Name: Devang Kangad(ME16BTECH11015)

ME4020(Turbomachines)
Summary Report

1, Constructional architecture and working mechanism of axial flow

compressors, and ducted fans and turbines.

Axial Compressor
An axial compressor is a machine that can continuously pressurise gases. It is a rotating, air foil-based
compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation.
Construction:
 Axial flow compressor consists of casing fitted with several rows of fixed blades & several
rows of moving blades which are attached on rotor as shown in fig. The fixed blades are
placed on alternative rows. The fixed blades & moving blades are as possible for efficient
flow.
 The one set of rotor blades & one set of stator blades called stage. The number of stages
in axial flow compressor depends upon pressure ratio required. Usually 5 to 14 stages are
used
 The length of blades is reduced in direction of flow to compensate for the reduction in
volume resulting from the increased pressure.
 The blades are so arranged that the spaces between blades form diffuser passage& hence
velocity of air is reduced as it passes through them & pressure increases
 Axial flow compressor is also high speed machine & speed may even vary from 10000 to
30000 RPM. Generally, maximum pressure ratio achieved in a stage of axial compressor
is about 1.12 to 1.2, hence to obtain pressure ratio of 12, attainable by axial flow
compressor 15 to 20 stages are required.
Working:
 As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the
energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing
action of the passages.
 The diffusing action in stator converts absolute kinetic head of the fluid into rise in
pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists only
because of the rotation of the rotor.
 The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic
head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles increases its velocity
(absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between the fluid and the rotor.
 In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the stator converts this
into pressure rise
 Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability can produce a pressure rise in
addition to its normal functioning.
 This produces greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor
together. This is the reaction principle in turbo machines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a
stage is obtained at the rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction
 Ducted Fans
A ducted fan is a propeller, designed in a way that will improve propulsive efficiency and reduce noise.
Construction:
 In Ducted fan propeller is mounted within a cylindrical shroud or duct. Ducted fan
propulsion is used in aircraft, airships, airboats, hovercraft and fan packs.
 Propellers are similar in aerofoil section to a low-drag wing and as such are poor in
operation when at other than their optimum angle of attack.
 Therefore, some propellers use variable pitch mechanism to alter the blades' pitch angle
as engine speed and aircraft velocity are changed.
 Ducted fans also contain stators inside the housing which straightens the air as the flow
passes. Without the stators, the air will begin to vortex and it causes turbulence.
 Duct or housing is also present which contains and directs the airflow. The efficiency of
the fan depends on the shape of the duct.
 The duct reduces losses in thrust from the tips of the props, and varying the cross-
section of the duct allows the designer to advantageously affect the velocity and pressure
of the airflow according to Bernoulli's Principle.
Working mechanism:
 According to this simplified approach, for a ducted fan system operating statically, net
pressures on the duct inner surface will contribute to thrust if the inlet area is larger than
the outlet area (called positive camber).
 For a given propeller there is an ideal duct shape (bell mouth) which will optimize the
duct’s contribution to static thrust.
 The magnitude of this contribution from the duct can be significant; a theoretical result.
A further important factor is "diffuser ratio", being the ratio of exit area divided by disk
area. Theoretically, static thrust increases with diffuser ratio as the induced airflow is
slowed by the expanding duct aft of the propeller disk, pressures increase on the inner
duct wall, thus contributing to thrust.
 In practice, diffuser ratio is strictly limited by the requirement to avoid separation. Since
the total thrust of a ducted fan/shrouded propeller is the sum of pressures on the
propeller and pressures on the duct, to increase thrust one increases the net propulsive
pressures on the duct and/or on the propeller.
 Axial Flow Turbines
Description:
 If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the turbine is known as
axial flow turbine.
 The following are the important type of axial flow turbines: Propeller turbine, Kaplan
turbine
 When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is known as
propeller turbine.
 If vanes on hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine. This turbine is
suitable where a large quantity of water at low heads is available.
 A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which
is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blade so that they
move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Constructional Architecture:
 The key parts of a turbine are a set of blades that catch the moving fluid, a shaft or axle
that rotates as the blades move, and some sort of machine that's driven by the axle.
 In a modern wind turbine, there are typically three propeller-like blades attached to an
axle that powers an electricity generator. In an ancient waterwheel, there are wooden
slats that turn as the water flows under or over them, turning the axle to which the
wheel is attached and usually powering some kind of milling machine.
Working Mechanism:
 A turbine is a type of engine that can extract energy from a fluid, such as water, steam,
air, or combustion gases.
 The fluid goes in one end, pushing the blades and causing them to spin, then gets ejected
out the other end. The fluid leaves the engine with less energy than it had going in — a
portion of the difference is captured by the turbine.
 According to the energy at inlet turbines work in two different ways described as impulse
and reaction. A working fluid contains potential energy and kinetic energy. The turbines
are designed to extract this energy and accordingly –

