- Externally red boiler.

Internally red boiler

In these boilers, the furnace is situated inside the boiler shell. Most of the re tube boilers are
internally red.
Externally red boiler
Furnace is situated outside the boiler shel. Water tube boilers are always externally red.
c) According to the circulation of water
- Natural circulation and
Forced circulation
Natural circulation
In these boilers, water is circulated by natural convection currents that are set up due to the
temperature difference. Most of the boilers of low capacity fall under this category.
Forced circulation
Water is circulated with the help of a pump driven by a motor. Forced circulation is used
only in high pressure and high capacity boilers viz., La Mont boiler, Benson boiler etc.
d) According to the axis of the shell
- Vertical boilers and
- Horizontal boilers.

Vertical boiler
Axis of the boiler shell is vertical. Example Cochran Boiler.
Horizontal boiler
Axis of the boiler shell is horizontal. Example Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Lancashire
boiler, etc.
e) According to their uses
Stationary boiler
- Locomotive boiler
- Marine, etc.

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 30 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

From the side channels, the hot gases pass to the rear end of the boiler shell and passOuy
through the chimney.
The steam thus formed gets separated from the surface of the water and collects in thesteam
space. The steam from the steam space is taken out through the steam stop valve and then
used for various applications.
The boiler is mounted with various mountings and accessories as shown in the gure.

1.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WATER TUBE BOILERS AND FIRE

TUBE BOILERS
Table 1.2 Difference between Water Tube Boilers and Fire Tube Boilers

SI. No. Water Tube Boilers Fire Tube Boilers

1. In water tube boilers, water In re tube boilers, hot gases pass inside
circulates inside the tubes and the the tubes and water surrounds the tubes.
hot gases surround the water tubes.
2 Furnace is situated outside the boiler Furnace is situated inside the boiler
shell. shell.
3 Water circulates between the drum Water circulates within the boiler drum
and the tubes maintaining a closed only.
circuit.
4 Since the combustion space is large, Combustion ef ciency is low, as

complete combustion of fuel is combustion takes place in a small space

possible. within the boiler shell.
5. Steam generation rate is fast. Slow.
6. Evaporatingcapacityis high. Rate of evaporation is low.
7. Thermalef ciencyishigh. Low.
8. All parts of water tube boilers are Cleaning, inspection and repairing is
easily accessible for cleaning, dif cult due to inaccessible parts.
inspection andrepair.
9. High cost Low cost
10. Water tube boilers are used in powerAs the steam generation rate is slow and
plants (for generating power) as also the pressure developed being less,
high-pressure steam can be re tube boilers are not used in power
generated at a very fast rate. plants. They are mostly used in process
industries orindustrialplants.
1.14 BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
Boiler mnountings are devices mounted ( tted) over the boiler shell in order to ensure safe
operation, ef cient working, control steam generation and easy maintenance of the boiler.
Boiler mountings include Water level indicators, Pressure gauge, Safety valves, Feed valve,
Blow-off cock and Fusible plug.
Boiler accessories are auxiliary parts required for smooth functioning and to increase the
overall ef ciency of the boiler.
Boiler accessories include Economizer, Air-preheater, Superheater, Steam separator, Steam
trap and Feed pump.

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 i
ntsosigstnt Energy and Steam 31

1.14.1BoilerMountings(BoilerFittings) bd isotnugsleparnn4olt 1
Thevarious boiler mountingsusedandtheirfunctionsareexplainedbrie y below. o
a) Water level indicator
The function of water level indicator is to indicate the level of water inside the water drum.
This enables the operator to control the ow of water into the drum as and when desired.
Two water level indicators (one serves as a stand-by) are tted at the front end of the boiler
drum so that they are clearly visible to the operator. bs
b) Pressure gauge
It indicates the pressure of the steam developed inside the boiler. The readings shown by the
pressure gauge may be in Bar or kgt/cm´or kN/m“gauge pressure. The pressure gauge is
usually mounted in the front end, at the top of the boiler shell.
c) Safety valve
Safety valves are used to maintain a constant safe pressure inside the boiler. All boilers are
designed to withstand upto a certain pressure called the 'design pressure'. When the pressure
of the steam exceeds the design pressure, the safety valve automatically opens and
discharges the excess steam to the atmosphere, thus maintaining the safety of the boiler.
Safety valves are placed directly on the top of the boiler shell. The commonly used safety
valves are 9260

Spring
loaded
safetyvalve t T9Sitoo99
sd119widbos
Lever safety valve and
- Dead weight safety valve.
31299qu&(o
d)Steamstop valve/ Junction valve2go sbs2
The function of this device is to control the ow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipes
orfromonesteampipetotheotherpipe. 5ll oit t
When the valve is placed directly over the boiler, it is called "junction valve'. This valve is
connected to a steam pipe for the ow of steam from the boiler to the engine.s42e risSl2 (b
When thevalve isplaced inbetweentwosteampipes, it iscalled 'stopvalve'. L De A
e) Feed check valve or feed valve
The function of the feed check valve is to control the supply of water into the boiler and also
to prevent any water escaping back from the boiler in the event of failure of feed pump. It is
tted over the shell below the normal water level of the boiler.

f) Blow-off cock
The function of the blow-off cock valve is
To empty the boiler (remove water completely), when the boiler has to be cleaned or
inspected.
To remove periodically the sediments (mud, scales or other impurities) collected at
the bottom of the boiler during operation.
g) Fusible plug
The function of the fusible plug is to extinguish the re in the furnace when the water level
falls much below the normal level. It is tted over the combustion chamber at its
appropriate place.

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 32 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

The plug consists of a gun metal body with a core made of some fusible alloy that melts
low temperature.
At normal conditions, the plug is covered with water that keeps the temperature of theply
below its melting point. But when the water level falls below the lower limit, the boilershe!
will be overheated.
In such conditions, the high temperature of the shell melts the fusible plug and forms a
opening. The plug drops down and the high pressure steam pushes the water through thị
hole on the grate and the re is extinguished.

iil beo bsqiys mtot2ss to m 91

1.14.2 Boiler Accessories
a) Economizer
An economizer is a device used to heat the feed water (water that enters the water drum)by
extracting the heat from the gases that are passing out of the chimney. The economizeris
placed in between the boiler exit and the chimney entrance.Y
b) Air-preheater
The function of the air-preheater is to extract the heat from the gases that are passing outof
the chimney. The heat extracted is utilized for heating the air that is supplied for the
combustion of fuel in the furnace.
The air-preheater is placed between the economizer and the chimney entrance.

c) Superheater
The function of the superheater is to increase the temperature of steam above itssaturation
temperature. The dry steam produced is made to pass through the U-tubes of thesuperheatet
The superheater which is placed in the combustion chamber (below the boiler drum) is
exposed directly to the hot gases coming from the furnace and as a result the temperature o
the dry steam increases above the saturation temperature.

d)
Steam
separator o
A steam separator is a device, which is used to separate the water particles in suspension
present in the steam before it enters the turbine or engines. The steam separator isalways
placed closer to the engines or turbines.

e) Steam trap
It is used to drain off the condensed water accumulated in the steam pipes and stean
separator without allowing the escape of high pressure steam from it.

f) Feed pump
The function of the feed pump is to pump the water at high pressure into the water drum. T
commonly used feed pumps are reciprocating pump and rotary pump.
List of formulas
1. Enthalpy of water (h,)

h,= Cts-) KJK8

wheret =temperatureofwater

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