Propagation of Light

Through Optical Fiber

Outline of Talk
 Acceptance angle
 Numerical
aperture
 Dispersion
 Attenuation
 Acceptance angle
Lost by
radiatio
A
n
 max


Acceptanc B
e cone   c for total
internal
reflection
 max is the maximum acceptance angle to the axis of the fiber
at which light may enter into the fiber in order to propagate
 Different cones of
acceptance

Large diameter Small diameter

fiber fiber
 Numerical aperture (NA)
The NA defines a cone of acceptance for light that will be
guided by the fiber

B n2
Air n0 
n1
A 2
1 C
f =90-
2 >
c
At the air core no sin 1 n1 sin  2
interface

From the triangle ABC    2
2
 Numerical aperture (NA)
no sin 1 n1 cos
1

Using trigonometric relationship no sin 1 n1 (1  sin 2  ) 2

For total internal reflection, 1 = a, and   c

12
 n2  2
n2
n1  n2
2 2 no sin  a n1  1  2 
  n1  900
2
2n1
n1  n2  2
no sin  a  n1  n2 
2 12 1
n1

n1

NA no sin  a  n1  n2
2

2 12
n1 sin 1 n2 sin  2
Δ approximates to the fractional index dif erence n2
Exmp. 2.1 and NA n1 (2 )1 2 sin  c 
2.2 n1
Parctice 2.1: In a step-index optical fiber, the refractive
indices of the core and the cladding are equal to 1.501 and
1.499, respectively, at the wavelength of 850 nm. The fiber
is surrounded by air.
Types of ray propagation in
OF
Meridional ray
passes through the
fiber axis

Skew ray

Skew ray follows helical path in optical fiber

Skew rays & Meridional
rays
 Skew rays are those rays which follow helical path but they
are not confined to a single plane. Analyzing the meridional
rays is sufficient for the purpose of result, rather than skew
rays, because skew rays lead to greater power loss.
 Skew rays propagate without passing through the center axis
of the fiber. The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than
the acceptance angle of meridional rays.
 Skew rays are often used in the calculation of light acceptance
in an optical fiber. The addition of skew rays increases the
amount of light capacity of a fiber. In large NA fibers, the
increase may be significant.
 However, the addition of skew rays also increases the amount
of loss in a fiber. Skew rays tend to propagate near the edge of
the fiber core. A large portion of the number of skew rays that
are trapped in the fiber core are considered to be leaky rays.
Electromagnetic mode
theory for optical
propagation
 In order to obtain an improved model for the propagation of
light in an optical fiber, electromagnetic wave theory must be
considered. The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave
propagation is provided by Maxwell’s equations.
 For a medium with zero conductivity these vector relationships
may be written in terms of the electric field E, magnetic field
H, electric flux density D and magnetic flux density B as the
curl equations

 and the divergence conditions:

where ∇ is a vector operator.

Electromagnetic mode
theory for optical
propagation
 The four field vectors are related by the relations:

 where ε is the dielectric permittivity and μ is the magnetic

permeability of the medium.
Electromagnetic mode
theory for optical
propagation
Electromagnetic mode
theory for optical
propagation
 When light is described as an electromagnetic wave it consists of a
periodically varying electric field E and magnetic field H which are orientated
at right angles to each other.
 The transverse modes shown in Figure illustrate the case when the electric
field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation and hence Ez = 0, but a
corresponding component of the magnetic field H is in the direction of
propagation. In this instance the modes are said to be transverse electric (TE).
 Alternatively, when a component of the E field is in the direction of
propagation, but Hz = 0, the modes formed are called transverse magnetic
(TM). The mode numbers are incorporated into this nomenclature by referring
to the TEm and TMm modes,
 When the total field lies in the transverse plane, transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) waves exist where both Ez and Hz are zero. However, although TEM
waves occur in metallic conductors (e.g. coaxial cables) they are seldom found
in optical waveguides.
Electromagnetic mode
theory for optical
propagation

Physical model showing

the ray propagation and
the corresponding
transverse electric (TE)
field patterns of three
lower order models (m =
1, 2, 3)
in the planar dielectric
guide
Normalized frequency (V-
number) of a fiber
 An optical fiber maybe characterized by the V-number or the normalized
frequency of the fiber. It is denoted by the relation-

 Where a is radius of the core, λ is the free space wavelength.

