DillaUniversity

School of
Electrical and Computer Engineering

Telecommunication Networks (ECEg-4282)

Chapter Two
Basics of Telecom Networks
Network Load Parameters

1 Timing diagrams for landline to mobile and vice versa

 Introduction
The basic purpose of a
telecommunications network is to
transmit user information in any form to
another user of the network.
User information may take many forms,
such as voice, data, and video which use
different access network technologies.

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 Communication Networks
Communication networks enable users to
transfer information in the form of: voice,
video, Data, and computer files.
Users request the communication service
they need by means of networked devices
using:
 a telephone handset or cellular phone ,
set-top T V box , o r
 through applications running on a host
computer such as a PC or workstation .

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 Communication Networks Types are:

1. Telecommunication Networks
2. Computer Networks
3. Cable Television Networks and
4. Wireless Networks

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 Telecommunication Networks
A telephone network comprises:
• Switching points,
• Communications lines, and
• Telephone sets.
The telephone network is actually one great
communication system which encompasses
many different networks.
 If we consider the customers of networks and
the availability of services, there are two broad
categories:
a. Public Networks and
b. Private or Dedicated Networks.
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 a. Public Networks
Public networks are owned and managed by
telecommunications network operators.
These network operators have a license to provide
telecommunications services.
1. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): is the main public
network in use.
 PSTN is the main system which forms the world’s telephone network.
 The PSTN is the system which allows any phone in the world to
connect to any other phone in the world.
2. Public Land Mobile Telephone Networks (PLMN):
 They are regional or national access networks and
connected to the PSTN for long-distance and
international connections.
 The Cellular networks connect mobile phones to the
PSTN.
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 Public Networks continued …

3. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

4. Internet
5. Radio and Television Networks: are usually
unidirectional radio distribution networks
for mass communications.

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 Private or Dedicated
Networks
 Private networks are built and designed to serve the needs
of particular organizations.
 They usually own and maintain the networks themselves.
1. Voice Communication Networks: Examples of private dedicated
voice networks are those used by the police and other
emergency services.
2. PBX Networks
 Are private networks used by companies and
organizations
 If necessary, they can be connected to the fixed line
network to connect outside the organization
3. Data Communication Networks: Data communication networks are
dedicated networks especially designed for the
transmission of data between the offices of an
organization.
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 Private Network Continued…
3. Virtual Private Networks (VPN): provides a service similar to
an ordinary private network, but the systems in the
network are the property of the network operator.
 In effect, a VPN provides a dedicated network for the
customer with the help of public network equipment.
 A virtual private network that is established over, in
general, the Internet
 It is virtual because it exists as a virtual entity within a
public network
 From the user’s perspective, it appears as a network
consisting of dedicated network links
 These links appear as if they are reserved for the VPN
clientele
 Because of encryption, the network appears to be private

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 Networking Principles:
The four principles that underlie the growth
of communication network services are:
• Digitization,
• Economies of scale,
• Network externalities, and
• Economies of scope or Service integration.
• Economies of scope , or service integration ,
refers to the fact that a network that currently
provides one set of services may be expanded to
provide new services at an additional cost that is
much less than if a separate network were built
to provide those new services.

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 Service Integration Continued …
• Economies of service integration are
possible because communications
engineers now design services in a
modular and standardized way so that new
services can be introduced using existing
hardware and software modules .
 The widespread deployment of ATM, and broadband
access over cable TV and ADSL, will facilitate service
integration to such an extent that one can imagine a
single network that will provide all of the services
that today are provided by separate networks.
 These services include telephone, data, broadcast
TV and radio, and CATV.
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 Traffic Characterization and QOS:
 Traffic Characterization describe the traffic
that the applications generate as well as
the acceptable delays and losses by the
network in delivering that trafic.
The information that applications generate
can take many forms: Text, Voice, Audio
Data, Graphics, Pictures, and Videos
Moreover the information can be:
• One-way
• Two-way
• Broadcast or
• Multi-point

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 Continued …
We classify all traffic into three types.
That is a user application can generate:
• Constant bit rate (CBR)
• Variable Bit rate (VBR) or
• A sequence of Messages with different
temporal characters tics