 Impulse Turbines:
o The steam jets are directed at the turbine's bucket shaped rotor blades where the
pressure exerted by the jets causes the rotor to rotate and the velocity of the steam to
reduce as it imparts its kinetic energy to the blades.
 o The blades in turn change the direction of flow of the steam however its pressure remains
constant as it passes through the rotor blades since the cross section of the chamber
between the blades is constant.
o Impulse turbines are therefore also known as constant pressure turbines. The next series
of fixed blades reverses the direction of the steam before it passes to the second row of
moving blades.

 Reaction Turbines:
o A type of turbine that develop torque by reacting to the pressure or weight of a fluid; the
operation of reaction turbines is described by Newton’s third law of motion (action and
reaction are equal and opposite).
o In a reaction turbine, unlike in an impulse turbine, the nozzles that discharge the working
fluid are attached to the rotor.
o The acceleration of the fluid leaving the nozzles produces a reaction force on the pipes,
causing the rotor to move in the opposite direction to that of the fluid.
o The pressure of the fluid changes as it passes through the rotor blades. In most cases, a
pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine; in the
case of water turbines, the casing also maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube.
o Alternatively, where a casing is absent, the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid
flow as in the case of wind turbines. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use the
reaction turbine concept.

2, Constructional architecture and working mechanism of radial flow

compressors, turbines, and centrifugal pumps.

Radial Flow Compressor

Centrifugal Compressor is a machine in which a particular gas or vapour is compressed by a radial
acceleration
Construction architecture:
 A centrifugal compressor generally consists of four components named inlet, impeller,
diffusor and collector.
 1.Casing and inlet.
 o The above mentioned components are usually protected or guarded by a casing or housing.
A case house consists of number of bearings in order to provide radial and axial support of
the rotor.
o The case also contains nozzles along with inlets and discharge flow connections in order to
introduce and extract flow from the compressor.
o Casing are of two types Horizontally split, vertically split. A case is generally build of cast
iron or steel.

 2. Impellers.
o The impellers are assembled or mounted on a steel shaft and this assembly is known as
compressor rotor (mostly in multi stage compressors).
o The rotor provide velocity to the gas with blades that are attached to a rotating disc.
o These blades can be forward-leaning, radial or backward-leaning depending upon the
desired output. Most of the multistage compressors use backward-leaning blades as they
provide the widest range of efficiency.

 3. Diffuser.
o The impeller extracts the gas with great velocity into a diffuser passage. The diffuser usually
compromises two walls which form a radial channel. Because of these arrangements the
velocity of the gas decreases and dynamic pressure is converted into static pressure.
o The diffuser passages are small space between adjacent diaphragms which generally turns
the gas flow 180° in order to direct it towards the next impeller.

 4. Collector.
o Following the last stage impeller, the gas must be collected and delivered to the discharge
flange. The component used to collect the gas discharged through the diffuser is called as
collector.
o It may also be termed as volute or scroll. The collector may also contain valves and other
instrumentation in order to control the compressor.

