What is a Turbomachine?

Imagine a wind turbine, a fan, or a water pump. All of these machines are examples of
turbomachines, which are devices that exchange energy between a moving fluid (like air or
water) and a rotating part, called a rotor. The rotor has blades, and as the fluid flows over or
through the blades, energy is either taken from the fluid or added to it.

1. If the fluid gives energy to the rotor, like in a wind turbine or a steam turbine, the
machine generates power (for example, electricity).
2. If the rotor gives energy to the fluid, like in a fan or a pump, the machine moves the
fluid or increases its pressure.

So in short, turbomachines either extract energy from a fluid or add energy to it.

Key Examples:

In the book, the author gives two main examples to help us understand:

1. Axial Hydraulic Turbine:

o Think of a water turbine. Water flows over blades that spin the rotor. The
energy in the moving water is transferred to the rotor, and this energy can be
used to generate electricity.
2. Axial Pump:
o Now think of a pump. The rotor spins and gives energy to the water, increasing
its pressure so it can be pumped to higher levels or through pipes.

In both cases, the flow direction of the fluid is mainly along the axis (hence the name "axial").

Understanding Energy:

To understand how turbomachines work, we need to look at how energy moves between the
rotor and the fluid. There are a few basic laws that help us with this:

1. Conservation of Mass:
o In any turbomachine, the amount of fluid going into the machine is equal to the
amount of fluid coming out (assuming no leaks). So, mass is conserved.
2. Conservation of Momentum:
o Momentum is the “oomph” that something has when it’s moving. The
momentum of the fluid changes when it passes through the machine, and this
change in momentum causes forces on the rotor, which make it spin. This is
how energy is transferred.
3. Conservation of Energy:
o Energy can’t be created or destroyed, but it can change form. In a
turbomachine, energy is either converted from the fluid to the rotor (like in a
turbine), or from the rotor to the fluid (like in a pump).
Energy Equations:

The chapter introduces some equations to describe these energy transfers. These are based on
something called Bernoulli’s equation. It’s a simple way of saying that in a moving fluid, the
total energy stays the same, but it can shift between:

 Kinetic energy (movement of the fluid)

 Pressure energy (how much force the fluid can exert)
 Potential energy (if the fluid is being lifted, like water going uphill)

In turbomachines, the blades of the rotor change the balance between these types of energy to
do useful work.

Energy Efficiency:

Not all the energy in a system is used perfectly—some of it is always lost to things like
friction. This is why we talk about efficiency in turbomachines. Efficiency is just a measure
of how much useful energy we get out compared to how much energy was put in.

For example, if you’re using a turbine to generate electricity, some energy might be lost as
heat due to friction. Efficiency tells you how much of the water's energy is actually being
converted into electricity versus how much is wasted.

Mean Line Analysis:

One useful tool in understanding how turbomachines work is mean line analysis. This is a
simplified way to study the flow of fluid through a machine. Instead of looking at every single
blade or every tiny bit of the fluid, we focus on an "average" flow path, which helps us
understand the overall performance of the machine without getting bogged down in too much
detail.

Axial vs. Radial Turbomachines:

The book mostly talks about axial turbomachines, where the fluid moves along the same
direction as the rotor's axis. But there are also radial turbomachines, like centrifugal pumps,
where the fluid is pushed outwards from the center of the rotor, moving perpendicular to the
axis.

Axial machines are simpler to understand and are often used when you need to move large
amounts of fluid quickly, like in a fan or a wind turbine. Radial machines, on the other hand,
are better for increasing pressure, like in water pumps.
Performance and Efficiency:

The chapter ends by discussing performance characteristics. When designing or evaluating

a turbomachine, you want to know:

1. How much fluid can it move? (flow rate)

2. How much pressure can it generate? (pressure head)
3. How efficient is it at converting energy? (efficiency)

This helps engineers choose the right machine for the job, whether it’s generating electricity
from a steam turbine or pumping water uphill with a centrifugal pump.

Summary:

 Turbomachines are machines that exchange energy between a rotating part (rotor)
and a fluid.
 They either extract energy from a fluid (like a turbine) or add energy to a fluid (like
a pump).
 The flow of energy and forces in these machines is described using the conservation
of mass, momentum, and energy.
 Efficiency is key—machines are never perfect, and some energy is always lost as heat
or friction.
 We can study turbomachines using mean line analysis, which simplifies the flow and
helps us understand how the machine works overall.

This chapter lays the groundwork for understanding more complex machines and concepts,
and it's essential to grasp these fundamentals before diving into detailed analysis in later
chapters.

Section 2.1: Aerofoils

 Aerofoils are shapes that interact with fluids (air or water) to generate lift or force. In
turbomachinery, the blades are often shaped like aerofoils, similar to airplane wings.
 Force generation: When fluid flows over an aerofoil, the shape causes a difference in
pressure between the top and bottom surfaces. This pressure difference generates lift
(or force), pushing the fluid along or creating work, depending on the type of machine
(turbine, fan, or pump).

How Aerofoils Work in Turbomachines:

  In turbomachines like pumps and turbines, aerofoil-shaped blades are used to either
extract energy from the fluid (turbine) or add energy to the fluid (pump or fan).
 The shape and orientation of these blades control the pressure and velocity of the
fluid, which is essential for the machine’s performance.

Section 2.2: Linear Cascades

 A cascade is a series of aerofoil-shaped blades arranged in a row. Cascades are used

to simplify the analysis of the flow through the blades.
 In an actual turbomachine, the fluid moves through multiple rows of blades (rotors and
stators), and the cascade model helps us understand how these blades interact with the
fluid in a simpler, more manageable way.

Key Concepts in Cascades:

1. Lossless Cascades: When there are no losses (like friction or turbulence), the forces
acting on the blades can be analyzed purely in terms of how they turn the fluid.
2. Flow with Losses: In real machines, there are always some losses due to friction or
other inefficiencies. This section explains how these losses reduce the amount of
useful work done by the machine and how engineers calculate this.

Section 2.3: Channels

 Channels are passages through which the fluid flows in the machine, often formed by
the spaces between blades.
 Straight channels guide fluid without much turning, while bends in channels cause
changes in the flow direction. In real machines, bends are common, and their shape
can influence how efficiently the fluid moves through the machine.

Section 2.4: Diffusers

 Diffusers are components that slow down the fluid, causing its pressure to increase.
This is useful in parts of the machine where you need to recover pressure after high-
speed fluid flow.
 Diffusers are designed to prevent flow separation (where the fluid "detaches" from
the walls, causing inefficiency). Proper design helps ensure the fluid flows smoothly,
maximizing the machine’s efficiency.

Why These Components Matter:

  All these parts—aerofoils, cascades, channels, and diffusers—are the building
blocks of a turbomachine. How they are designed and arranged determines how well
the machine performs, whether it’s a pump, a fan, or a turbine.
 Engineers carefully design these components to maximize efficiency, minimize
losses, and ensure the machine operates as intended under different conditions (e.g.,
varying fluid speeds, pressures, and temperatures).

Summary:

 Aerofoils: Generate force or lift by manipulating the pressure difference across the
blade.
 Cascades: Rows of blades analyzed to understand flow patterns and energy exchange.
 Channels: Guide the fluid through the machine, with straight and curved designs
affecting flow.
 Diffusers: Recover pressure by slowing down the fluid, crucial for improving machine
efficiency.

Chapter 2 builds on the fundamentals from Chapter 1 by explaining how different components
are shaped and how they work together in a turbomachine. Understanding these components
is critical because their design directly impacts the performance and efficiency of machines
like pumps, fans, and turbines.

What are Fans?

A fan is a machine designed to move air or gas, creating a small pressure rise. Unlike
compressors, fans don’t increase the pressure of the fluid significantly, meaning that the
density of the air or gas remains nearly constant. The chapter divides fans into three main
types:

1. Axial Fans: Fluid flows parallel to the axis of rotation.

2. Radial (or Centrifugal) Fans: Fluid is pushed radially outward from the center.
3. Mixed-Flow Fans: These combine both axial and radial elements.

Fan Applications

Fans have numerous applications, including:

 Industrial ventilation: For moving air through large spaces, like in factories or mines.
 Home ventilation: Small fans are used in HVAC systems or for exhaust in kitchens.
  Cooling systems: Computers and electronics use fans to cool components by moving
air through heat exchangers.

Each of these applications requires different sizes and designs of fans. For instance, large
axial fans are often used in power plants, while small radial fans might be used in home
appliances like vacuum cleaners.

Types of Fans

1. Radial Fans: These fans come in different rotor designs.

o Forward Curved Blades: These are used to generate more kinetic energy in
the fluid, usually for applications that require higher flow rates.
o Backward Curved Blades: These are better for pressure build-up and are
more efficient in many industrial applications.
2. Axial Fans: These fans have blades shaped like aerofoils and are designed to
maximize airflow at low pressure increases. They are commonly used in ventilation
and cooling systems.
3. Cross-Flow Fans: These fans have a special design where air flows through the rotor
twice. They are usually used in small applications where low-pressure airflow is
needed, like in heaters or air conditioners.

Fan Performance Analysis

Fans are analyzed using both theoretical and practical approaches. One method is the
Idealized Mean Line Analysis, which simplifies the complex flow inside a fan by assuming
the flow behaves ideally (without losses).

1. Performance Parameters: Fans have specific performance characteristics like flow

rate, pressure rise, and efficiency, which engineers need to optimize depending on the
application.
2. Flow with Finite Blades: Real fans have a limited number of blades, which
introduces inefficiencies (like slip or flow separation) that must be accounted for in
their design.

Internal Losses in Fans

Real fans experience internal losses due to factors like:

 Friction: Fluid moving over the blades and the volute walls creates frictional losses.
 Flow Separation: Fluid can separate from the blades or channels, reducing efficiency.
 Incidence Loss: This occurs when the flow doesn’t enter the rotor at the ideal angle,
reducing the effectiveness of the fan.
Designers must minimize these losses to create more efficient fans, particularly for industrial
applications where high power output and low noise are essential.

