IGCSE CHEMISTRY LESSON 1

Content

The iGCSE
Section 1 Principles of Chemistry
Chemistry
Section 2 Chemistry of the Elements
course
Section 3 Organic Chemistry

Section 4 Physical Chemistry

Section 5 Chemistry in Society

 Content

Section 1
a) States of matter
b) Atoms
Principles c) Atomic structure
of d) Relative formula mass
Chemistry e) Chemical formulae and
chemical equations
f) Ionic compounds
g) Covalent substances
h) Metallic crystals
i) Electrolysis
 Content

Lesson 1
1.1 understand the arrangement, movement
and energy of the particles in each of the three
a)States of states of matter: solid, liquid and gas

matter 1.2 describe how the interconversion of solids,

b)Atoms liquids and gases are achieved and recall the
names used for these interconversions
c)Atomic
structure 1.3 describe the changes in arrangement,
movement and energy of particles during these
interconversions.
 What’s the difference?

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape

Can you
pour?
Can you
stir?
Can you
squash?
 What’s the difference?

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Fixed Can be No shape

changed
Can you No Yes Yes?
pour?
Can you No Yes Yes?
stir?
Can you No Yes? Yes
squash?
Changes of State

Gas

Liquid

Solid
 Changes of State

Gas

Liquid

melting {
Solid
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid

melting {
Solid
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid
} condensing

melting {
Solid
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid
} condensing

melting { } freezing

Solid
 Changes of State

Gas

Liquid

Particles are fixed in place and cannot move

Solid
 Changes of State

Gas

Particles are free to move within a

Liquid container

Particles are fixed in place and cannot move

Solid
 Changes of State

Particles are free to move about

Gas

Particles are free to move within a

Liquid container

Particles are fixed in place and cannot move

Solid
 SOLIDS
• Strong forces of
attraction
• held in fixed position
• lattice arrangement
• don’t move, so have
definite shape and volume
• vibrate
 SOLIDS

• as they become hotter,

the particles vibrate more.
• so they expand
• can’t be compressed
• generally very dense
 SOLIDS

• when heated, molecules

gain energy.
• they vibrate more and
more
• strong forces are
overcome, molecules start
to move = MELTED
 LIQUIDS
• Some attraction between
molecules.
• free to move
• no definite shape, but
take shape of container
• molecules in constantly
random motion
 LIQUIDS

• when heated, they

move faster and expand
• can’t be compressed
• quite dense
 LIQUIDS

• heat makes the

molecules move faster as
they gain energy.
• fast moving molecules
at the surface will
overcome forces of
attraction and escape =
EVAPORATION
 GASES
• no force of attraction
• free to move, travel in
straight lines
• sometimes collide
• no definite shape or
volume, expand to fill
space
 GASES

• exert pressure on wall of

container
• constantly moving
randomly
• move faster when
heated
• can be compressed
• very low densities
 GASES

• when heated enough,

molecules have enough
speed and energy to
overcome forces and
escape each other.
• molecules break away in
big bubbles of gas =
BOILING
 Heating

Gas

Boiling point

Liquid

Melting point

Solid

Time
 Cooling

Gas

Condensing
Liquid

Freezing
Solid

Time
 Content

Lesson 1
1.4 describe simple experiments leading to the
idea of the small size of particles and their
a)States of movement including:
i dilution of coloured solutions
matter ii diffusion experiments
b)Atoms
1.5 understand the terms atom and molecule
c)Atomic
structure 1.6 understand the differences between
elements, compounds and mixtures

1.7 describe techniques for the separation of

mixtures, including simple distillation, fractional
distillation, filtration, crystallisation and paper
chromatography.
 Evidence of particles
Particles are very, very small, but what
evidence do we have that they actually
exist?

Two simple experiments help us to prove

their existence:

1.Dilution of coloured solutions

2.Diffusion experiments
Dilution of coloured solutions

Blue copper sulphate

crystal
Dilution of coloured solutions

Blue copper sulphate

solution
Dilution of coloured solutions

Dilution, 10cm3 copper

sulphate solution + 90cm3
water
Dilution of coloured solutions

Dilution, 10cm3 copper

sulphate solution + 90cm3
water
Dilution of coloured solutions

Dilution, 10cm3 copper

sulphate solution + 90cm3
water
Dilution of coloured solutions

Serial dilution of a solution such

as copper sulphate provides
evidence that the original crystal
was made up of many small
particles that spread out evenly
when the solution is diluted by
adding water.
Evidence of particles – diffusion experiments