 We know, Numerical Aperture is

 Max number of modes Nm supported by step index fiber

 In case V<2.405 fiber can support only one mode and is called SMF.
 For V>2.405 it is known as MMF, which supports number of modes
simultaneously.
Normalized frequency (V-
number) of a fiber
 Wavelengths corresponding to value V=2.405 is known as the cut-off
wavelength of the fiber and is given by λc = λV/2.405

 In case of GRIN fibers for large value of V, we have

 EXAMPLE-A step index fiber in air has a NA of 0.16, a core refractive index
of 1.45 and a core diameter of 60cm. Determine the normalized frequency for
the fiber when light at a wavelength of 0.9µm is transmitted.
Example
 Calculate the numerical aperture, acceptance
angle and the critical angle of a fiber having
core refractive index 1.5 and the cladding
refractive index 1.45
Example
 An optical fiber has a NA of 0.2 and a cladding
refractive index of 1.59. Determine the
acceptance angle for the fiber in water which
has a refractive index of 1.33
Dispersion &
Attenuation
 Dispersion
Dispersion is a phenomenon that causes the separation of a wave
into spectral components with different wavelengths, due to a
dependence of the wave's speed on its wavelength (Figure 1).

Sun Disperse
ligh light
t Prism

It is expressed in terms of the symbol Δt, is defined as pulse

spreading in an optical fiber. As a pulse of light propagates through a
fiber, elements such as numerical aperture, core diameter, refractive
index profile, wavelength, and laser linewidth cause the pulse to
broaden. This poses a limitation on the overall bandwidth of the fiber
as demonstrated in Figure 2.
 Dispersion
**Dispersion Δt can be determined from Equation

and is measured in time, typically nanoseconds or picoseconds. Total dispersion is a

function of fiber length. The longer the fiber, the more the dispersion. Equation
provides the total dispersion per unit length

**The amount of pulse broadening is dependent upon the distance the pulse travels within the
fiber, and hence for a given optical fiber link the restriction on usable bandwidth is dictated by
the distance between regenerative repeaters (i.e. the distance the light pulse travels before it is
reconstituted). Thus the measurement of the dispersive properties of a particular fiber is usually
stated as the pulse broadening in time over a unit length of the fiber (i.e. ns km−1).

**In the absence of mode coupling or filtering, the pulse broadening increases linearly
with fiber length and thus the bandwidth is inversely proportional to distance. This
leads to the adoption of a more useful parameter for the information-carrying capacity
of an optical fiber which is known as the bandwidth–length product (i.e. Bopt x L ).
Dispersion
Bandwidth, Pulse and Bit
Rate
** The conversion of bit rate to bandwidth in hertz depends
on the digital coding format used. For metallic conductors
when a nonreturn-to-zero code is employed, the binary 1
level is held for the whole bit period τ. In this case there are
two bit periods in one wavelength (i.e. 2 bits per second per
hertz), as illustrated in Figure 3.8(a). Hence the maximum
bandwidth B is one-half the maximum data rate or:

** However, when a return-to-zero code is considered, as shown in

Figure 3.8(b), the binary 1 level is held for only part (usually half ) of the
bit period. For this signalling scheme the data rate is equal to the
bandwidth in hertz (i.e. 1 bit per second per hertz) and thus BT = B.
Bandwidth, Pulse and Bit
Rate

** Therefore, for NRZ, Bt = 1/T and for RZ, Bt = 1/2T (as per
figure)
Dispersion (Example-3.5)
Types of Dispersion
 Material Dispersion
 Modal Dispersion
 Waveguide Dispersion
 Types of Dispersion
Material Dispersion
For glass material n(), i.e, n changes with  or frequency
Velocity of electromagnetic wave in any medium = c/n
Changing optical path length due to a changing refractive index n1

I
f1 n2

n1
f2
t
Input wave Output wave
 Material Dispersion
The rms pulse broadening due to material dispersion is given by:
Material Dispersion [Do
Example 3.7]
 Waveguide Dispersion
 Waveguide dispersion is chromatic dispersion which arises from waveguide
effects. The origin of waveguide dispersion can be understood by considering
that a guided wave has a frequency-dependent distribution of k vectors

Field with shorter

wavelength concentrated
in the core
Wave propagating
in core and
cladding with
different group
velocities
Field with longer
wavelength leaked
from core to
cladding
Modal Dispersion
Only a certain number of modes can
propagate in fiber optic waveguide. Each of
these modes carries the modulation signal
and, as each one is incident on the boundary
at a different angle, they will each have their
own individual propagation times. In a digital
system, the net effect is to smear out the
pulses, and so there is a form of dispersion
called modal dispersion
 Modal Dispersion
I θi =c
θi=90 0
n2

c Ray1(axial)
θ
θa n1
t L Ray2
Input light
wave
 Effect of Dispersion on OFC
Short length fiber
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
n2
n1

t t
Input pulse Output pulse
L1

1 0 1 1 Long length fiber

n2
n1

Input pulse
L2
No zero level Indistinguishable pulse

Intersymbol
Interference
Output pulse
t
Intersymbol Interference
(ISI)
 Intersymbol interference (ISI)
is a form of distortion of a signal in
which one symbol interferes with
subsequent symbols. This is an
unwanted phenomenon as the
previous symbols have similar
effect as noise, thus making the
communication less reliable
 Dispersion- Prac Math
The approximate bandwidth of a fiber can be
related to the total dispersion by the following
relationship
Wavelength dependence of Ng and n
Wavelength dependence of Ng
and n
 For crystals or glasses, the group index in the
visible or near-infrared spectral range is
typically larger than the ordinary refractive
index, which determines the phase velocity.
 The group index is used, e.g., to calculate time
delays for ultrashort pulses (optical pulses with
durations of picoseconds or less) propagating
in a medium.
Source of Losses in Silica
OF
 Losses in silica fiber mainly occur due to
two mechanisms:
 Intrinsic absorption mechanism (due to
characteristic of glass fiber)
Extrinsic absorption mechanism (due to

impurities:
such as OH bonds and transition metal ions
(iron,
cobalt, copper etc.))
 Source of Losses in Silica OF