Rotor Design Choices

The rotor design strongly affects the performance of a fan. Blades can be forward or
backward curved, and each shape is suited to different types of performance:

 Backward Curved Blades: These are more efficient, as they reduce losses and can
operate at higher speeds.
 Forward Curved Blades: These are often used in smaller fans, where noise reduction
and lower speeds are needed.

Axial and Mixed-Flow Fans

Axial fans are primarily used where high flow rates are required, but the pressure rise is low.
Mixed-flow fans, which combine features of both axial and radial designs, are used in
applications where a moderate balance between flow and pressure rise is needed. These fans
are used in industrial systems where ductwork is involved.

Summary

 Fans are essential for moving air or gases and come in various forms, including axial,
radial, and mixed-flow types.
 Applications range from industrial ventilation to small-scale home cooling and
heating systems.
 Performance is analyzed using ideal flow models and adjusted for real-world losses
like friction and flow separation.
 Design considerations involve choosing the right rotor shape (forward or backward
curved) and optimizing the fan for efficiency and noise reduction.

This chapter provides a comprehensive look into how fans work, how they’re designed, and
how engineers can optimize them for different applications.

What is Compressible Flow?

Compressible flow happens when a fluid (such as air or gas) experiences significant changes
in density due to variations in pressure and temperature. Unlike water (which is mostly
incompressible), gases change their volume and density when subjected to pressure changes.

This chapter introduces the basic laws governing compressible flow, which are slightly
different from incompressible flow because they must account for these density changes.

Basic Laws of Compressible Flow (Section 4.1)

1. Mass Conservation: This is similar to incompressible flow. The amount of mass

entering and leaving a system is constant, but the density can now vary depending on
pressure and temperature.
2. Momentum Conservation: The fluid’s momentum changes based on forces applied
to it, such as pressure. When dealing with compressible fluids, the flow often
accelerates, especially in devices like nozzles that expand or compress the fluid.
3. Energy Conservation: Energy can’t be created or destroyed, only transferred. For
compressible fluids, energy is tracked through pressure, kinetic energy (speed), and
internal energy (temperature).

Compressibility and the Speed of Sound (Section 4.2)

When a compressible fluid like air undergoes pressure changes, sound waves propagate
through it. The speed at which these pressure waves travel is called the speed of sound. The
faster the speed of sound, the less compressible the fluid is.

 For gases, the speed of sound depends on temperature: warmer gases have a higher
speed of sound. For example, at room temperature, the speed of sound in air is about
340 meters per second.

How Compressibility Affects Flow (Section 4.3)

Compressibility changes how fluid velocity and pressure relate to one another. In
incompressible fluids, Bernoulli’s equation gives a simple relationship between velocity and
pressure. For compressible fluids, this relationship becomes more complex due to density
changes.

This section explains that as a gas expands (lower pressure), its velocity increases, and vice
versa. For high-speed flows, such as in jet engines, the compressible effects are particularly
important, as gases can flow at speeds close to or above the speed of sound.

Nozzle Flow and Expansions (Section 4.4)

One of the key applications of compressible fluid flow is in nozzles, which are used to
accelerate or decelerate gases. A nozzle can be:

 Convergent: The channel narrows, causing the fluid to speed up.

 Divergent: The channel widens, causing the fluid to slow down or further accelerate if
it's already supersonic (faster than sound).

For example, in a rocket engine or a jet engine, gases are compressed and then expanded
through a nozzle to produce thrust.

 Subsonic Flow: If the gas is moving slower than sound, a convergent nozzle will
make it speed up.
 Supersonic Flow: If the gas is already moving faster than sound, a divergent nozzle
will make it accelerate even more.

Nozzle Flow with Losses (Section 4.6)

In reality, there are always losses in the flow due to friction, heat exchange, or inefficiencies.
When these losses occur, the total pressure drops. This section explains how to account for
these losses when calculating the flow through nozzles.

Isentropic and Polytropic Efficiencies (Section 4.7)

 Isentropic Efficiency: This measures how close the actual flow process is to an ideal
(perfect, no-loss) process. A high isentropic efficiency means the system is working
efficiently with minimal losses.
 Polytropic Efficiency: This accounts for the real-world behavior of gases over
multiple stages of compression or expansion, such as in multi-stage compressors.

Summary of Chapter 4:

 Compressible flow deals with fluids like gases, where density changes are important.
 Speed of sound is key to understanding compressibility—faster sound means less
compressible.
 Nozzles accelerate or decelerate compressible fluids, and different nozzle shapes are
used for subsonic or supersonic flows.
 In real systems, losses lower efficiency, but engineers can account for these with
efficiency measures like isentropic and polytropic efficiencies.

This chapter is crucial for understanding how turbomachines like gas turbines and
compressors work, as these machines often deal with compressible fluids under high pressure
and temperature conditions.
Why is Performance Measurement Important?

When engineers design and build a turbomachine, they need to know how efficiently it
operates. For example, they may want to measure how much power a turbine generates or
how much pressure a pump can build. To do this, they rely on different kinds of instruments
and methods to gather data and check the performance of these machines.

Key Measurements in Turbomachines:

In this chapter, we focus on five main types of measurements:

1. Pressure Measurement
2. Temperature Measurement
3. Flow Rate Measurement
4. Torque Measurement
5. Rotational Speed Measurement

1. Pressure Measurement

Pressure is a critical factor in many turbomachines, like pumps and turbines. The chapter
discusses three main types of pressure-measuring devices:

 Metal Manometer: A simple device that uses a curved metal tube to measure
pressure. When the pressure changes, the tube bends, and the movement is measured
by a needle.
 Pressure Transducer: This device measures pressure electronically by detecting the
bending of diaphragms and converting this into a voltage. It's more accurate and
versatile than a metal manometer.
 Digital Manometer: A more modern version of the manometer that uses digital
displays and can be handheld. It's especially useful for measuring air pressure quickly
and efficiently.

2. Temperature Measurement

Temperature affects the density and behavior of fluids, so it’s important to measure it
accurately:

 Glass Thermometer: Like a classic mercury thermometer, it expands with

temperature changes. These are simple but fragile.
 Temperature Transducer: This is a more advanced way to measure temperature. It
works by detecting changes in electrical resistance or voltage, which are then
converted into temperature readings. This type of thermometer is highly accurate and
can be connected to computer systems for real-time data logging.
  Digital Thermometer: Similar to the transducer but with a digital readout, making it
easier to read and use in lab settings.

3. Flow Rate Measurement

The flow rate tells us how much fluid is moving through the machine, which is critical for
pumps and turbines:

 Reservoir Method: A simple way to measure flow is to fill a reservoir with a known
volume of fluid and measure how long it takes. This is accurate but only practical for
small-scale experiments.
 Flow Over a Weir: In this method, the fluid flows over a small dam or “weir,” and
the flow rate is calculated based on the height of the water level above the weir.
 Pressure Drop Devices: These devices measure how much pressure drops when fluid
passes through a nozzle or orifice. This pressure difference can then be used to
calculate the flow rate.

4. Torque Measurement

Torque is the twisting force that makes the shaft of a turbomachine rotate. It’s important for
measuring how much power the machine can deliver:

 Swinging Suspended Motor or Brake: This measures torque by detecting the

twisting force on the motor. A balance or scale is used to measure the force.
 Torque Transducer: A more accurate device that uses electrical signals to measure
torque. This is often used in advanced laboratory setups.

5. Rotational Speed Measurement

The speed at which a turbine or pump rotates (usually measured in revolutions per minute, or
RPM) is a key factor in its performance:

 Pulse Counters: This method uses magnets or light sensors to detect how fast a wheel
or shaft is rotating. The pulses are counted and converted into speed readings.
 Speed Transducer: A magnetic device that generates a voltage proportional to the
rotational speed. The voltage is then displayed on a meter.

Laboratory Tests

The chapter includes examples of laboratory tests for different types of turbomachines, such
as Pelton turbines, centrifugal fans, and centrifugal pumps. These tests help engineers
verify how well the machine works in controlled conditions by measuring key performance
indicators like efficiency, energy rise, and power output.

 Pelton Turbine Test: Engineers measure the flow rate, pressure, and rotational speed
of the turbine, and use these values to calculate the power and efficiency.
 Centrifugal Fan Test: Here, the fan's input power and mass flow rate are measured to
determine how much energy the fan transfers to the air.

Conclusion:

Chapter 5 of Fundamentals of Turbomachines gives a detailed guide to the techniques and

instruments used to measure the performance of turbomachines. Accurate measurements of
pressure, temperature, flow rate, torque, and speed are essential for understanding how
efficiently a machine operates, whether it’s a pump, fan, or turbine. These measurements are
the backbone of performance testing and optimization in real-world applications.

What is a Steam Turbine?

A steam turbine is a machine that turns the energy from steam (heat energy) into rotational
energy, which can then be used to produce electricity or power mechanical devices. This is
done through a process called the enthalpy drop, where steam expands and its energy is
converted into mechanical work.

Applications of Steam Turbines (Section 6.1)

Steam turbines are used extensively in power plants, particularly in coal-fired, nuclear, and
gas power stations. Modern turbines can produce vast amounts of power, with some reaching
up to 1000 MW (megawatts). These machines are designed to operate under extremely high
pressures and temperatures—sometimes as high as 250 bar (250 times atmospheric pressure)
and 565°C.

Working Principles of Steam Turbines (Section 6.2)

The steam turbine works similarly to a hydraulic turbine (which uses water), but steam has
unique properties. Steam enters the turbine at high pressure and is expanded through stator
blades (fixed blades). These blades convert the pressure energy into kinetic energy (energy
of motion). The steam then flows through rotor blades, which rotate and produce mechanical
work.
A unique feature of steam turbines is their ability to handle large enthalpy drops (energy per
unit mass). For example, in power plants, steam can drop about 1000 kJ/kg of enthalpy,
which is much higher than what’s seen in hydraulic systems. This is why steam turbines are
used for such high-power applications.