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 Constant Bit Rate
To transmit a voice signal, the telephone network
equipment first converts it into a stream of bits
with a constant rate of 64Kbps.
Video compression standards convert a video
signal into a bit stream with a CBR.
For instance, MPEG1 produces a poor quality
video at 1.15Mbps and a good quality at 3 MBps.
For the voice or video application to be an
acceptable quality, the network must transmit
the bit stream with a short delay and corrupt at
most a small fraction of bits.
This fraction is called the bit error rate (BER)

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 Variable Bit Rate
Some signal compression techniques
convert a signal into a bit stream that
has a variable bit rate.
For instance, MPEG2 is a family of
standards for such variable bit rate
compression of video signals.
Messages
Many user applications on a network are
implemented by processes that
exchange messages.
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 Network (Communication) Services:
 AreConnection-Oriented Service and
Connectionless Service
Connection-Oriented Service
 Setup data transfer ahead of time
(through handshaking)
 It provides:
 Reliable, in-order byte delivery
 Flow control
 Congestion control.
 Internet’s connection-oriented service is
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
 Applications using TCP: Email (SMTP),
16 web browsing (HTTP), and file transfer
 Connection-oriented versus
Connectionless

Connectionless Services
 It provides:
unreliable data transfer
no flow control
no congestion control
 Internet’s connectionless service is UDP
(User Datagram Protocol.
 Applications using UDP: streaming media,
video conferencing, and IP telephony.

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 Network Elements
A Communication Network is a collection of
network elements interconnected and
managed to support the transfer of
information from a user at one network
location or node to a user at another node.
There are two principal network elements:
 Transmission links and
 Switches

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 Continued …
A transmission link transfers a stream of bits from
one end to the other at a certain rate with a given
bit error rate and a fixed propagation time.
Transmission systems use four basic media for
information transfer from one point to another:
1. Copper cables, such as those used in LANs and
telephone subscriber lines
2. Optical fiber cables, such as high-data-rate
transmission in telecommunications networks;
3. Radio waves, such as cellular telephones and
satellite transmission;
4. Free-space optics, such as infrared remote
controllers.

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 Basic Network Mechanism
A network bearer services comprise
the end-to-end transport of bit
streams, in specific formats over a
set of routes.
These services are differentiated by
quality:
• Speed, delay, errors.
They are produced using five basic
mechanisms:
1. Multiplexing
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• Multiplexing combines data streams of
 Continued …
2. Switching
• Switching allows us to bring together the
data streams of dispersed users.
• In telephone networks, a switch is
located in the central office.
• A link between two switches is called a
trunk.
• A link between a subscriber telephone
and a switch is called an access line or
subscriber loop.

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 Fig 2.1. A Basic Telecommunications Network
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 Continued …
3. Error Control: All transmission links
occasionally corrupt the messages they
transmit. It is therefore important for the
network to control such errors.
4. Flow control: is a mechanism that
enables the receiver to pace the
transmission of the source.

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 Continued …
5. Congestion Control: is a generic name for a set
of mechanisms designed to limit the rate or number of
packets introduced into the network by a source or a
switch. If the congestion control mechanism does not
function properly, an excessive number of may
accumulate in the switch buffers causing unacceptable
delay or loss.
6. Resource Allocation:
Because network resources (link bandwidth and
switch buffers) are shared by many applications at the
same time, resource allocation mechanisms must be
designed to ensure that each application receives the
necessary resources to maintain its quality of service.

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 Layered Architecture
An architecture is a specific way of
organizing many functions performed by a
computer network when it provides services
such as: a file transfer, e-mail, directory
services, and terminal emulation.
When protocols are arranged into layers, the
protocol entities of adjacent layers exchange
messages.
Once it gets a message, a protocol entity
performs some operations before it
transmits the message to the next protocol
entity.
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 Telephone Numbering
An international telephone connection from
any telephone to any other telephone is made
possible by unique identification of each
subscriber socket in the world.
In mobile telephone networks, each telephone
set (or subscriber card) has a unique
identification number.
The numbering is hierarchical, and it has an
internationally standardized country code at
the highest level.
This makes national numbering schemes
independent from each other.
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 International prefix
 An international prefix or international access number
is used for international calls.
 It tells the network that the connection is to be routed
via an international telephone exchange to another
country.
 The country code contains one to four numbers that
define the country of subscriber. Country codes are not
needed for national calls because their purpose is to
make the subscriber identification unique in the world.
 A telephone number that includes the country
code is called an international number and it has a
maximum length of 12 digits.
 The country codes have been defined by the ITU.