Working Mechanism:
 Both of these compressor work on the same principle but they do have some drastic difference in
their construction and working.
 Single stage compressor.
o Single stage compressors consist of only a single impeller and it is use for moving
the air or other gases up to 3 to 1 compression ratio for either pressure or vacuum
duty.
o These type of compressors are considered to have a beam design or an overhung
impeller arrangement. In this type of arrangement, the impeller is at the non-driving
end of the shaft.
o One major advantage of it over the multistage compressor is that it provides high
efficiency and the delivered gas is totally oil and surge free.
 Multistage compressor.
o Multistage compressors consist of 1-10 impellers and it can be arranged in a variety
of flow path configurations.
o Throughout each and every stage the temperature and the compression ratio are
assumed to be constant. Multistage compressor can be arranged in straight-through,
compound, and double flow configurations.
 o Multistage compressor are also considered to have beam-type design but the
impellers are located between the radial bearings .

Radial Turbines

The Outward Flow Reaction Turbine:

Construction architecture:
 This turbine consists of a cylindrical disc mounted on a shaft and provided with vanes
around the perimeter.
 At inlet water flows into the wheel at the centre and then glides through radially
provided fixed guide vanes and then flows over the moving vanes.
 Function of the guide vanes is to direct or guide the water into the moving vanes in the
correct direction. The water as it flows along the moving vanes will exert a thrust and
hence a torque on the wheel. The wheel will thus rotate.

Working Mechanism:
 The water leaves the moving vanes at the outer edge. The wheel is enclosed by a water-
tight casing. The wheel may run either in a horizontal or in a vertical position.
 The wheel may be provided submerged below the tail race level or may be provided
above the tail race level and placed in a suction or draught tube.
 The latter arrangement is preferred as in this position the wheel is more easily accessible.
Since this turbine is a reaction turbine, the water is under pressure and consequently the
wheel must run full.
 As the wheel turns the body of water in the wheel is subjected to centrifugal action and
increases the relative velocity of water in the outward direction.
 This results are increase in the rate of flow thus increasing the energy supplied.
Consequently, the speed of the wheel increases further.
 This will further increase the centrifugal head and the result is the wheel tends to race.
This is a disadvantage in this type of turbine and controlling the speed of the turbine is,
therefore, difficult.

The Inward Flow Reaction Turbine:

Construction architecture:
 The constructional details of this turbine are similar to those of the outward flow turbine
but for the fact that the guide vanes surround the moving vanes. This is preferred to the
outward flow turbine as this turbine does not develop racing.
Working Mechanism:
 The centrifugal force on the inward moving body of water decreases the relative velocity
and thus the speed of the turbine can be controlled easily.
 In this case the flow enters the surrounding guiding apparatus and flowing along the
guide vanes enters the wheel at its outer periphery of the wheel of diameter.

Centrifugal Pumps

The hydraulic machines that converts the mechanical energy into pressure energy by means of
centrifugal force acting on the fluid are called centrifugal pumps.
Construction architecture:
 3 important parts are Impeller, Volute casing, Suction and delivery pipes.
 Impeller:
o The rotating part of the centrifugal pump is called impeller.
o It is a rotating solid disk with curved blades. Impellers could be open, semi-open or
closed.
o For Incompressible fluids (water) backward curved vanes are used (pumps)
o For compressible fluids (air) forward curved vanes are used (compressors)

 Casing:
 o Casing is an airtight passage surrounding the impeller which converts the kinetic energy
of the fluid leaving the impeller into pressure energy.
 Suction pipe:
o Suction pipe is connected to the inlet of the pump and other side is dipped into the fluid.
Delivery pipe is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end delivers the fluid at
required height.

Working principle:
 The impeller is keyed onto a shaft which is mounted on bearings and is coupled to a
motor which rotates the impeller.
 The kinetic energy of the impeller is transmitted to the fluid and its velocity increases.
 The volute casing converts the kinetic energy of the fluid to pressure energy. The
pressure at the centre of the impeller (eye) decreases as the fluid flows outward. The
decrease in pressure causes the fluid of the sump to continuously flow through the
suction pipes.
 The high pressure fluid is delivered through the delivery pipe.