Two Types of Steam Turbines (Section 6.2)

There are two main types of steam turbines based on how they handle pressure and velocity
changes:

1. Impulse Turbine:
o In this design, steam is accelerated in the stator blades (nozzles), where all the
pressure drop occurs. The steam exits the nozzles at high speed, hitting the
rotor blades, causing them to spin. An impulse turbine has no pressure drop in
the rotor, only in the stator.
o Example: The Laval turbine, named after Gustaf de Laval, who invented it. It
uses only one stage of expansion, making it simple but less efficient for large
applications.
2. Reaction Turbine:
o In a reaction turbine, pressure drops in both the stator and rotor blades. This
design is more common for large power plants because it can handle higher
efficiency and power output.
o Example: The Parsons turbine, named after Charles Parsons, who invented
it. It uses multiple stages of expansion, making it more suitable for high-power
applications like power stations.

Impulse vs. Reaction Turbines (Section 6.4 and 6.7)

 Impulse Turbines: All pressure drop happens in the stator, and the rotor is turned by
the force of high-speed steam hitting it.
o Advantages: Simple design and robust.
o Disadvantages: Not as efficient as reaction turbines for large power plants.
 Reaction Turbines: Pressure drops happen in both the stator and rotor, and the rotor
generates power by both the pressure drop and change in steam direction.
o Advantages: Higher efficiency and used in large, multi-stage turbines.
o Disadvantages: More complex design.

Velocity Triangles (Section 6.4.1)

To understand how energy is converted in turbines, engineers use velocity triangles. These
diagrams show the relationship between the steam's velocity, the blade’s velocity, and the
angles at which steam enters and exits the blades. These triangles help determine how much
work is being done by the turbine.
The Steam Cycle (Section 6.3)

Steam turbines are part of a larger system called the Rankine cycle, which describes how
steam is generated, expanded in the turbine, condensed back into water, and then reheated to
restart the cycle. This cycle maximizes the amount of energy that can be extracted from the
steam.

Construction of Steam Turbines (Section 6.8)

There are two main categories of steam turbines based on their size and power output:

1. Large Steam Turbines: These are used in power stations and can produce up to 1000
MW of power. They usually consist of multiple stages, each designed to handle
different pressure and temperature conditions. These turbines are massive, with some
blades reaching speeds of over 530 meters per second.
2. Industrial Steam Turbines: These are smaller and used for driving mechanical
systems like pumps or compressors in industrial settings. They typically produce
between 100 kW to 250 MW of power and have fewer stages compared to power
station turbines.

Conclusion:

Steam turbines are powerful machines that play a critical role in electricity generation. By
converting the energy from high-pressure steam into rotational mechanical energy, they
power some of the largest and most important industries in the world. Understanding how
they work, from the basic designs (impulse and reaction turbines) to the Rankine cycle, is key
for anyone studying energy systems or mechanical engineering.

This chapter provides a deep dive into the engineering behind steam turbines, explaining how
they work and why they're essential for modern power generation

What is Dynamic Similitude? (Section 7.1.1)

Dynamic similitude means that two systems—like a small model and a full-sized machine—
are geometrically, kinematically, and dynamically similar. This means:

 Geometrically similar: The shape and proportions of both systems are the same.
 Kinematically similar: The flow velocities at corresponding points behave similarly.
  Dynamically similar: The forces at corresponding points in the system are
proportional.

This concept is important because it allows engineers to test smaller, scaled-down models of
turbomachines to predict how the full-scale machines will behave.

Dimensionless Parameters (Section 7.1.2)

To compare different systems, we use dimensionless parameters. These are groups of

variables that, when combined, have no units. They are crucial because they allow us to
compare different systems on the same scale.

 Reynolds number (Re): This is one of the most important dimensionless numbers and
compares inertial forces to viscous forces in a fluid. It helps predict whether the flow
will be laminar (smooth) or turbulent.
 Froude number (Fr): Compares inertial forces to gravitational forces, important for
free-surface flows, like in water turbines.
 Euler number (Eu): Compares pressure forces to inertial forces and is often used to
analyze pressure drops in a system.

By using these numbers, engineers can ensure that two different systems—like a small test
model and the actual machine—behave in the same way under similar conditions.

Why Use Dynamic Similitude? (Section 7.1.4)

Testing full-size machines can be expensive or impractical. By using similitude analysis,

engineers can:

 Design smaller test models and predict the performance of full-sized machines.
 Reduce the number of variables they need to test.
 Ensure that testing conditions (like velocity or pressure) can be scaled up accurately.

For example, if you're designing a new type of pump, you can create a smaller, scaled model
and test it in a lab. By using dimensionless numbers like Reynolds number, you can
accurately predict how the full-scale pump will behave in real-world conditions.

Dimensional Analysis (Section 7.1.5)

Dimensional analysis helps find the important dimensionless numbers by examining the
units (like meters, seconds, or kilograms) involved in a problem. The goal is to reduce the
complex physical problem into a set of dimensionless numbers that describe the system's
behavior. The Buckingham π theorem is a tool used in this process, which shows how you
can reduce a system with multiple variables to a few key dimensionless numbers.
Strong and Weak Similitude (Section 7.1.8)

Not all similitude conditions are equally important. Strong similitude means that all
dimensionless parameters must match perfectly between the model and the full-scale system,
while weak similitude allows for small differences. For instance, at very high Reynolds
numbers, the flow behavior might not be as sensitive to small changes in viscosity, meaning
engineers don’t need to focus as much on matching Reynolds numbers exactly.

Example of Similitude in Action: Pumps (Section 7.3)

In this section, the book provides an example of how similitude is applied to design a
centrifugal pump. By testing a small model pump, engineers can predict the flow rate,
pressure rise, and efficiency of a full-sized pump. The key is ensuring that the dimensionless
parameters (like Reynolds number and flow coefficient) are matched between the model and
the real machine.

Summary

 Dynamic similitude is a way to test smaller models of machines to predict the

performance of full-size systems.
 Engineers use dimensionless parameters like Reynolds number and Froude number
to ensure that different systems behave in a similar way.
 Dimensional analysis simplifies complex systems by reducing the number of
variables using tools like the Buckingham π theorem.
 This chapter lays the groundwork for using scaled-down testing in turbomachinery
design and shows how these principles apply to pumps, fans, and turbines.

By mastering these principles, you can predict the performance of large machines without
needing to build full-size prototypes every time!

1. Understanding Pumps

Pumps are machines that move fluids from one place to another by creating a pressure
difference. They convert mechanical energy from a motor into hydraulic energy in the fluid.
This chapter covers various types of pumps, how they function, and specific issues related to
their operation.

2. Cavitation (Section 8.1)

Cavitation is a significant phenomenon that can damage pumps. It occurs when the pressure
inside the pump drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid, leading to the formation of
vapor cavities (bubbles). Here's what you need to know:

 Cavitation Phenomenon: When the pressure drops too low, the liquid starts to
evaporate, forming bubbles. When these bubbles move to areas of higher pressure,
they collapse violently, creating shock waves that can erode metal surfaces in the
pump. This process is known as pitting.
 Types of Cavitation: There are different types, such as vaporous cavitation and gas
cavitation, each with varying consequences for the pump.
 Assessment: To prevent cavitation, engineers calculate the cavitation number and
ensure the pump has a sufficient net positive suction head (NPSH). This helps
ensure that the pressure at the pump inlet remains above the vapor pressure of the fluid
being pumped.

3. Priming of Pumps: Self-Priming Types (Section 8.2)

Priming is the process of filling the pump and its suction pipe with the fluid to be pumped,
which is necessary for the pump to operate effectively. The chapter discusses self-priming
pumps, which can evacuate air from their suction line and start operation without manual
intervention.

 Types of Self-Priming Pumps:

o Side Channel Pump: Uses a rotor with radial blades to create suction and
push the fluid, making it effective for self-priming.
o Peripheral Pump (Regenerative Pump): Works by splashing liquid around
the rotor, creating an air-water emulsion that allows for air evacuation.
o Self-Priming Centrifugal Pump: Similar to regular centrifugal pumps but
designed to be self-priming, allowing for automatic air removal.

4. Unstable Operation (Section 8.3)

Pumps can experience unstable operation under certain conditions, leading to vibrations or
inefficient performance. This section discusses potential causes, including inappropriate
matching of the pump with the system it serves and variations in fluid properties. Unstable
operation can lead to noise and damage to the pump over time.

5. Component Shaping (Section 8.4)

The design of pump components significantly impacts performance and efficiency. This
section explores various designs and shapes for pump components:

 Blade Design: The shape of the blades can be simple or doubly curved to improve
fluid dynamics. These shapes affect how efficiently the pump moves fluid.
  Pump Inlet and Outlet: The inlet should be designed to minimize turbulence and
ensure smooth entry of fluid into the pump. The outlet should allow for efficient
discharge.
 Diffuser Rings: Both vaneless and vaned diffusers can be used to reduce the fluid's
velocity and increase pressure as it exits the pump.

6. Internal Connections of Rotors (Section 8.5)

This section discusses how pumps can be designed with multiple rotors connected in series or
parallel:

 Series Connection: Rotors are connected in a way that the output of one rotor feeds
into the next, allowing for increased pressure and flow capacity. This is typical in
multistage pumps.
 Parallel Connection: Multiple rotors work simultaneously, which helps to share the
load and increases flow capacity without significantly raising the pressure.

7. Constructional Aspects (Section 8.6)

Here, the focus is on the different components that make up a pump:

 Rotor: The rotating part that imparts energy to the fluid.

 Stator: The stationary part that supports the rotor and guides the fluid.
 Sealing and Bearings: Critical for maintaining pressure and reducing wear.
 Wear Rings: Used to minimize leakage and prolong pump life.

8. Special Pumps (Section 8.7)

The chapter concludes with an overview of various special-purpose pumps designed for
specific applications:

 Borehole Pumps: Designed to be lowered into narrow boreholes, often multistage to

provide sufficient pressure.
 High-Pressure Pumps: Used in applications like boiler feed pumps, capable of
handling very high pressures.
 Sealless Pumps: Prevent leakage by using designs that avoid traditional shaft seals,
crucial for handling hazardous liquids.
 Slurry Pumps: Designed to handle mixtures of liquids and solids, with larger
passageways to prevent clogging.

Conclusion
Chapter 8 provides a comprehensive understanding of pump operation, covering essential
topics like cavitation, self-priming, and the design of pump components. By mastering these
concepts, you gain insights into the critical role pumps play in various industrial applications
and how engineers optimize their performance and reliability.