Spray air freshener in the

corner of a room
Evidence of particles – diffusion experiments

Particles spread
out in all
directions
Evidence of particles – diffusion experiments

Eventually the particles

occupy the whole room
Evidence of particles – diffusion experiments

Other examples of diffusion

include:

Smell of frying bacon from a

kitchen

Leaking of air from inside a

balloon

Sugar dissolving in a cup of

tea
Evidence of particles – diffusion experiments

Diffusion is the movement of

particles from areas of high
concentration to areas of
low concentration until they
are evenly spread. Diffusion
depends upon the random
movement of particles.
Evidence of particles – diffusion experiments

Diffusion is the movement of

particles from areas of high
concentration to areas of
low concentration until they
are evenly spread. Diffusion
depends upon the random
movement of particles.

Diffusion is slower in liquids

than in gases because liquid
particles are not as free to
move as gas particles.
 Atoms and Molecules

The basic building blocks of everything that

we see in the Universe are atoms. The word
‘atom’ basically means ‘indivisible’.
 Atoms and Molecules

The basic building blocks of everything that

we see in the Universe are atoms. The word
‘atom’ basically means ‘indivisible’.

Combinations of atoms are called molecules.

For example:

O2 - a molecule of oxygen

H2O - a molecule of water

Elements, mixtures and compounds
 Elements, mixtures and compounds

Cu
Cu An element consists
of one type of atom
Cu only. For example,
pure copper consists
Cu
of copper atoms only.
Cu
Elements, mixtures and compounds

S
Fe
Fe A mixture consists of
S different types of
atoms that are not
S chemically bonded.
S
Fe
 Elements, mixtures and compounds

S
Fe
Fe A mixture consists of
S different types of
atoms that are not
S chemically bonded.
S
Fe

1. Particles in a mixture can all be separated out quite

easily.
2. No chemical bonds exist
3. Properties of the mixture are just a mixture of the
properties of the separate parts.
Elements, mixtures and compounds

S Fe In a compound the
Fe particles are held
S together by strong
forces called chemical
bonds. A chemical
C reaction will have
O O taken place.
 Elements, mixtures and compounds

S Fe In a compound the
Fe particles are held
S together by strong
forces called chemical
bonds. A chemical
C reaction will have
O O taken place.

1. Particles in a compound are very difficult to separate.

2. The properties of a compound are very different to
the properties of the original elements.
You need to be able to describe techniques
for separating mixtures.
You need to be able to describe techniques
for separating mixtures.

Filtration
Simple distillation
Fractional distillation
Crystallisation
Paper chromatography
Filtration

Filtration depends
upon the different
size of particles in
a mixture.
The filtrate passes
through the filter
paper, the residue
is left behind.
The technique is used to
separate an insoluble
solid from a liquid, eg.
sand and water.
Simple distillation
Simple distillation
depends upon the
different boiling
points in a
mixture.
The lowest boiling
point evaporates
first and can be
collected

The technique is used to

separate a soluble solid
and a liquid, eg. pure
water from salty water.
Fractional distillation

Fractional
distillation is used
to separate two
liquids that have
different boiling
points.

The technique is used to

separate mixtures such
as ethanol and water
Crystallisation

Crystallisation is
used to separate
a soluble solid
from a liquid
when you want to
collect the solid.

The technique is used to

separate mixtures such
as salt and water when
the salt is required.
Paper chromatography

Chromatography
is used to
separate and
identify mixtures
that are, or can
be, coloured.

The technique is used to

separate mixtures such
as the pigments in an ink
sample.
 Content
1.8 recall that atoms consist of a central nucleus,
composed of protons and neutrons,
Lesson 1 surrounded by electrons, orbiting in shells
1.9 recall the relative mass and relative charge of a
proton, neutron and electron
a)States of 1.10 understand the terms atomic number, mass
matter number, isotopes and relative atomic
mass (Ar)
b)Atoms 1.11 calculate the relative atomic mass of an element
c)Atomic from the relative abundances of its
isotopes
structure 1.12 understand that the Periodic Table is an
arrangement of elements in order of atomic
number
1.13 deduce the electronic configurations of the first
20 elements from their positions in the
Periodic Table
1.14 deduce the number of outer electrons in a main
group element from its position in the
Periodic Table.
 The size of an atom

This is the head of a pin. Millions of atoms would

fit onto it.
 A spoonful of sugar

A spoonful of sugar would contain about:

602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms!
So, atoms are
very, very,
small!
An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that can exist.

Cut a diamond up with a “magic knife” until

you have the smallest piece possible, and
you have a ….