Intrinsic absorption loss mechanisms are:

 Material absorption:
The atomic bonds associated with the core material absorb
the long wavelength light.(Si-O; 9.2 m, Ge-O; 11.0
m; P-O; 8.1; m)
 Electron absorption:
In the ultraviolet region, light is absorbed in order to excite
the electron in a core atoms to a higher energy
state.
 Linear Scattering Loss-Rayleigh scattering:
Due to small irregularities in the structure of the fiber core,
which are caused by density fluctuations into the glass
material during manufacture. This loss reduces with
forth power of  (~ -4).
 Source of Losses in Silica OF

Linear Scattering Loss-Rayleigh scattering:

For a single-component glass this is given by:
where γR is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical
wavelength, n is the refractive index of the medium, p is the
average photoelastic coefficient, βc is the isothermal
compressibility at a fictive temperature TF, and K is Boltzmann’s
constant.
Furthermore, the Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the
transmission loss factor (transmissivity) and length L of the fiber
following the relation

DO EXAMPLE 3.2
 Attenuation wavelength Ch. Of Glass
fiber (Early fiber)
Attenuation
(dB/Km) Impurity
absorption

100

10 Rayl
e
scat igh
terin
g

1 Material
Electron absorption
absorption
0.1
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wavelength (m)
 Attenuation wavelength Ch. Of Glass
Attenuation
fiber (Advanced fiber)
(dB/Km)

Due to OH

0.9
Conventional
fiber
0.6 During manufacture, dry carbon
fiber has its resin pre-impregnated,
that is, literally built into the fiber.
Since no resin is being directly
0.3 applied, the fiber is “dry”.
Dry fiber

0.0
1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6
Wavelength (m)
 Other scattering losses
Linear Scattering Loss- Mie scattering:
Due to imperfections such as irregularities in core-cladding interface, core-
cladding refractive index differences along the fiber length, diameter
fluctuations, strains, and bubbles
Non-Linear Scattering Loss- Stimulated Brillouin Scattering:
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) may be regarded as the modulation of
light through thermal molecular vibrations within the fiber.

Non-Linear Scattering Loss- Stimulated Raman Scattering:

Shift in incident light frequency in the optical range causes attenuation
 SBS and SRS
Brillouin scattering is only significant above a threshold power
density. The threshold power PB is given by:
where d and λ are the fiber core diameter and the operating
wavelength, respectively, both measured in micrometers, α (dB)
is the fiber attenuation in decibels per kilometer and ν is the
source bandwidth (i.e. injection laser) in gigahertz.
The equation allows the determination of the threshold optical power which must
be launched into a single-mode optical fiber before SBS occurs.

For SRS the threshold optical power for SRS PR in a long single-mode fiber is
given by:
SBS and SRS
 SBS and SRS
In Example 3.3, the Brillouin threshold occurs at an optical power level of
around 80 mW while the Raman threshold is approximately 17 times larger. It
is therefore apparent that the losses introduced by nonlinear scattering may be
avoided by use of a suitable optical signal level (i.e. working below the
threshold optical powers).

However, it must be noted that the Brillouin threshold has been reported as
occurring at optical powers as low as 10 mW in single-mode fibers.
Nevertheless, this is still a high power level for optical communications and
may be easily avoided. SBS and SRS are not usually observed in multimode
fibers because their relatively large core diameters make the threshold optical
power levels extremely high.
 Problems:
 Pin 
Attenuation in decibels (dB) dB 10 log10  
 Pout 
1  Pin 
In OFC attenuation is usually expressed in dB/Km  dB  10 log10  
L  Pout 
Example 3.1: When the mean optical power launched into an 8 Km
length of fiber is 120 W, the mean optical power at the fiber out is 3
W.
Determine:
a) the overall signal attenuation in dB through the fiber assuming there
are no connectors or splices;
b) The signal attenuation/Km for the fiber
c) The overall signal attenuation for 10 Km optical link using the same
fiber with splices at 1 Km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB;
d) The numerical input/out power ratio in (c).

Example 3.3 Senior

Assignment-1
1. Write short notes on the following optoelectronic
devices (any two):

• Telecommunication laser
• Blue laser
• LED traffic lights
• Solar cells

2. Impact of Optoelectronics/Fiber Optic on the National

Economy.