1. Understanding Hydraulic Energy

Hydraulic energy comes from the potential energy of water stored at a height. When water
flows from a higher elevation to a lower one, it has the potential to do work. Hydraulic
turbines convert this gravitational potential energy into mechanical energy, which is primarily
used for generating electricity.

 How It Works: Water is typically stored in a reservoir created by a dam. As water is

released from the reservoir, it flows through the turbine, causing it to spin and
generate electricity.
 Head: The height difference from the water source to the turbine is known as the
head. The amount of energy available from the water depends on this height
difference.

2. Types of Hydraulic Turbines (Section 9.2)

Hydraulic turbines can be classified into two main categories based on their size and power
output:

1. Large Turbines (> 10 MW):

o Pelton Turbines (Impulse Turbines):
 These turbines are designed to use the kinetic energy of water jets to
turn the turbine blades. Water is directed through nozzles to create
high-velocity jets that strike the blades, causing them to spin.
 Pelton turbines are most effective at high heads (greater than 100
meters) and low flow rates.
o Francis Turbines (Reaction Turbines):
 These are radial turbines with a medium to high degree of reaction.
Water flows into the turbine, increasing its pressure and causing it to
turn.
 Francis turbines are suitable for a wide range of head conditions and
flow rates.
o Kaplan Turbines:
 Kaplan turbines are axial machines with a high degree of reaction and
adjustable blades. They are used in low head applications and are
highly efficient at high flow rates.
2. Small Turbines (< 10 MW):
o The same types of turbines (Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan) are also available in
smaller configurations for applications where less power is required.
 o Cross-Flow Turbines: These turbines, also known as Banki turbines, operate
similarly to cross-flow fans and are suitable for low heads and small
installations.

3. Pelton Turbines (Section 9.3)

Pelton turbines are unique because they operate on the impulse principle. Here’s what you
need to know:

 Performance Characteristics:
o The turbine consists of buckets (the blades) that capture the energy from the
water jet.
o The performance of a Pelton turbine is highly dependent on the jet velocity
and the bucket design.
 Specific Speed:
o This is a dimensionless parameter that indicates how a turbine will perform
under certain flow conditions. It helps in selecting the appropriate turbine type
for a given application.
 Flow Rate Control:
o To manage flow rates and prevent over-speeding, Pelton turbines are equipped
with mechanisms to adjust the nozzle size or shut it off when needed.

4. Francis and Kaplan Turbines (Section 9.4)

These are reaction turbines that generate power by converting pressure energy into
mechanical energy:

 Francis Turbines:
o Water flows through adjustable guide vanes and enters the rotor. The design
allows for efficient operation across a range of flow rates and heads.
o Velocity Triangles: Understanding the velocity triangles (the relationship
between the velocities of the water and the rotor) is crucial for optimizing
turbine performance.
 Kaplan Turbines:
o These turbines have adjustable blades and are most efficient in low-head, high-
flow situations. They can handle varying flow rates effectively.

5. Bulb and Tube Turbines (Section 9.5)

These types of turbines are designed for low-head applications:

 Bulb Turbines:
 o These turbines are installed in a horizontal orientation and are particularly
useful in tidal energy applications. They can operate in both turbine and pump
modes.
 Tube Turbines:
o These are entirely axial machines that operate within a tube, making them
suitable for sites with limited head.

6. Reversible Pump-Turbines (Section 9.6)

Reversible pump-turbines can operate both as pumps and turbines. Here’s how they function:

 During periods of low electricity demand, these turbines can pump water back into a
reservoir. When demand is high, they can operate in turbine mode to generate
electricity.
 This dual functionality allows for better management of energy resources, particularly
in pumped storage plants.

Conclusion

Chapter 9 provides an in-depth understanding of hydraulic turbines, including how they

convert water’s gravitational potential energy into mechanical energy for electricity
generation. By covering various types of turbines, their operational principles, and efficiency
considerations, this chapter prepares students to understand the crucial role of hydraulic
turbines in renewable energy production.

1. Wind Energy Basics (Section 10.1)

Wind energy is the kinetic energy generated by the movement of air due to the uneven
heating of the Earth’s surface by the sun. Wind energy systems capture this energy using
Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS), which typically consist of:

 Wind Turbine Rotor: The blades that capture wind energy.

 Gearbox: Converts the low-speed rotational motion of the rotor into higher speed for
the generator.
 Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Tower: Supports the rotor and other components at a height where wind speed is
generally higher.

The chapter highlights the importance of designing these systems to optimize energy
production based on average wind speeds at different heights, with a typical average speed of
around 7 m/s at 50 meters height along the European coast.
2. Types of Wind Energy Conversion Systems (Section 10.2)

There are several types of wind energy systems based on their operating principles:

2.1 Drag Machines (Section 10.2.1)

 How They Work: These machines rely on drag (the resistance of air against a
surface) to turn. An example is the Savonius rotor, which uses cups that catch the
wind.
 Efficiency: Drag machines generally have lower efficiency (around 0.20 power
coefficient) because they can't exceed wind speed and experience significant energy
loss due to drag forces.

2.2 High-Speed Horizontal-Axis Turbines (Section 10.2.2)

 How They Work: These turbines use lift, similar to airplane wings, to harness wind
energy efficiently. They are designed for higher speeds and have a higher power
coefficient (about 0.45).
 Design Features: Most have three blades to maintain stability and balance. The rotor
is mounted on a horizontal axis, and the turbine can adapt to changing wind directions
using yaw mechanisms.

2.3 Low-Speed Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (Section 10.2.4)

 Application: These are often used for pumping water. They have a larger solidity
(more blade surface relative to the flow area) to extract maximum energy from low
wind speeds.

2.4 Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs) (Section 10.2.5)

 Design: These turbines have a vertical shaft and can capture wind from any direction
without needing to be turned.
 Advantages: They are less affected by wind direction and can be mounted closer to
the ground, making maintenance easier.
 Disadvantages: They generally have lower efficiency compared to horizontal-axis
turbines and are not self-starting without additional mechanisms.

3. Wind Turbine Performance Analysis (Section 10.3)

This section focuses on how to analyze the performance of wind turbines using different
methodologies:

3.1 Momentum Analysis (Single Streamtube Analysis)

  This approach analyzes the turbine as a single streamtube through which air flows. It
helps calculate the wind energy that can be captured based on the change in
momentum as air passes through the rotor.

3.2 Multiple Streamtube Analysis

 This method considers the turbine's interaction with multiple air streams, allowing for
a more detailed performance assessment that reflects real-world conditions.

3.3 Blade Element Analysis

 This technique breaks the blade into smaller sections (elements) to analyze lift and
drag forces at various points along the blade. It helps optimize blade shape for
maximum efficiency.

4. Adaptation to Wind Regime (Section 10.4)

Wind turbines must be designed to operate efficiently in their specific wind environment.
Factors include:

 Cut-in Speed: The minimum wind speed at which the turbine starts generating power,
typically around 4-5 m/s.
 Rated Speed: The wind speed at which the turbine produces its maximum output
(rated power), which is often significantly higher than the average wind speed.
 Cut-out Speed: The wind speed at which the turbine is shut down to prevent damage,
usually around 25 m/s.

The adaptation to local wind regimes is crucial for optimizing the capacity factor, which
indicates how often the turbine produces energy relative to its maximum potential output.

Conclusion

Chapter 10 provides a comprehensive overview of wind turbines, covering their design,

operation, and performance analysis. Understanding these concepts is essential for engineers
and designers who work with renewable energy systems. Wind turbines play a significant role
in sustainable energy generation, harnessing one of the most abundant natural resources—
wind.

1. Understanding Power Gas Turbines

A gas turbine is a type of turbomachine that converts chemical energy from fuel into
mechanical energy through a sequence of processes. It typically consists of three main
components:

1. Compressor: This part draws in air from the atmosphere and compresses it, increasing
the air’s pressure and temperature.
2. Combustion Chamber: Here, fuel is mixed with the compressed air and ignited,
producing high-temperature, high-pressure gas.
3. Turbine: The hot gas expands through the turbine, causing it to spin and generate
mechanical work, which is usually converted into electricity.

Gas turbines are widely used in power generation plants and for driving various industrial
processes .

2. Components of Gas Turbines (Section 11.1)

2.1 Compressor Part

 Function: The compressor's job is to compress the incoming air, increasing its
pressure before it enters the combustion chamber.
 Design: Typically consists of multiple stages, each with rotors (spinning blades) and
stators (stationary blades) to progressively compress the air .
 Pressure Ratio: The compressor pressure ratio is an important performance metric.
Higher ratios indicate greater compression and are usually linked to increased
efficiency.

2.2 Combustion Chamber

 Process: The compressed air is mixed with fuel (usually natural gas) and ignited,
leading to high-temperature combustion gases.
 Design Types: Common designs include can-type, annular, and can-annular
combustion chambers, each suited for specific applications.

2.3 Turbine Part

 Function: The turbine converts the thermal energy from the combustion gases into
mechanical energy. It also drives the compressor.
 Velocity Triangles: Understanding the velocity triangles at the rotor and stator helps
in analyzing the performance and efficiency of the turbine .

3. Thermodynamic Modeling (Section 11.2)

This section covers how to model the thermodynamics of gas turbines to assess their
performance. Key concepts include:

3.1 Isentropic Efficiency

  Measures how effectively the turbine and compressor convert energy compared to an
ideal process.

3.2 Reheat Effect

 This considers how reheating the gas can improve efficiency in multi-stage turbines.

3.3 Polytropic Efficiency

 A more accurate measure of efficiency across varying pressure and temperature

conditions.

3.4 Thermodynamic Properties

 The chapter discusses the properties of air and combustion gases, including heat
capacities and how they change under different conditions .

4. Performance of Simple-Cycle Gas Turbines (Section 11.3)

A simple-cycle gas turbine consists of the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine in
series. Here’s how its performance is analyzed:

4.1 Idealized Simple Cycle

 This model helps understand the basic thermodynamic cycle without accounting for
inefficiencies.

4.2 Real-World Considerations

 The chapter explains how to include real-world efficiencies and losses in the
modeling, such as heat losses and work dissipated during compression .