CARBON ATOM
This is a block of GOLD

Being an ELEMENT, it is a
PURE substance, so it
contains particles of only
ONE kind …

GOLD
ATOMS
THE ATOM
THE ATOM

THE NUCLEUS
THE ATOM

THE NUCLEUS
• middle of the atom
• contains protons and
neutrons
• positive charge (protons are
positive)
• almost all atom mass is
concentrated in the nucleus
• tiny compared to the atom
as a whole
THE ATOM

THE ELECTRONS
THE ATOM

THE ELECTRONS
• move around the nucleus
• Negatively charged
• tiny, but cover a lot of
space
• orbit volume determines
size of the atom
• virtually no mass
• occupy orbits or shells
around the nucleus
FACTS ABOUT THE
ATOM!
 FACTS ABOUT THE
ATOM!

1. NEUTRAL ATOMS HAVE NO CHARGE OVERALL

2. CHARGE ON THE ELECTRONS IS THE SAME SIZE AS THE

CHARGE ON THE PROTONS BUT OPPOSITE

3. IN A NEUTRAL ATOM THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS

EQUALS THE NUMBER OF PROTONS

4. ELECTRONS MAY BE LOST OR GAINED. THE ATOM THEN

BECOMES CHARGED, AND IS KNOWN AS AN ION

5. NEUTRON NUMBERS ARE USUALLY JUST A BIT HIGHER

THAN PROTON NUMBERS, BUT CAN CHANGE
 FACTS ABOUT THE
ATOM!

Particle Mass Charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0

Electron 1/2000 -1
Atomic Mass and Mass Number
Atomic Mass and Mass Number

23
Na
11

Symbol for sodium

 Atomic Mass and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of
protons and neutrons
23
Na
11
 Atomic Mass and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of
protons and neutrons
23

ATOMIC NUMBER
Na
11
= number of protons
(also electrons)
 Atomic Mass and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of
protons and neutrons
23

ATOMIC NUMBER
Na
11
= number of protons
(also electrons)

Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic

number
 Atomic Number and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of
protons and neutrons
23

ATOMIC NUMBER
Na
11
= number of protons
(also electrons)

Mass number is always bigger than the atomic

number
 Atomic Mass and Mass Number

MASS NUMBER
= total number of
protons and neutrons
23

ATOMIC NUMBER
Na
11
= number of protons
(also electrons)

For sodium: protons = 11, electrons = 11,

neutrons = 12
What is an isotope?
 What is an isotope?

ISOTOPES ARE: different atomic forms of the

same element, having the same number of
PROTONS but different numbers of NEUTRONS
 What is an isotope?

ISOTOPES ARE: different atomic forms of the

same element, having the same number of
PROTONS but different numbers of NEUTRONS

FOR EXAMPLE, there are two common forms of carbon:

Carbon 12
12
6
C Protons = 6
Neutrons = 6
Electrons = 6
 What is an isotope?

ISOTOPES ARE: different atomic forms of the

same element, having the same number of
PROTONS but different numbers of NEUTRONS

FOR EXAMPLE, there are two common forms of carbon:

Carbon 12 Carbon 14
12 14
6
C Protons = 6
6
C Protons = 6
Neutrons = 6 Neutrons = 8
Electrons = 6 Electrons = 6
 What is an isotope?

ISOTOPES ARE: different atomic forms of the

same element, having the same number of
PROTONS but different numbers of NEUTRONS

FOR EXAMPLE, there are two common forms of carbon:

Carbon 12 Carbon 14
12 14
6
C Protons = 6
6
C Protons = 6
Neutrons = 6 Neutrons = 8
Electrons = 6 Electrons = 6

Chemical properties are the same because the different number of

neutrons in the nucleus doesn’t affect the chemical behaviour at all.
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

By definition: “mass of a particular atom

compared to the mass of an atom of
hydrogen”
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

By definition: “mass of a particular atom

compared to the mass of an atom of
hydrogen”

Relative atomic mass is also the same as the

mass number – it’s that simple!
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

By definition: “mass of a particular atom

compared to the mass of an atom of
hydrogen”

Relative atomic mass is also the same as the

mass number – it’s that simple!

So why do some atoms have odd-looking

relative atomic masses? 35.5
17
Eg: Cl
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

By definition: “mass of a particular atom

compared to the mass of an atom of
hydrogen”

Relative atomic mass is also the same as the

mass number – it’s that simple!

So why do some atoms have odd-looking

relative atomic masses? 35.5
17
Eg: Cl
Why has chlorine got a relative atomic mass (or mass number) of 35.5?
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

It’s because chlorine has two common isotopes

(remember those?)