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 00 or 251 046 2207051
+

Fig 2.2. The Structure of The Telephone Number Hierarchy

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 Call set-up and release
Figure 2.3 shows a small part of a
telecommunication network. It consists of
exchanges, trunks, and subscriber lines.
 Trunks are circuits between exchanges, and
the group of trunks between a pair of
exchanges is known as a trunk group (TG).
 Subscriber lines (SLs) are circuits between a
subscriber S and the local exchange (A, B, C).
 Exchanges D and E do not have subscriber
lines and are known as intermediate, tandem,
toll, or transit exchanges.

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 Call set-up and release

30 Fig 2.3:Exchanges, trunks, and subscriber

lines.
 Call set-up and release

Fig 2.4: Connections involving subscriber Sp

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 Call set-up and release
Calls:
 A call requires a communication circuit (connection)
between two subscribers.
 Figure 2.4 shows a number of connections in the
network of Fig. 2.3 that involve subscriber Sp.
 In Fig. 2.4(a), Sp is on a call with Sq who is attached to
the same exchange. Calls of this type are known as
interexchange calls.
 The circuit in case (b) consists of a temporary
path across exchange A, trunk T1, a temporary
path across exchange B, and SLr .
 The connections of Fig. 2.4 are set up (switched “on”) at
the start of a call and released (switched “off”) when the
call ends.
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 Call set-up and release
Setup and Release:
 The setup and release of connections in
telecommunication networks are triggered by signals.
Starting and ending a call involve signalling between
the subscribers and their local exchanges and, for
interexchange calls, signalling between the exchanges
along the connection.
 Figure 2.5 shows the signalling for the setup of the
connection of Fig 2.4(b).
 Subscriber Sp sends a request-for-service signal to
exchange A (by lifting the handset of a telephone) and
then signals the digits of the telephone number of Sr (with
the dial or keyset of the telephone).
 From the received number, exchange A determines that Sr
is served by exchange B, and that the call is to be routed
out on a trunk in group TG1 (Fig. 2.3).
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 Call set-up and release

34 Fig 2.5: Setup of a connection

 Call set-up and release
 It then Searches for an idle trunk in this group and finds
trunk T1. Exchange A now seizes the trunk and sends a
seizure signal, followed by signals that represent digits
of the called number, to exchange B. It then sets up a
path between SLp and T1 .
 When exchange B receives the seizure signal and the
called number, it checks whether Sr is idle.
 If this is the case,it sends a ringing signal on SLr, and a
ringing tone signal on T1, to inform Sp.
 When Sr lifts the handset of the telephone , an answer
signal is sent to exchange B, which then stops the
ringing signal and the ringing tone, sets up a path
between T1 and SLr, and signals to exchange A that the
call has been answered.

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 Timing Diagram: Landline to Mobile
connection set up

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 Timing Diagram: Mobile to Landline
connection set up

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 Network Load Parameters
 Busy hour: Continuous 1-hour period lying wholly in
the time interval concerned, for which the traffic
volume or the number of call attempts is greatest.
OR
 In a day ,the 60-minute interval in which the traffic is
the highest is called the busy hour.
 Peak busy hour: The busy hour each day; it is
usually varies from day to day, or over a number of
days.
 Time consistent Busy Hour: The 1-hour period
starting at the same time each day for which the
average traffic volume or the number of call attempts
is greatest over the days under consideration.