5. Enhanced Cycle Performance (Section 11.4)

Gas turbines can be enhanced using various techniques to improve efficiency:

5.1 Compression with Intercooling

 Reduces the work required by the compressor by cooling the air before compression,
leading to better efficiency.

5.2 Expansion with Reheat

 Involves reheating the gas after partial expansion to extract more work from the gas.

5.3 Recuperators
  Devices that recover waste heat from the exhaust gases to preheat the incoming air,
improving overall efficiency.

5.4 Combined Cycles

 This involves integrating gas turbines with steam turbines (combined cycle power
plants) to maximize efficiency by utilizing the waste heat from the gas turbine to
generate steam .

Conclusion

Chapter 11 provides a detailed overview of power gas turbines, including their components,
working principles, and performance metrics. By understanding the thermodynamic modeling
and the various configurations that enhance efficiency, students can grasp how gas turbines
operate in real-world applications, particularly in power generation.

1. Thrust Generation (Section 12.1)

Thrust is the force that propels an aircraft forward. There are three primary methods of
generating thrust:

1.1 Screw or Propeller Systems (Section 12.1.1)

 A propeller is a twisted rotor with blades that accelerates air around the aircraft,
creating thrust.
 For airplanes, the propeller generates the forward thrust, while the wings create lift. In
helicopters, the rotor blades provide both thrust and lift.
 Key Forces: Lift (perpendicular to airflow) and drag (resistance). The rotation of the
propeller accelerates air, and thrust is produced as a reaction to this acceleration.

1.2 Reactor or Jet Engines (Section 12.1.2)

 Jet engines are the most commonly used propulsion systems in modern aircraft.
 These engines generate thrust by accelerating air and fuel through a combustion
process, expelling it at high speeds through a nozzle.
 Jet Propulsion: The reaction force from the expelled gases produces the necessary
forward thrust for the aircraft.

1.3 Rocket Engines (Section 12.1.3)

 Rocket engines don’t rely on air from the atmosphere. Instead, they carry both fuel
and oxidizer onboard, making them suitable for space travel.
 Rockets produce thrust by expelling gases at very high speeds from the combustion of
the fuel and oxidizer mixture.
2. Overview of Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines (Section 12.2)

Gas turbines come in several configurations depending on the type of aircraft and its specific
requirements. Here are the key types:

2.1 Turbojet (Section 12.2.1)

 A turbojet is the simplest form of jet engine. It consists of a compressor,

combustion chamber, turbine, and nozzle.
 It is most efficient at very high speeds (above Mach 2.5) but is not commonly used
today because it is less fuel-efficient at lower speeds.

2.2 Turboprop and Turbo-Shaft (Section 12.2.2)

 Turboprop engines are used in aircraft where a propeller is driven by a gas turbine.
This type is ideal for low to medium speeds.
 Turbo-shaft engines, commonly used in helicopters, have a similar design but
primarily provide mechanical power to drive rotors instead of producing direct thrust.

2.3 Bypass Turbojet (Section 12.2.3)

 A bypass turbojet diverts some air around the engine’s core (combustion chamber)
without heating it. This air mixes with the hot exhaust gases to improve fuel efficiency
and reduce noise.

2.4 Turbofan (Section 12.2.4)

 Turbofan engines are a more advanced version of bypass engines, with a large fan at
the front that moves more air and provides additional thrust.
 These are the most common engines in commercial airliners today due to their
efficiency at various speeds.

2.5 Prop-fan and Unducted Fan (Section 12.2.5)

 These engines are a hybrid between turboprops and turbofans. They are designed to
combine the high efficiency of a propeller with the high-speed capability of a jet
engine.

2.6 Geared Turbofan (Section 12.2.6)

 A geared turbofan uses a gearbox to allow the fan and the turbine to rotate at
different speeds, optimizing performance and increasing efficiency.

3. Performance Parameters of Aircraft Propulsion Systems (Section 12.3)

Understanding the performance of thrust gas turbines involves analyzing several key
parameters:

3.1 Specific Thrust

 This is the amount of thrust generated per unit of air passing through the engine.

3.2 Dynamic Power and Efficiency

 Dynamic power refers to the energy associated with the moving exhaust gases, while
dynamic efficiency measures how efficiently the engine converts energy into thrust.

3.3 Thermal Power and Efficiency

 Thermal efficiency indicates how well the engine converts fuel into heat and how
effectively this heat is used to produce thrust.

3.4 Overall Efficiency

 The overall efficiency combines thermal efficiency and propulsive efficiency (how
efficiently thrust is produced) to give a complete picture of the engine’s performance.

4. Single-Jet and Double-Flow Engines (Section 12.5)

 Single-jet engines (like the turbojet) use only one flow of air through the engine to
produce thrust.
 Double-flow engines (like turbofans) use a second, cooler flow of air that bypasses
the combustion chamber. This increases efficiency and reduces noise.

Conclusion

Chapter 12 explains how gas turbines in aircraft generate thrust, with a focus on the various
types of engines (turbojet, turbofan, turboprop) and their performance metrics. This chapter
emphasizes the importance of fuel efficiency, specific thrust, and overall engine design to
optimize aircraft propulsion.

1. Introduction to Axial Compressors

Axial compressors are turbomachines that compress air (or other gases) by passing it through
a series of rotating and stationary blades. The main purpose is to increase the pressure of the
incoming air while maintaining a relatively high flow rate.
2. Mean Line Analysis (Section 13.1)

The chapter begins with mean line analysis, which simplifies the study of flow through an
axial compressor by focusing on the average radius of the compressor.

 Velocity Triangles: These are crucial for understanding the relationship between the
different velocity components (absolute, relative, and blade speeds) at various points
in the compressor. They help visualize how air moves through the blades and what
forces act on the fluid.
 Fundamental Equations: The basic equations governing the operation of the
compressor are introduced, which include the conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy.
 Loss Representation: The chapter discusses how losses occur in compressors due to
factors like friction and turbulence, which affect overall efficiency.

3. Secondary Flow (Section 13.2)

The concept of secondary flow refers to the flow patterns that occur in addition to the
primary flow (the intended path of air through the compressor). These secondary flows can
create various vortex patterns that impact performance:

 Types of Vortices:
o Passage Vortices: Form between the blades and can disrupt the primary flow.
o Corner Vortices: Form at the corners of the blade passages and can also lead
to inefficiencies.
o Horseshoe Vortex: A more complex vortex pattern that can occur in blade
passages.

Understanding these flows is crucial for optimizing the compressor's design to minimize
losses.

4. Radial Flow Variation (Section 13.3)

This section discusses how flow parameters (like pressure and velocity) change in the radial
direction within the compressor:

 Radial Equilibrium: The balance of forces in the radial direction is analyzed, helping
engineers understand how to manage flow across different sections of the compressor.
 Free Vortex Blades: These are designed to ensure that flow remains attached to the
blades, minimizing losses.

5. Compressor Blade Profiles (Section 13.4)

The design of compressor blades is critical for performance. The chapter discusses different
blade profiles and their implications:

 Subsonic and Supercritical Cascades: These refer to the flow conditions around the
blades and how blade design varies based on the flow regime.
 Transonic and Supersonic Cascades: Involves considerations for blades operating at
or above the speed of sound, where shockwaves and compressibility effects become
significant.

6. Performance Characteristics and Operating Range (Section 13.5)

Understanding the performance characteristics of axial compressors is essential for ensuring

they operate effectively within their design limits:

 Characteristic Curves: These graphs depict the relationship between the flow rate,
pressure ratio, and efficiency of the compressor at different operating points.
 Surge and Choking:
o Surge: A dynamic instability that can occur when the compressor operates
below a certain flow rate, leading to flow reversal and potential damage.
o Choking: Occurs when the mass flow rate exceeds the design limits, often
resulting in a loss of performance.

The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding these phenomena to ensure reliable
compressor operation.

7. Exercises

The chapter includes exercises to reinforce the concepts learned. These exercises may involve
calculations related to velocity triangles, performance metrics, and analysis of secondary
flows.

Conclusion

Chapter 13 provides a comprehensive overview of axial compressors, including their design

principles, flow dynamics, performance characteristics, and operational limits. Understanding
these concepts is crucial for engineers and designers working with turbomachinery,
particularly in applications such as jet engines and power generation.
1. Overview of Radial Compressors

Radial compressors, or centrifugal compressors, work by using a rotating impeller to increase

the pressure of a gas. They are similar to radial fans and pumps, but their main goal is to
compress gases rather than move them without significant pressure changes.

2. Construction and Applications (Section 14.1)

2.1 Rotor Types

 The rotor, often referred to as the impeller, is the primary component that moves the
gas.
 Radial compressors can have different types of rotors, including closed and open
designs. Closed rotors have shrouded blades that help maintain pressure and
efficiency.

2.2 General Shape of a Radial Compressor

 Radial compressors typically feature a design where the incoming flow is axial, and
the outlet flow is radial.
 The rotors have backward-swept blades, which help increase the pressure ratio and
efficiency.

2.3 Comparison with Axial Compressors

 Radial Compressors: Handle lower flow rates but achieve higher stage work
compared to axial compressors.
 Axial Compressors: Handle larger flow rates but have lower stage work coefficients.

3. Kinematic Parameters (Section 14.2)

Kinematic parameters are crucial for understanding how gases move through the compressor.
Key aspects include:

 Velocity Triangles: These diagrams help visualize the flow of gas through the
compressor, including the different velocity components (axial and tangential).
 Degrees of Reaction: This term indicates the amount of work done by the rotor
compared to the diffuser, influencing overall compressor performance.

4. Pressure Ratio (Section 14.3)

 The pressure ratio is a critical performance metric for radial compressors, indicating
the increase in pressure from the inlet to the outlet.
 Radial compressors are often designed to achieve high pressure ratios, sometimes
exceeding 10, which typically requires multiple stages of compression.

5. Rotor Shape and Design (Section 14.4)

The design of the rotor significantly impacts the compressor's efficiency and performance:
5.1 Number of Blades

 The number of blades in the rotor affects both flow stability and efficiency. More
blades can improve stability but may also lead to higher losses.

5.2 Inducer Design

 An inducer is part of the rotor that helps smoothly draw gas into the compressor. This
section is crucial for starting the compression process effectively.