3, Energy conversion mechanism in axial and radial flow turbomachines.

Above equation represents Euler equation for Turbomachine.

For steady state one dimensional isentropic flow through a turbomachine above equation gives

Since for isentropic incompressible flow, dh=vdp=dp as is constant for incompressible flow,
therefore, for incompressible flow turbomachines, specific work from energy equation i s
Following components of energy transfer from three equations are noteworthy.

𝐶 2 − 𝐶2 2⁄
 One component is 1 2 which is change of the absolute kinetic energy of the
fluid between the inlet and outlet of the rotor, It is the energy transfer due to
interaction between the fluid and rotor which is known as the energy transfer due to
impulse effect.
𝐶 2 − 𝐶𝑏2 2⁄
 The second term 𝑏1 2 indicates the change in fluid energy due to movement
of fluid from one radius of rotation to another. Since the centrifugal force cause the
rotation of the fluid element, therefore, it is the energy transfer due to the centrifugal
action of the rotor. This component of energy transfer is equal to the static enthal py
change across the rotor for compressible flow turbomachines
𝐶 2 − 𝐶𝑟2 2⁄
 The third term, 𝑟1 2 shows the energy transfer due change in fluid velocity
relative to the rotor. This energy transfer is the effect of flow area on the relative
velocity. A convergent passage between the blades as in turbines in the flow direction
increases the relative velocity decreasing the pressure equivalent to potential energy
change. Similarly, a divergent passage between the blades as in pumps or compressors
in the flow direction decreases the relative velocity increasing the pressure equivalent
to potential energy change. This component of energy transfer is equal to the potential
energy change. For compressible flow machines, the contribution of energy transfer
due to potential energy change is negligible.
 The second and third component of energy transfer together represents the energy
transfer due to the reaction effect which is equal to the piezo metric pressure change
for incompressible flow machines

4, Compressor and turbine blade geometrical designs and selection of air foil shape and
materials used for fabrication.

 The blades are critical components of the rotor, and consist of the air foils which interact
with the wind and convert the power in the wind to mechanical power.
 The geometry and dimensions of the blades are determined by the performance
requirements of the wind turbine. Two fundamental issues must be considered
simultaneously in blade design process: aerodynamic performance and structural design.
 For example, after the overall shape of the blade is optimized aerodynamically, it is common
that the root of the blade must be redesigned to meet structural requirements.
 Aerodynamically advantageous features such as sharp trailing edges are often so difficult
to build that compromises must be made so that the blade design can be manufactured.
 The choice of materials and manufacturing methods for the blades should also be
considered during structural design and strength analysis
 The blades in a normally operating wind turbine rotor and compressor are continuously
exposed to cyclical loads from wind and gravity.
 The primary requirements for blade materials are high stiffness to ensure aerodynamic
performance, low density to minimize mass and long-fatigue cycles. In the industry, many
materials have been used for blades, including metals, plastics, wood and composites
 Metal
o Steel is a common, relatively inexpensive material used extensively in industry, however,
it is difficult to manufacture into a complex twisted shape, and the fatigue life of steel is
very poor compared to fibreglass composites. While steel was used for wind turbines
blades before the 1950s, it is essentially no longer used.
o Another metal that has been considered for wind turbine blades is weld able aluminium.
However, its fatigue strength at 107 cycles is only 17 MPa compared with fibreglass 140
MPa and carbon fibre 350 MPa.
o Aluminium was sometimes used for small wind turbine blades, usually to produce non-
twisted blades by protrusion. However, like steel, aluminium is little used in practice.

 Glass and carbon fibre composites

o While various materials have been applied successfully in wind turbine blades, fibreglass
based composites predominate.
o This is mostly because fibreglass is a low-cost and high tensile strength material. It is
also easily knitted and woven into desired textiles to meet different engineering
requirements.
o Usually the fibreglass is embedded within a plastic matrix to form a composite known as
glass reinforced plastic.
o Carbon fibre is also becoming more popular because it has higher modulus, lower density
and higher tensile strength than fibreglass and it is less sensitive to fatigue.