Science Reviewer
Science Reviewer
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Lesson 1: Matter
Matter
- It is made up of tiny particles. These particles are arranged depending on their states.
● The arrangement of particles of each state gives matter its own unique properties.
Solid
- It has definite shape and volume because its particles are closely packde together in a fixed
position.
➢ These particles vibrate and are held together by strong attractive forces.
Liquid
- It has a definite volume and takes the shape of the container. LIQUID flows easily because its
particles have enough space and have less attractive forces.
Gas
- It takes the volume and shape of the container
➢ Gas particles are far from each other that is why they have a weak attractive force and
can flow easily.
➢ They occupy the entire space available. The large spaces in between particles allows
particles to be compressed easily.
A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes and do not involve
any changes in the chemical makeup of the matter.
● Common changes of the state include melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation,
and vaporization
When temperature or pressure change of a system occurs, phase changes occur. When the
temperature or pressure increases, the interaction between the molecules increases.
First, you fill the tray with water from a tap. Then you would place the tray in the freezer compartment of
a refrigerator. The freezer is very cold. What happens next?
FREEZING
Heat transfer occurs between the warmer tray and the colder air in the freezer. The warm water loses
heat to the cold air in the freezer.
● The heat transfer occurs until no energy is available for the particles to slide past each other. This
forces them to remain in fixed positions, locked in place by the force of attraction between them.
● This way liquid water is changed into solid ice.
The process of liquid water changing to solid ice is termed as freezing. The temperature at which it
occurs is known as the freezing point.
MELTING
If you took out the ice cubes from the freezer and placed them in a warm room, the ice would absorb
energy from the warmer air around them.
● This absorbed energy would facilitate them to overcome the force of attraction holding them
together, enabling them to slip out of the fixed position that they held as ice.
The process in which a solids change to a liquid is called melting. The melting point is the
temperature at which a solids change to a liquid.
EVAPORATION
If you fill a pot with cold tap water and heat it on a hot stovetop, the water heats up. Heat energy travels
from the stovetop to the pot, and the water absorbs the energy from the pot. What happens to the water
next?
If the water is hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor are formed in the boiling water.
● This happens as particles of liquid water gain enough energy to completely overcome the force of
attraction between them and change to the gaseous state.
● The bubbles rise through the water and escape from the pot as steam.
The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called evaporation. The temperature at
which a liquid boils is its boiling point.
CONDENSATION
When you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to fog up. You may wonder why
this happens?
Some hot water from the shower evaporates and when it comes in contact with cooler surfaces such as
the mirror, it cools and loses energy.
● The cooler water particles no longer have the energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between them.
They come together and form droplets of liquid water. This process in which a gas changes to liquid is
known as condensation.
SUBLIMATION
Solids change to gas and pass through the liquid state first. However, sometimes solids change directly
to gases and skip the liquid state. The reverse can also occur. Sometimes gases change directly to
solids.
The process in which solids directly change to gases is known as sublimation. This occurs when
solids absorb enough energy to completely overcome the forces of attraction between them.
DEPOSITION
Gas to solid phase transitions are known as “deposition”
● Water vapor to ice - Water vapor transforms directly into ice without becoming a liquid, a
process that often occurs on windows during the winer months.
Lesson 3: Elements
ELEMENTS
- Are the fundamental substances that cannot be broken down into other substances through
chemical methods
- Made up of a certain kind of atom; thus they contain only one kind of atom.
COMPOUND
- Is a pure substance that is formed when atoms of two or more elements are bonded chemically.
- When an atom of elements combined they form a compound.
(Compounds are governed by the “Law of definite proportion” proposed by Joseph Proust in 1799)
Indicators - Are substances whose colors are affected by acids and bases.
MIXTURES
- Are physical combinations of two or more pure substances in which the individual identities of the
substance are not altered.
Pure Substances
- In chemistry, are a classification of matter made up of all the same type of atom, all the same
molecules, or all the same ionically bonded elements
Homogeneous Mixture
- A type of mixture of substances blended so thoroughly that you cannot see individual substances
Heterogeneous Mixture
- A type of mixture that is not thoroughly blended, so you can see and pick out individual parts of
the mixture.
Lesson 4: Atomic Structures and Theories
Introduction to Atoms
● Atoms are made up of three types of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The
nucleus contains protons and neutrons, while electrons orbit around it.
Amendments
1.) Atoms are not indivisible. Atoms contain subatomic particles and even subatomic particles are
made up of even smaller particles.
2.) Atoms of the same element can differ. There are atoms of the same elements that differ in their
mass numbers because of the difference in the number of neutrons. We call them “isotopes”
ISOTOPES
- Atoms of the same element can differ. There are atoms of the same elements that differ in their
mass numbers because of the difference in the number of neutrons.
Subatomic Particles
- Protoms have a positive charge and are found in the nucleus. Neutrons have no charge and are
also found in the nucleus. Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the nucleus.
Conclusion
Atomic theories have evolved over centuries, leading to our current understanding of the atom’s
structure. These theories include Dalton’s atomic theory, Thomson’s plum pudding model, Rutherford’s
nuclear model, Bohr’s planetary models, and the modern quantum mechanical model. Each theory has
contributed to our understanding of the atom’s behavior and properties, and we continue to explore and
discover more about this fundamental building block of matter.
Dalton
● Modern Atomic Theory
Note:
Atomic structures started from the ancient times = Chemistry (Bond Chemicals) → Alchemy
S = Holds up to 2
P = Holds up to 6
D = Holds up to 10
F = Holds up to 14