6. Diffusers (Section 14.5)

Diffusers play a vital role in converting the kinetic energy of the gas exiting the rotor into
static pressure. There are two main types of diffusers:

6.1 Vaneless Diffusers

 These do not have blades and are used when moderate pressure ratios are required.
They rely on mixing flows to reduce velocity and increase pressure.

6.2 Vaned Diffusers

 These include blades to guide the flow more effectively, improving efficiency but also
adding complexity.

7. Performance Characteristics (Section 14.6)

The performance of radial compressors is characterized by several important factors:

7.1 Flow Instability

 Choking: Occurs when the flow rate exceeds the design limits, leading to a significant
drop in performance.
 Surge: A condition where flow reverses due to low flow rates, which can cause
operational issues.

7.2 Operating Characteristics

 The characteristic curve of a radial compressor shows the relationship between mass
flow rate and pressure ratio. Understanding these characteristics is crucial for
designing and operating compressors effectively.

8. Exercises

The chapter concludes with exercises that reinforce the concepts discussed, encouraging
students to apply their knowledge to practical scenarios.
Conclusion

Chapter 14 provides a comprehensive understanding of radial compressors, including their

construction, design considerations, and performance characteristics. By grasping these
concepts, students can appreciate how radial compressors operate in various industrial
applications and the engineering principles behind their design.

1. Overview of Turbines

Turbines convert energy from fluids (in this case, gases) into mechanical work. The chapter
distinguishes between two main types:

1.1 Axial Turbines

 These turbines allow the gas to flow parallel to the rotor's axis.
 They are typically used in applications where high flow rates and relatively low
pressure ratios are needed, like in jet engines and gas turbines.

1.2 Radial Turbines

 In these turbines, the gas flows radially outward from the rotor center.
 They are often used in smaller applications, such as turbochargers, where higher
pressure ratios are required.

2. Axial Turbines (Section 15.1)

2.1 Kinematic Parameters

 The chapter starts by discussing the kinematic parameters of axial turbines, focusing
on how the flow angles are measured and the importance of understanding the velocity
triangles, which illustrate the relationships between the velocities at different stages of
the turbine.

2.2 Blade Profiles and Design

 The design of the blades in axial turbines is crucial for performance. The chapter
discusses how the shape and angle of the blades influence the efficiency and work
done by the turbine.
 Three-dimensional Blade Design: Involves optimizing the blade shape for varying
flow conditions.

2.3 Operating Characteristics

  The section concludes with the operating characteristics of axial turbines, highlighting
how the degree of reaction (the ratio of the work done by the rotor to the work done by
the stator) affects performance.
 Efficiency Contours: Illustrates how changes in operating conditions can affect
turbine efficiency.

3. Radial Turbines (Section 15.2)

3.1 Shape and Functioning

 The chapter details the typical construction and operation of radial turbines. Radial
turbines often have fewer blades compared to axial turbines and rely on a different
flow pattern.
 Kinematic Parameters: Similar to axial turbines, but the geometry influences the
design, requiring different considerations for flow angles and velocities.

3.2 Applications

 Radial turbines are primarily used in applications where high pressure ratios are
required and are less efficient than axial turbines in larger installations.
 Typical applications include turbochargers and smaller gas turbines used in industry.

4. Dimensional Analysis with Compressible Fluids (Section 15.3)

4.1 Non-Dimensional Groups

 The chapter introduces dimensional analysis, which simplifies the study of

turbomachines by using dimensionless parameters (like the Π-groups).
 It helps compare different turbine designs and predict performance without needing to
build multiple prototypes.

4.2 Dimensionless Characteristics

 Dimensionless characteristics of turbines are derived to help engineers analyze how

changes in design and operating conditions affect performance.

5. Exercises

The chapter concludes with exercises designed to reinforce the concepts discussed,
encouraging students to apply their knowledge practically. These exercises may include
calculations of performance parameters and design considerations based on the principles
covered.
Conclusion

Chapter 15 provides a thorough understanding of axial and radial turbines, focusing on their
design principles, performance characteristics, and the importance of dimensional analysis in
optimizing turbine efficiency. Understanding these concepts is essential for anyone studying
or working in the field of turbomachinery, especially in applications related to gas turbines.
Here’s the detailed formula sheet in plain text format, so you can easily copy the formulas along with
the rest of the content.

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### Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 1 - Working Principles

#### 1.1 Definition of a Turbomachine

- **Turbomachine**: A device that transfers energy between a fluid and a rotating blade system.

- **Energy Transfer Mechanisms**:

- **Turbines**: Convert fluid energy to mechanical energy (e.g., hydraulic turbine, steam turbine).

- **Pumps**: Convert mechanical energy to fluid energy (e.g., axial pump).

#### 1.2 Examples of Axial Turbomachines

- **1.2.1 Axial Hydraulic Turbine**

- **Components**:

- **Stator**: Guides fluid to the rotor.

- **Rotor (Runner)**: Extracts energy from the fluid.

- **Diverging Pipe**: Reduces velocity and converts kinetic energy to pressure energy.

- **Velocity Relations**:
- **Absolute Velocity**:

v=u+w
Where u is the blade speed and w is the relative velocity.

- **Energy Change**:

- The decrease in absolute kinetic energy:

(v₂²/2) < (v₁²/2)

corresponds to energy extracted from the flow.

- **1.2.2 Axial Pump**

- **Components**:

- **Inlet**: Guides fluid to the rotor, may not have guide vanes.
 - **Rotor (Impeller)**: Adds energy to the fluid.

- **Diffuser**: Converts kinetic energy to pressure energy.

- **Energy Transfer**:

- Inlet and rotor accelerate the fluid, while the diffuser reduces velocity, increasing pressure.

#### 1.3 Mean Line Analysis

- **Mean Line Concept**: Average flow representation along the mean streamline.

- **Assumptions**:

- Flow is steady and one-dimensional.

- Velocity components are primarily axial and tangential.

- **Mean Flow Equations**: Describe flow behavior in turbomachines under the mean line analysis.

#### 1.4 Basic Laws for Stationary Duct Parts

- **1.4.1 Conservation of Mass**:

- **Equation**:

˙m = ρAv = constant

Where ˙m is mass flow rate, ρ is density, A is cross-sectional area, and v is fluid velocity.

- **1.4.2 Conservation of Momentum**:

- **Equation**:

ΣF = d(mv)/dt

This means that the change in momentum is equal to the sum of forces acting on the system.

- **1.4.3 Conservation of Energy (Bernoulli’s Equation)**:

- **Work Equation**:

(p₁/ρ) + (v₁²/2) + gz₁ = (p₂/ρ) + (v₂²/2) + gz₂ + h_loss

Where p is pressure, v is velocity, g is gravitational acceleration, z is elevation, and h_loss
represents head loss.

#### 1.5 Basic Laws for Rotating Duct Parts

- **1.5.1 Work and Energy in Rotating Frames**:

 - **Work Done on the Fluid**:

W=F·d

Where W is work, F is force, and d is displacement.

- **1.5.2 Moment of Momentum**:

- **Equation**:

dL/dt = τ

Where L is angular momentum and τ is torque.

#### 1.6 Energy Analysis of Turbomachines

- **1.6.1 Mechanical Efficiency**:

- **Definition**:

η_m = P_out / P_in

Where P_out is the useful power output and P_in is the total power input.

- **1.6.2 Internal Efficiency**:

- **Definition**:

η_i = (h_out - h_loss) / h_in

Where h represents specific enthalpy.

---

Here’s the detailed formula sheet from Chapter 2 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines* presented in
plain text format, ensuring it's easy to copy:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 2 - Basic Components**

**2.1 Aerofoils**
*2.1.1 Force Generation*

- **Lift Force (L)**:

L = (P_lower - P_upper) * A

Where:

- P_lower = pressure on the lower surface

- P_upper = pressure on the upper surface

- A = area of the aerofoil

*2.1.2 Performance Parameters*

- **Lift Coefficient (C_L)**:

C_L = L / (0.5 * ρ * v_infinity² * A)

Where:

- L = lift force

- ρ = fluid density
- v_infinity = free stream velocity

- A = reference area

- **Drag Coefficient (C_D)**:

C_D = D / (0.5 * ρ * v_infinity² * A)

Where:

- D = drag force

*2.1.3 Pressure Distribution*

- **Stagnation Pressure (P_0)**:

P_0 = P + (0.5 * ρ * v²)

Where:
- P = static pressure

- v = flow velocity

*2.1.4 Boundary Layer Separation*

- **Reynolds Number (Re)**:

 Re = (ρ * v * L) / μ

Where:

- L = characteristic length (chord length)

- μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid

**2.2 Linear Cascades**

*2.2.1 Cascade Geometry*

- **Angle of Attack (α)**:

α = angle between the chord line and the oncoming flow

*2.2.2 Flow in Lossless Cascades*

- **Circulation (Γ)**:

Γ = ∫ v * dl

*2.2.3 Work in Lossless Cascades*

- **Work Done (W)**:

W = Δ kinetic energy = (0.5 * ρ * (v_out² - v_in²) * A)

**2.3 Channels**

*2.3.1 Straight Channels*

- **Continuity Equation**:

A_1 * v_1 = A_2 * v_2

Where:

- A = cross-sectional area
- v = velocity

**2.4 Diffusers**

*2.4.1 Efficiency of Diffusers*

- **Diffusion Efficiency (η_d)**:

η_d = h_actual / h_ideal

---

Here’s a detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 3 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines* by Erick

Dick, formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 3 - Fans**

**3.1 Basic Principles of Fans**

*3.1.1 Definitions*

- **Fan**: A mechanical device that creates airflow by converting rotational energy to kinetic energy.

*3.1.2 Types of Fans*

- **Centrifugal Fans**: Utilize rotational energy to move air or gas in a radial direction.

- **Axial Fans**: Move air or gas parallel to the fan axis.