35 37
17
C AND 17
Cl
l
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

It’s because chlorine has two common isotopes

(remember those?)

35 37
17
C AND 17
Cl
l
They are found naturally in the ratio
3:1
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

It’s because chlorine has two common isotopes

(remember those?)

35 37
17
C AND 17
Cl
l
They are found naturally in the ratio
3:1
So the average relative atomic mass =
35 + 35 + 35 + 37 = 35.5
4
 What is RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?

It’s because chlorine has two common isotopes

(remember those?)

35 37
17
C AND 17
Cl
l
They are found naturally in the ratio
3:1
So the average relative atomic mass =
35 + 35 + 35 + 37 = 35.5
4
35.5
So chlorine is written
17
C
as: l
 Where do we find the relative
atomic mass and atomic number
of an element, and so calculate
the number of protons, neutrons
and electrons in an atom?
 Where do we find the relative
atomic mass and atomic number
of an element, and so calculate
the number of protons, neutrons
and electrons in an atom?

We look in
the
Periodic
Table!
 Vertical columns
are called GROUPS,
and numbered from
1 to 8
 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8
 Horizontal rows are
called PERIODS, and
numbered from 1 to 7
1

7
So for any given element we can
read off the group and period
number.
So for any given element we can
read off the group and period
number.

For example:
Silicon (Si) is Group 4 and Period
3
So for any given element we can
read off the group and period
number.

For example:
Silicon (Si) is Group 4 and Period
3

Also, for any given element we

can record the Atomic Number
and Relative Atomic Mass
Atomic number (4)

Relative Atomic Mass (9)

Let’s just pause and recap a second ………
Let’s just pause and recap a second ………

You should now know how to find out for

any given element:

The Relative Atomic Mass (Mass number)

The Atomic Number
The Number of Protons
The Number of Neutrons
The Number of Electrons

Are you ready for some practice?

 Relative Number Number
Atomic Number
Element Symbol number
atomic
of protons
of of
mass neutrons electrons

Hydrogen 1 1

Li 7 4

Potassium 19 20

Beryllium 5 4

Ca 20 20

Iron 56 30

Boron 6 5

Ne 10 10
 Relative Number Number
Atomic Number
Element Symbol number
atomic
of protons
of of
mass neutrons electrons

Hydrogen H 1 1 1 0 1

Lithium Li 3 7 3 4 3

Potassium K 19 39 19 20 19

Beryllium Be 4 9 4 5 4

Calcium Ca 20 40 20 20 20

Iron Fe 26 56 26 30 26

Boron B 5 11 5 6 5

Neon Ne 10 20 10 10 10
Note: the Periodic Table
is arranged in order of
increasing atomic
number, not mass
number.
Do you remember that
electrons are found in orbits (or
shells) around the nucleus?
 Do you remember that
electrons are found in orbits (or
shells) around the nucleus?

The orbits can only hold a certain

number of electrons:
 Do you remember that
electrons are found in orbits (or
shells) around the nucleus?

The orbits can only hold a certain

number of electrons:
The first orbit can hold up to 2 electrons
The second orbit can hold up to 8
electrons
The third orbit can hold up to 8 electrons

Let’s look at some examples:

Lithium has an atomic number
of 3 so has 3 electrons.

The first 2 electrons go into the

first orbit (shell) and the
remaining electron goes into
the second orbit.
Lithium has an atomic number
of 3 so has 3 electrons.

The first 2 electrons go into the

first orbit (shell) and the
remaining electron goes into
the second orbit.

The electron configuration

(arrangement) can also be
written in this format.
Silicon has an atomic number
of 14 so has 14 electrons.

The first 2 electrons go into the

first orbit (shell), the next 8 go
into the second orbit, and the
remaining 4 electrons go into
the third orbit.

To make sure you

understand this, try
drawing the electron
configurations for the first
20 elements (hydrogen to
calcium)
The Periodic Table can
also help us when we
are trying to work out
the electron
configuration of a
particular element.
 The Group Number tells you how
many electrons there are in the outer
shell (orbit) of an element.
For example, oxygen is in Group 6, so
has 6 electrons in its outermost shell
(2:6)
The Period Number
tells you how many
shells (orbits) there
are around the
nucleus.
For example,
Calcium is in Period
4, so will have 4
shells around the
nucleus
The Period Number
tells you how many
shells (orbits) there
are around the
nucleus.
For example,
Calcium is in Period
4, so will have 4
shells around the
nucleus
 End of Lesson 1

In this lesson we have covered:

States of Matter

Atoms

Atomic structure