Turbomachines

• Devices that transfer energy to/from a continuously flowing fluid by the dynamic action of one or more
moving blade rows (like Turbines, compressors, fans, blowers)

Key principle
o A rotating blade row (rotor) changes the stagnation enthalpy of a fluid, either by (doing work on the
fluid (positive work) / extracting work from it (negative work)), depending on the machine's function
o The changes in enthalpy are closely tied to the pressure changes, occurring simultaneously in the
fluid
Main categories
o Power-absorbing machines: machines that absorb
power to increase the fluid's (pressure / head)
These include (fans / blowers / compressors / pumps)
o Power-producing machines: They generate power by
expanding the fluid to a lower pressure or head
These include turbines (air / hydraulic / steam / gas
turbines)
Comprised of
Rotor (Impeller / Runner) Casing (Housing)
o This is the rotating part of the turbomachine, o Used to confine the fluid to a specific flow path,
equipped with (blades / vanes) that interact so that it flows in a given space & does not
with the fluid to either (absorb / produce) escape in directions other than those required
energy for energy transfer
Turbomachines with housings are called enclosed machines,
Rotor is used for turbomachines // impeller is used for
while those without are termed extended machines
(pumps blowers / compressors) // Runner is used for
hydraulic turbines Most turbomachines have housing except for some types of
fans & wind turbines

Shaft: transmits power, may be necessary depends Guide Blade (Fixed/Stationary) Element / Nozzle
on the type of turbomachine: o These are fixed elements arranged based on the
o Power-absorbing turbomachine (e.g., required flow type, guiding the fluid (towards /
compressors, pumps): Only an input shaft is away) from the rotor
required
o Power-generating turbomachine (e.g.,
turbines): Only an output shaft is required
Diffuser Draft Tube
o A passage with an increasing cross-sectional o This is a diffuser specifically used at the outlet
area in the direction of fluid flow, which of hydraulic turbines like Francis and Kaplan
converts kinetic energy into static pressure turbines, to help recover energy by converting
head kinetic energy into pressure
It's usually found at the outlet of a compressors for
example (axial flow compressor/ pumps)
 Turbomachines Classifications
According to

1.Energy Consideration

• Energy supplied to fluid: In these machines, energy is transferred from the (rotor to fluid), like Pumps &
Compressors
• Energy extracted from fluid: In these machines, energy is transferred from the (fluid to rotor), like
Turbines (steam / gas / water)

2.Direction of Flow
o Radial flow (perpendicular to the axis of rotation) o Axial flow (parallel to the axis of rotation)

as in centrifugal (pumps / fans / turbines / compressors) as in axial flow (pumps / compressors / fans / turbines)

o Mixed flow (between radial & axial directions) o Tangential flow as in Pelton wheel
as in Francis turbine

3.Type of fluid handled

o Water o Steam o Air / gas
Examples: Pumps, hydraulic turbines Example: Steam turbines Examples: Fans, compressors, blowers, turbines

4.Action of fluid on the moving blade

• Impulse Machines (with a disc)

o Fluid's energy is converted into impulsive force by
changing the fluid's direction without a change in
pressure as it strikes the blades
o Deal with very high velocities & have a constant cross-
sectional area
Examples: Pelton wheel (hydraulic turbine), De-laval turbine (steam turbine)

• Reaction Machines (without a disc)

o Pressure energy of the fluid continuously decreases as
it flows through the blades
o The reactive force generated by this pressure drop
drives the rotor
o Deal with lower velocities & have a decreasing cross-sectional area (act like a nozzle)

Examples: Parson's reaction steam turbine, Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine

• Combined Machines
o Use a combination of both (impulse & reaction) principles, though specific examples are less
common and context-dependent