**3.2 Fan Performance Parameters**

*3.2.1 Volume Flow Rate (Q)*

- Volume flow rate is defined as:

Q=A*v

Where:
- Q = volume flow rate

- A = cross-sectional area of the fan inlet/outlet

- v = average velocity of airflow
*3.2.2 Pressure Rise (ΔP)*

- The pressure rise produced by a fan can be described as:

ΔP = P_out - P_in

Where:

- P_out = pressure at the fan outlet

- P_in = pressure at the fan inlet

**3.3 Fan Efficiency**

*3.3.1 Fan Efficiency (η)*

- Fan efficiency is defined as:

η = (P_actual / P_input) * 100%

Where:

- P_actual = actual power delivered by the fan

- P_input = input power to the fan

**3.4 Power Requirement**

*3.4.1 Power Calculation (P)*

- The power required by a fan can be calculated using:

P = (Q * ΔP) / (η)

Where:

- P = power requirement

- Q = volume flow rate

- ΔP = pressure rise

- η = efficiency (as a decimal)

**3.5 Velocity Triangles**

*3.5.1 Velocity Components*

- **Absolute Velocity (V)**: The velocity of the fluid as observed from a stationary point.
- **Relative Velocity (W)**: The velocity of the fluid as observed from the rotating frame of the fan.

*3.5.2 Velocity Triangle Diagram*

- The velocity triangle consists of:

- Blade speed (u)

- Absolute velocity (V)

- Relative velocity (W)

*3.5.3 Velocity Relationships*

- The relationships can be expressed as:

V =u+W

Where:

- V = absolute velocity

- u = blade speed
- W = relative velocity

**3.6 Fan Laws**

*3.6.1 Affinity Laws*

- The affinity laws for fans describe the relationship between flow rate, pressure, and power with
respect to changes in speed:

- Q1/Q2 = N1/N2
- ΔP1/ΔP2 = (N1/N2)²

- P1/P2 = (N1/N2)³

---

Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 4 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---
**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 4 - Compressible Fluids**

**4.1 Basic Laws**

*4.1.1 Mass Conservation Equation*

- For one-dimensional flow, the mass conservation equation is given by:

**v * A = constant**

Where:

- v = flow velocity
- A = cross-sectional area of the channel

*4.1.2 Work Equation*

- The work equation in a compressible fluid flow can be simplified to:

**dW/dr = 0**
(assuming no work exchange and no losses).

*4.1.3 Energy Equation*

- In the absence of work exchange and heat exchange, the energy equation simplifies to:

**h₀ = h + (v²/2) + gz**

Where:

- h₀ = total enthalpy

- h = specific enthalpy

- v = flow velocity

- g = gravitational acceleration

- z = elevation

*4.1.4 Total Enthalpy*

- The total enthalpy is defined by:

**h₀ = h + (v²/2)**

(ignoring gravitational potential energy).

**4.2 Compressibility and Velocity of Sound**

*4.2.1 Speed of Sound*

- The speed of sound c in a compressible fluid is given by:

**c = √(∂p/∂ρ)**
Where:

- p = pressure

- ρ = density

**4.3 Compressibility Effect on Velocity-Pressure Relation**

- The velocity-pressure relationship can be described in terms of the compressibility:

**(dv/dp) = (1/ρ)**

**4.4 Shape of a Nozzle**

- The performance of a nozzle can be analyzed by relating the shape and flow characteristics:

- Mass flow rate through the nozzle:

**ṁ = ρ * A * v**

**4.5 Nozzle with Initial Velocity**

- The nozzle flow with an initial velocity v₀ can be expressed as:

**ṁ = ρ * A * (v + v₀)**

**4.6 Nozzle with Losses: Infinitesimal Efficiency**

- Efficiency for a nozzle can be defined as:

**η = (h₀/hₐ) * 100%**

**4.7 Isentropic and Polytropic Efficiencies**

- **Isentropic Efficiency (ηₛ )**:

**ηₛ = (h₁ - h₂) / (h₁,ideal - h₂)**

- **Polytropic Efficiency (ηₚ )**:

**ηₚ = ((p₂/p₁)^(γ - 1)/γ - 1) / ((p₂/p₁)^(1 - γ)/γ - 1)**

 Where γ is the ratio of specific heats.

---

Here’s a detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 5 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*, formatted

in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 5 - Performance Measurement**

**5.1 Pressure Measurement**

*5.1.1 The Metal Manometer*

- A hollow curved tube connected to the fluid measures pressure.

- **Gauge Pressure**: P_g = P - P_atm

Where:

- P = measured pressure

- P_atm = atmospheric pressure

*5.1.2 The Pressure Transducer*

- Uses diaphragms to measure pressure difference.

- **Output Voltage**: V_out = f(ΔP)

(Voltage output is proportional to pressure difference.)

*5.1.3 The Digital Manometer*

- Functions similarly to a pressure transducer.

- Provides digital readout for pressure measurement.

*5.1.4 Calibration of Pressure Meters*

- Typically calibrated using a dead weight tester for pressure above atmospheric conditions.
- Low positive and negative pressures are measured using U-shaped liquid columns.

**5.2 Temperature Measurement**

*5.2.1 The Glass Thermometer*

- Measures temperature via liquid expansion (usually mercury or alcohol).

- Requires no periodic calibration.

*5.2.2 The Temperature Transducer*

- Based on temperature-dependent electrical resistance or thermoelectric effects.

- Outputs a voltage signal that is measured for temperature readings.

*5.2.3 The Digital Thermometer*

- Digital display device that functions similarly to temperature transducers.

**5.3 Flow Rate Measurement**

*5.3.1 Reservoir*

- Volume flow rate can be measured by filling a calibrated reservoir.

*5.3.2 Flow Over a Weir*

- Flow rate is determined by the height of the liquid over the weir.

- **Flow Rate Equations**:

- For rectangular weirs:

Q = C * w * √(2gH)

Where:
- C = coefficient of discharge

- w = width of the weir

- g = gravitational acceleration

- H = height of liquid over the weir

*5.3.3 Pressure Drop Devices*

- Flow accelerates in a nozzle, causing a pressure drop.

- **Flow Rate Formula**:

Q = C_Q * A * √(2 * ΔP / ρ)

Where:
- C_Q = discharge coefficient

- A = cross-sectional area of the nozzle

- ΔP = pressure drop across the nozzle

- ρ = fluid density

*5.3.4 Industrial Mass Flow Rate Meters*

- Various types exist including orifice plates and Venturi meters.

**5.4 Torque Measurement**

*5.4.1 Swinging Suspended Motor or Brake*

- Measures torque based on the swing of a suspended motor.

*5.4.2 Calibrated Motor*

- The input torque can be determined from motor characteristics.

*5.4.3 The Torque Transducer*

- Measures torque directly via mechanical or electrical means.

**5.5 Rotational Speed Measurement**

*5.5.1 Pulse Counters*

- Measures rotational speed based on counting pulses over time.

*5.5.2 The Speed Transducer*

- Uses various principles (e.g., magnetic) to determine rotational speed.

*5.5.3 Electric Tachometer*

- Directly measures rotational speed and displays it.

**5.6 Laboratory Tests**

*5.6.1 Test Rig*

- Setup for conducting various turbomachinery tests.

*5.6.2 Measurements*

- Includes pressure, temperature, flow rate, and torque measurements.

*5.6.3 Measurement Procedure*

- Step-by-step procedure for conducting laboratory measurements.

*5.6.4 Calculations*

- Detailed calculations based on measurements to determine performance metrics.

*5.6.5 Measurement Example*

- Specific examples of measurement results and analysis.

---

Here’s a detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 6 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*, formatted

in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 6 - Turbomachine Theory**

**6.1 Axial Turbines**

*6.1.1 Kinematic Parameters*

- Flow angles are measured with respect to the axial direction.

- **Work Coefficient (ψ)**:

ψ = W / Δh
Where:

- W = work done

- Δh = change in enthalpy

- **Flow Coefficient (φ)**:

φ = Q / (A * √(2 * g * H))

Where:

- Q = flow rate

- A = area
- g = gravitational acceleration

- H = head

- **Degree of Reaction (R)**:

R = (h_out - h_in) / (h_in, ideal - h_out)

Where h represents enthalpy at different points.

*6.1.2 Velocity Triangles*

- **Velocity Triangle Components**:

- Absolute Velocity (V): Velocity of fluid as observed from a stationary frame.

- Relative Velocity (W): Velocity of fluid as observed from a rotating frame.

- Blade Speed (u): Tangential speed of the blade.

*6.1.3 Work Done by the Turbine*

- Work done by the turbine can be expressed as:

W = Δh = h₁ - h₂
*6.1.4 Efficiency*

- **Isentropic Efficiency (ηₛ )**:

ηₛ = W_actual / W_isentropic

**6.2 Radial Turbines**

*6.2.1 Basic Principles*

- Radial turbines operate with fluid entering radially and exiting axially.

*6.2.2 Performance Characteristics*

- **Power Output (P)**:

P = ṁ * Δh

Where ṁ is the mass flow rate.

*6.2.3 Design Considerations*

- Design of radial turbines emphasizes minimizing losses and optimizing flow paths.

**6.3 Flow in Turbomachines**

*6.3.1 Continuity Equation*

- For compressible flow:

ṁ=ρ*A*v

Where:

- ρ = density

- A = cross-sectional area

- v = velocity

*6.3.2 Energy Equation*

- Energy equation for compressible flow:

Δh + (v² / 2) + gz = constant
**6.4 Non-Dimensional Parameters**

*6.4.1 Performance Measurement*

- Non-dimensional parameters help compare performance across different turbomachines.

- **Specific Speed (Nₛ )**:

Nₛ = (N * Q^0.5) / (H^0.75)

Where:

- N = rotational speed

- Q = flow rate
- H = head

*6.4.2 Dimensionless Work Coefficient*

- Dimensionless work coefficient helps assess the performance of different machines.

---

Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 7 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 7 - Dynamic Similitude**

**7.1 Principles of Dynamic Similitude**

*7.1.1 Definition of Dynamic Similitude*

- Two flows are dynamically similar when:

- They are geometrically similar.

- Velocities at homologous points have the same direction and constant ratio.

- Forces at homologous points have the same direction and constant ratio.

*7.1.2 Dimensionless Parameter Groups*

- Similar lengths, velocities, and forces have constant ratios within similar flows.