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 Network Load Parameters
 Call Completion rate (CCR): is defined as the ratio of
the number of successful calls to the number of call
attempts.
 Busy hour call attempts (BHCA): The number of call
attempt in the busy hour is called Busy hour call
attempts (BHCA), which is an important parameter in
deciding the processing capacity of a common control or
a stored program control system of an exchange.
 Traffic intensity: The traffic on the network may be
measured in terms of the occupancy of the servers in the
network. Such a measure is called the Traffic intensity.
 A0 =Period for which a server is occupied/total
period of observation
 A0 is dimensionless and is called earlang (E).

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 Network Load Parameters
Traffic intensity is also measured in another way. This
measure is known as centum call second (CCS) which
represents a call-time product.
One CCS may mean one call for 100 seconds duration
or 100 calls for one second duration each or any
other combination.
Sometimes, call seconds (CS) and call minutes (CM)
are also used as a measure of traffic intensity.
1E=36 CCS = 3600 CS =60 CM
Grade of Service: The amount of traffic rejected by
the network is an index of the quality of the service
offered by the network. This is termed grade of
service (GOS)

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 Network Load Parameters
 It is defined as the ratio of lost traffic to
offered traffic.
Offered traffic is the product of the average
number of calls generated by the users and
the average holding time per call.
The actual traffic carried by the network is
called the Carried traffic and is the average
occupancy of the servers in the network as
given by
GOS=A-A0/A
 Where A=offered traffic
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A0=carried traffic
 Telecommunication Services
 In general, telecommunication services can classified into three
broad categories.
i. Basic Services
 Are services that everyone needs
 Ask cost

ii. Supplementary Services

 Additional services for ease of communication
 Provided without cost

iii. Value-added Services

 Additional services for effective communication
 Ask some cost
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 ii.

Based on the service type provided by the network:

 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

 Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN)
 Internet Network
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
 Circuit Switched Public Data Network (CSPDN)
 Packet Switched Public Data Network (CSPDN)

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Telecommunication System
Components
 All telecommunication networks are made up of five basic
elements that are present in each network environment
regardless of type or use.
 These basic components include:
 Terminals,
 Telecommunications Processors,
 Telecommunications Channels,
 Computers and
 Telecommunications Control Software.

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Components of Telecommunication Networks Cont’d….

 Terminals:
 Input / Output Devices

 Any input or output device that is used to transmit or receive data can be

classified as a terminal element.

 are the starting and stopping points in any telecommunication network

environment.
 Telecommunication processors:
 support data transmission and reception between terminals and computers
by providing a variety of control and support functions (i.e. convert data
from digital to analog and back).

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 Components of Telecommunication Networks Cont’d….

 Processors: modems, multiplexers, front-end

processors
Front- End Processor: minicomputer manages
communication for host computer
Concentrator: computer collects messages for
batch transmission to host computer
Controller: computer controls interface between
CPU and peripheral devices
Multiplexer: allows channel to carry multiple
sources simultaneously

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 Components of Telecommunication Networks Cont’d….

 Telecommunication (Communication) channels:

 are the way by which data is transmitted and received.
 are created through a variety of media of which the most popular

include copper wires and coaxial cables.

 Fiber-optic cables are increasingly used to bring faster and more robust
connections to businesses and homes.

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 Components of Telecommunication Networks Cont’d….

 Computers:
 In a telecommunication environment computers are connected
through media to perform their communication assignments.
 Early networks were built without computers, but late in the 20 th
century their switching centers were computerized or the networks
replaced with computer networks.
 Telecommunications control software:
 is present on all networked computers and is responsible for
controlling network activities and functionality.

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 Exercises:
1. An exchange serves 2000 subscribers. If the average
BHCA is 10,000 and the CCR is 60%, calculate the busy
hour calling rate.
2. In a group of 10 servers, each is occupied for 30
minutes in an observation interval of two hours.
Calculate the traffic carried by the group.
3. A group of 20 servers carry a traffic of 10 erlangs. If
the average duration of a call is three minutes, calculate
the number of calls put through by a single server and
the group as a whole in a one-hour period.
4. A Subscriber makes three phone calls of three
minutes, four minutes and two minutes duration in a
one-hour period. Calculate the subscriber traffic in
erlangs, CCS and CM.
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 Thank
You!
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