Why do impulse machines typically have a disc, while reaction machines do not?
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
• Impulse machines have a disc → it provides structural support for the blades, ensuring blade
integrity under high (thermal & mechanical) stresses experienced during operation for effective energy
transfer from high-velocity water jets to the blades
 Axial Steam Turbine
Simplest single-disc steam turbine
Components
o Shaft: The main rotating element that transmits torque
o Disc: Mounted on the shaft, it (holds the blades & rotates with the
shaft)
o Moving Blades: Attached to the periphery of the disc; they interact
with the steam to convert thermal energy into mechanical energy
o Fixed Blades (guide blades / Nozzle): Fixed blades that direct the
steam onto the moving blades, facilitating the impulse action
Rotor: The combination of the (disc & blades), which is housed within the turbine casing

Fundamental principles of steam turbine design

• A steam turbine acts as a prime mover that transforms

the potential energy of steam into kinetic energy
This kinetic energy is then converted into the
mechanical energy of rotation of the turbine shaft
• The turbine shaft can be connected (directly / with the
help of a reduction gearing (to adjust the rotational
speed and torque as needed)) to the driven mechanism

The casing of the turbine typically consists of two halves, allowing

for easy maintenance and access to internal components without
complete disassembly

Operation

• In these turbines, steam expansion occurs from its initial to final

pressure through a (single nozzle / group of nozzles) located in
the turbine stator, positioned in front of the rotating disc blades
• The decrease in steam pressure within the nozzles results in a
corresponding decrease in heat content, leading to an increase in
the steam velocity as it exits the nozzles
• The high-velocity steam jets exert an impulse force on the
blades, performing mechanical work on the turbine rotor's shaft
 Steam turbines Classification
Steam turbines can be classified into different categories depending on
o Construction o Heat drop process
o Steam Conditions (Initial & final conditions) o Industrial usage

Steam turbines Classification according to

1. Number of Pressure Stages 2. Direction of Steam Flow 3. Number of Cylinders
4. Method of Governing 5. Principal Action of Steam 6. Heat Drop Process
7. Steam Conditions at Inlet 8. Usage In Industry

1. Number of Pressure Stages

Single-stage Turbines Multi-stage Turbines
o Used in small-power o Available in a range of power capacities, from
applications like driving small to large
centrifugal compressors & o Commonly used in industrial applications
blowers requiring greater power output
• In a Curtis stage (impulse
turbine), multiple rows of
moving blades on one
disc still count as a single
stage

2. Direction of Steam Flow

Axial Turbines Radial Turbines
o Steam flows parallel to the rotor's axis o Steam flows perpendicular to the rotor's axis
o Most turbines, especially high-power ones, are o Used for small output applications & are not
axial flow commonly preferred for electricity generation
o Used for electricity generation because Are more complex in (design / operation / manufacturing)
multiple cylinders can be easily coupled for making them less suitable for large-scale power generation
greater output
3.Number of Cylinders

• Single-Cylinder Turbines
o Have one casing with multiple sections (high / intermediate
/ low pressure)
o Steam enters the high-pressure section of the turbine &
passes through the turbine to the low-pressure end of the
turbine then exhausts to the condenser

• Double-Cylinder Turbines
o Two -cylinder turbine with a single flow high
pressure (HP) cylinder & a low pressure (LP)
cylinder

• Three-Cylinder Turbines
o Comprise of a double-flow LP cylinder & an
intermediate-pressure (IP) cylinder, with steam
flowing in the opposite direction to the HP cylinder
𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
→ axial thrust on the rotor

• Four-Cylinder Turbines
o Designed for high output
o Exhaust steam from the HP cylinder passes
through a heater before entering the IP cylinder

Double-Flow Cylinders

• Used to reduce axial thrust on the rotor, (minimizing stress on bearings & preventing failures)
• Steam enters from both ends, flowing in opposite directions. This symmetrical flow balances axial forces
on the rotor
Usage
o Not used in high-pressure (HP) stages to avoid energy losses by introducing significant energy losses,
which would significantly impact the overall turbine efficiency (maintaining efficiency is crucial in these
stages)
o Used in intermediate-pressure (IP) & low-pressure (LP) stages, allowing for better (steam flow
control & performance) while extending bearing life by optimizing turbine dynamics
4. Method of Governing
𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜
• Are essential for regulating steam flow in turbines → fluctuations in load
• Variations in load can cause the shaft to (speed up at low loads / slow down at high loads), risking
mechanical failure & affecting generator performance
• To maintain a consistent angular velocity (crucial for efficient electricity generation & safe equipment
operation) it's necessary to adjust steam flow accordingly

