Control

Engineering
Elements of Modelling
 Physical Systems

• Physical systems can be classified into various types:

 Electrical systems
 Mechanical systems
 Electronic systems
 Hydraulic systems
 Thermal systems
• Each of these systems can be modelled in terms of
Anuj
certain basic
• elements 3
 Electrical Systems
• Based on the type of source, electrical systems can be classified as:
– Voltage sourced systems
– Current sourced systems
Voltage sourced Current sourced
Basic System Elements
Resistor (𝑅) Resistor (𝑅)
Inductor (𝐿) Inductor (𝐿)
Capacitor (𝐶) Capacitor (𝐶)
Basic System Variables
Voltage (𝑉) Current (𝐼)
Charge (𝑄) Flux (𝜙)
Anuj

4
 Electrical System Elements
• Resistor (𝑅): It is an element which resists the flow of current in an

𝑉=
electrical system

𝐼𝑅
�
• Inductor (𝐿): It is an element that stores electrical
� energy

𝑑𝜙
in a magnetic field

𝑉 = 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
�
• Capacitor (𝐶): It is an element that stores �
electrical energy in

𝑑𝑞
a electrical field

𝐼 = 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= �

𝐶Anuj
�

𝑑𝑡
: 5
 Mechanical Systems
• Classification based on type of motion:
– Translational systems having linear motion
– Rotational systems having angular motion about a fixed axis
Translational Rotational
Basic System Elements
Mass (𝑀) Inertia (𝐽)
Damper (𝐵) Damper (𝐷)
Linear spring (𝐾) Torsional spring (𝐾)
Basic System Variables
Force (𝐹) Torque (𝑇)
Displacement (𝑥) Angular displacement (𝜃)
Anuj 11
 Mass Vs Inertia
Mass Inertia
• Property of an element that • Property of an element that
stores the kinetic energy due to stores the kinetic energy due to
translational motion rotational motion

𝑀
• When a force is acting on a • When a torque is acting on a

causing displacement 𝑥, displacement 𝜃, then:

body of mass body of inertia J causing

𝐹= = 𝑀
• then: 𝑑𝑃 𝑑2 𝑥
• 𝑇 = 𝐽𝑑2 𝜃
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐽𝜃
=
𝑑𝑡 � 𝑑𝑡2
𝑑𝑡2
� � 𝑇 �
� � �
� �
� 12
:
 Damper
• Damper is an element that generates force which acts opposite to
the direction of motion, translational or rotational
• Damper resists motion
• Friction or dashpot are examples of dampers
Translational Rotational
� �
� �
� �
� 𝑑𝑥
� �
�𝑑𝜃
𝐹 = 𝐵 = 𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝐷𝜃
� �
𝑑
𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
Anuj 8

Photos Courtesy : Note: R&C represent ports

 Linear Vs Torsional Spring
Linear Spring Torsional spring
• Property of an element that • Property of an element that stores
stores the potential energy due to the potential energy due to
translational motion rotational motion

𝐾 is applied a force 𝐹 causing

• When a spring of spring constant • When a torsional spring of

an elastic displacement 𝑥, 𝐾 is applied a torque 𝑇 causing

constant

an angular displacement 𝜃, then:

• 𝐹 = 𝐾𝑥 • 𝑇 = 𝐾𝜃
then:

𝐹 𝑇
𝑥 𝜃
𝐾 𝐾
Anuj 9

: Noe: R&C represent ports

Nodal Analysis for Mechanical
Systems

• System structure should be modified to suit nodal

analysis, without loss of system characteristics
• Steps of nodal analysis are detailed by an example

Anuj 15
 Nodal Analysis : Example
Node 1

� 𝐾1
�
Node 2
Step 1:
� Number of nodes = 2
� Hence, number of displacements =
2
� 𝐾
� 2
Reference
Anuj 15

Photos Courtesy :
 Nodal Analysis : Example
𝑥1 𝑥2
Step 2:
Displacement and reference nodes are
identified

Reference Node

Anuj 16

:
 Nodal Analysis : Example
Connect mass 𝑀 between
Step 3:
𝑥1 𝑥2
node 𝑥2and reference node
•

𝐾
𝐾 • Connect spring 𝐾1 between
Step 4:

nodes 𝑥1and 𝑥2
1
� �

• Connect spring 𝐾2 between

� � 2
�

𝑥25:and reference node

�

Connect the force 𝐹

Step

between 𝑥1and reference

Reference Node •

Anuj
node 17

:
 Nodal Analysis : Example
Apply Newton’s 2nd law at node 𝑥1:
Step 6:
𝑥2
𝐹 = 𝐾1 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2
�1

𝐾
� (1)
𝐾 Apply Newton’s 2nd law at node 𝑥2:
0 = 𝑀 𝑥+ 𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐾1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 +
1
� �

𝐾2 𝑥2
� � 2
2
�
�
(2)
Eq.1 and Eq.2 give the
Reference Node mathematical model of the given
mechanical system
Anuj 18

:
 Summary: Steps of Nodal Analysis
1. Identify number of nodes which is equal to number of displacements
2. Take a reference node independent of other nodes (displacement nodes)
3. Connect all mass / inertia elements between the relevant displacement
node and the reference node irrespective of its position
4. Connect spring and damper elements between relevant nodes based on
their position
5. Connect force or torque between the relevant displacement node and
the reference node
6. At each of the displacement nodes, apply Newton’s laws of motion
Anuj 21
 Analogous Systems

• Mechanical systems can be represented using electrical

elements
• by the following analogies
• Two types of analogies:
– Force (Torque) - Voltage analogy (F-V analogy)
• Force is analogous to voltage
Anuj 22

– Force (Torque) - Current Analogy (F-I analogy)

 Summary: Analogous Systems
• Following table shows the analogue between the elements
of mechanical and electrical systems:
Mechanical System Electrical System

Translational Rotational F-V Analogy F-I Analogy

Force (𝐹) Torque (𝑇) Voltage (𝑉) Current (𝐼)
Mass (𝑀) Inertia (𝐽) Inductor (𝐿) Capacitor (𝐶)
Friction (𝐵) Friction (𝐷) Resistor (𝑅) Conductor (1/𝑅)
Linear spring (𝐾) Torsional spring (𝐾) Capacitor (1/𝐶) Inductor (1/𝐿)

Displacement (𝑥) Displacement (𝜃) Charge (𝑞) Flux (𝜙)

Anuj 25
• If a pole is located at s = -5 in left-hand plane (LHP),
how will it be represented in Laplace domain?
• a. 1/ s + 5
b. 1/ s – 5
c. s/ s + 5
d. s/ s – 5
• ANSWER: (a) 1/ s + 5