• Throttle Governing
o Used to control the amount of steam entering
o Fresh steam enters through one or more throttle valves
that open simultaneously, allowing for direct control
over the steam flow rate entering the turbine based on
the power demand, by adjusting the position of the
throttle valves (used for small turbines)

• Nozzle Governing
o Fresh steam enters through multiple regulators that
open consecutively to control the flow of steam
o As the load changes, these regulators adjust the
amount of steam directed to the turbine, enabling
finer control of the turbine's performance, which is
beneficial for maintaining optimal operating conditions
under varying loads

Compare between (Throttle & Nozzle) governing methods

o A Nozzle regulator alters the flow properties by controlling how steam enters specific stages of a
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒
turbine, often changing the pressure & velocity of the steam → a throttle controls the overall amount of
steam entering the system

• By-pass Governing
o In addition to feeding steam to the first stage, some steam
is directly routed to intermediate stages
o Used in high-pressure impulse steam turbines, which have
many small-diameter stages
o Helps accommodate sudden changes in load demand
without sacrificing efficiency
Economic Load
o A specific operating condition at which a steam turbine
achieves its maximum efficiency
This load is taken as about 80% of the maximum continuous rating

In high-output turbines, bypassing steam from high-pressure (HP) to intermediate-pressure (IP) stages
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
increases power → power depends on steam (flow rate & duct diameter). Since IP stage blades are
typically larger, they can generate more power for the same flow rate
However, the IP blades must be able to handle the bypassed steam pressure to prevent damage.
This method is used to manage overloads but requires careful consideration of blade strength
5.Principal Action of Steam

• Impulse Turbines
o In which, The potential energy of steam is converted into kinetic energy in nozzles
o The kinetic energy is then transformed into mechanical energy when the steam strikes the
moving blades
Characteristics: The expansion of steam occurs only in stationary nozzles, and the exit velocity can
exceed 1200 m/s

• Reaction Turbines
o In which, Steam expands through both (guide &
moving) blades, allowing pressure drop to occur as
steam flows through the turbine
Characteristics: Steam pressure decreases progressively
throughout the blade passages, converting pressure
energy into mechanical energy effectively

• Combined Turbines
o These turbines incorporate multiple impulse-type
stages in conjunction with reaction-type stages,
leveraging the benefits of both designs for (enhanced
performance & efficiency)

6.Heat Drop Process

• Condensing Turbines with Regenerators

o These turbines condense exhaust steam to recover heat, improving
thermal efficiency by utilizing the heat for preheating feedwater

• Condensing Turbines with Intermediate Stage Extractions

o These turbines have one or two extraction points that draw off steam
at specific pressures for (industrial processes / heating applications),
optimizing efficiency by using steam for useful work

• Back Pressure Turbines

o These turbines exhaust steam that is used directly for (industrial
applications / heating), rather than condensing it

• Topping Turbines
o Similar to back pressure turbines, but the exhaust steam is further
utilized in (medium & low) pressure condensing turbines, creating a
multi-stage system for enhanced overall efficiency
7. Steam Conditions at Inlet

• Low-pressure turbines, using steam at pressures of 1.2 to 2 bar

• Medium-pressure turbines, using steam at pressures up to 40 bar
• High-pressure turbines, utilizing steam at pressure above 40 bar
• Very high-pressure turbines, utilizing
o Steam at pressure of 170 bar & higher
o Temperatures of 550 °C & higher
• Supercritical pressures turbines, using steam at pressures of 225 bar & higher

8.Usage In Industry
Stationary Turbines Non-Stationary Turbines
o Constant Speed: Primarily used for driving generators o Variable Speed: Typically employed in
o Variable Speed: Designed for driving (turbo-blowers / (steamers / ships / railway)
air-circulators / pumps / etc.) locomotives (turbo-locomotives)