- Dimensionless groups can be formed from parameters describing the flow:

- Example of a dimensionless pressure coefficient:

**C_p = (p - p_r) / (0.5 * ρ * v²)**

- Dimensionless groups generally have the form:

**π = f(A^a * B^b * C^c * ...**

- Where A, B, C are parameters and a, b, c are exponents.

*7.1.3 Similitude Conditions*

- For a flow of constant density fluid in a stationary channel, ratios of length, mass, and time must be
equal.

- The flow equations must be identical for both flows to identify similitude conditions.

*7.1.4 Purpose of Similitude Analysis*

- Shows that a dependent parameter cannot depend individually on independent parameters.

- Reduces the number of degrees of freedom of the relations.

- Allows for a physical relation that is independent of the unit system.

*7.1.5 Dimensional Analysis*

- Dimensional analysis determines the independent dimensionless groups from the parameters
involved.

- For example, in a flow problem, parameters may include:

- Fluid density (ρ)

- Kinematic viscosity (ν)

- Geometry (L)

- Velocity (V)

- Gravity (g)

- The analysis leads to the formation of independent dimensionless groups.

*7.1.6 Dimensional Groups*

- Examples of dimensionless groups formed include:

- **Reynolds number (Re)**:

 **Re = (ρ * v * L) / μ**

- **Froude number (Fr)**:

**Fr = v² / (g * L)**

- These groups must have the same value for homologous points within similar flows.

*7.1.7 Strong and Weak Similitude Conditions*

- Strong similitude conditions require all relevant parameters to maintain a fixed ratio.

- Weak similitude conditions may apply only to certain parameters being similar.

---

Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 8 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 8 - Pumps**

**8.1 Cavitation**

*8.1.1 Cavitation Phenomenon*

- Cavitation occurs when the local static pressure in a liquid falls below its vapor pressure, resulting in
the formation of vapor cavities.

- Key factors influencing cavitation:

- Suction height

- Pressure drops due to losses

- Dynamic effects

*8.1.2 Cavitation Assessment*

- **Cavitation Number (Ca)**:

Ca = (p_min - p_v) / (0.5 * ρ * v²)

Where:
 - p_min = minimum pressure in the pump

- p_v = vapor pressure of the liquid

- ρ = fluid density

- v = flow velocity

*8.1.3 Required Net Positive Suction Height (NPSH)*

- **NPSH**:

NPSH = (p_atm - p_v) / (ρ * g) + z - h_L

Where:
- p_atm = atmospheric pressure

- z = height of the fluid above the pump inlet

- h_L = head loss in the suction line

*8.1.4 Optimisation of the Inlet of a Centrifugal Pump Rotor*

- Ensure the inlet design minimizes losses and reduces the potential for cavitation.

*8.1.5 Increasing the Acceptable Suction Height*

- Use pumps with lower vapor pressure fluids to mitigate cavitation.

---

**8.2 Priming of Pumps**

*8.2.1 Types of Self-Priming Pumps*

- **Side Channel Pump**: Utilizes a side channel to create a pressure difference that aids priming.

- **Peripheral Pump**: A regenerative pump that can self-prime due to the movement of liquid
through its design.
- **Self-Priming Centrifugal Pump**: A centrifugal pump designed to evacuate air from the suction
line, allowing for self-priming.

- **Jet Pump**: Uses high-pressure fluid to create a vacuum for drawing in the liquid.

---
**8.3 Unstable Operation**

- Unstable operation may arise from sudden changes in flow, pressure fluctuations, or inadequate
priming.

---

**8.4 Component Shaping**

*8.4.1 Blade Design*

- **Simply and Doubly Curved Blades**: Design affects performance and cavitation behavior.

*8.4.2 Pump Inlet and Outlet Design*

- Optimizing the inlet and outlet shapes can reduce turbulence and improve efficiency.

*8.4.3 Vaneless and Vaned Diffuser Rings*

- Diffusers play a critical role in converting kinetic energy to pressure energy.

---

**8.5 Internal Parallel and Series Connection of Rotors**

*8.5.1 Reason for Internal Connections*

- Connecting rotors in parallel or series can enhance performance, allowing for greater efficiency and
increased flow rates.

*8.5.2 Multistage Pumps*

- Design pumps with multiple impellers in series to achieve higher pressures.

---

**8.6 Constructional Aspects**

*8.6.1 Rotor and Stator Design*

- Design considerations for rotors and stators directly impact performance.

*8.6.2 Shaft Sealing and Bearings*

- Proper sealing and bearing designs are crucial for pump efficiency and longevity.

*8.6.3 Axial Force Balancing*

- Techniques for balancing axial forces in both single-stage and multistage pumps.

---

**8.7 Special Pumps**

*8.7.1 Borehole Pumps*

- Designed for extracting fluids from deep wells.

*8.7.2 High-Pressure Pumps*

- Constructed to handle fluids at elevated pressures.

*8.7.3 Sealless Pumps*

- Types include circulation and chemical pumps designed to prevent leaks.

*8.7.4 Slurry Pumps*

- Specifically designed for pumping mixtures of solids and liquids.

---

**8.8 Exercises**

- Various exercises related to pump characteristics and NPSH verification.

---

Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 9 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 9 - Hydraulic Turbines**

**9.1 Hydraulic Energy**

- Hydraulic energy is available due to water flow between two locations with a difference in altitude.
Hydraulic turbines convert gravitational potential energy into mechanical energy for electricity
generation.

- **Available Head (H)**:

Represents the height difference that drives the flow of water. Typical economically applicable
heads range from 4–5 m to over 1000 m.

---

**9.2 Hydraulic Turbine Types**

*9.2.1 Large Turbines (> 10 MW)*

- **Pelton Turbine**:
- An impulse turbine with a zero loss-free degree of reaction.

- Utilizes a jet of water to propel a runner.

- Typical operating speed: 500-670 rpm depending on head.

- **Francis Turbine**:

- A radial machine with a medium to high degree of reaction (0.55–0.75).

 - Water is supplied through a volute.

- Adjustable guide vanes control flow rate.

- **Kaplan Turbine**:

- An axial machine with a high degree of reaction (0.75 and higher).

- Features adjustable blades and stator vanes for flow control.

*9.2.2 Small Turbines (< 10 MW)*

- Small applications of Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan turbines are also common.

- **Cross-Flow Turbine (Banki-Turbine)**:

- Functions similarly to a cross-flow fan with blades oriented radially.

---

**9.3 Pelton Turbines: Impulse Turbines**

*9.3.1 Performance Characteristics*

- **Specific Speed (N_s)**:

Used to characterize the performance of Pelton turbines.

N_s = n * Q^0.5 / H^0.75

*9.3.2 Specific Speed and Determination of Main Dimensions*

- **Main Dimensions**: Factors like blade shape and rotational speed are critical for performance.

*9.3.3 Flow Rate Control and Over-Speed Protection*

- Use of adjustable nozzles or additional injectors to control the flow rate.

---

**9.4 Francis and Kaplan Turbines: Reaction Turbines**

*9.4.1 Velocity Triangles and Kinematic Parameters*

- **Velocity Triangles** help in understanding flow dynamics within the turbine. Components
include:

- Inlet and outlet velocities

- Blade speeds

*9.4.2 Degree of Reaction and Speed Ratio*

- The degree of reaction can be calculated based on the velocity triangle.

*9.4.3 Flow Rate Control with Reaction Turbines*

- Flow control is achieved using adjustable guide vanes and rotor blades.

---

**9.5 Bulb and Tube Turbines**

- These are axial machines designed for low heads and used mainly in tidal energy applications.

---

**9.6 Reversible Pump-Turbines**

- Designed for pumped storage plants where they function both as pumps and turbines, optimizing
energy use.

---

**9.7 Exercises**

- Various exercises are provided to apply the concepts of hydraulic turbines and their performance.

---
Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 10 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,
formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 10 - Wind Turbines**

**10.1 Wind Energy**

- Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air circulation due to uneven heating from the sun.

- **Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)** typically consists of a wind turbine rotor, gearbox,
generator, and tower.

- The energy flux of undisturbed wind through a surface area (A) is given by:

**P = (1/2) * ρ * A * v³**

Where:
- P = power (W)

- ρ = air density (kg/m³)

- v = wind speed (m/s)

---

**10.2 Types of Wind Energy Conversion Systems**

*10.2.1 Drag Machines*

- Drag machines operate based on the resistance to wind flow.

*10.2.2 High-Speed Horizontal-Axis Turbines*

- Designed to operate at high wind speeds with optimized aerodynamic blades.

*10.2.3 Technical Aspects of Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines for Electricity Generation*

- Efficiency is maximized by aligning the rotor blades to wind direction.

*10.2.4 Low-Speed Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines*

- Typically used in areas with lower average wind speeds.

*10.2.5 Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines*

- Blades rotate around a vertical axis, suitable for turbulent wind conditions.

---

**10.3 Wind Turbine Performance Analysis**

*10.3.1 Momentum Analysis (Single Streamtube Analysis)*

- Analyzes the momentum change in a single streamtube of wind passing through the turbine.

*10.3.2 Multiple Streamtube Analysis*

- Considers multiple streamtubes to account for variations in wind velocity and turbine design.

*10.3.3 Blade Element Analysis*

- Analyzes the performance of individual blade elements to predict overall turbine performance.

---

**10.4 Adaptation to a Wind Regime**

- Turbine design must adapt to the local wind regime for optimal performance, including adjustments
to blade pitch and rotor speed.

---

Here’s a detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 11 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---
**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 11 - Power Gas Turbines**

**11.1 General Concept and Components**

*11.1.1 Definition of a Gas Turbine*

- A gas turbine is a type of internal combustion engine that converts fuel energy into mechanical
energy through a cycle involving compression, combustion, and expansion.

*11.1.2 Comparison with Other Thermal Engines*

- Gas turbines are generally lighter and more compact compared to steam turbines and are capable
of higher rotational speeds.

*11.1.3 Example of a Power Gas Turbine*

- Typical components include the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine.

*11.1.4 Compressor Part*

- Increases the pressure of the air entering the combustion chamber.

*11.1.5 Turbine Part*

- Extracts energy from the high-temperature, high-pressure gas exiting the combustion chamber.

*11.1.6 Combustion Chamber*

- The location where fuel is burned to increase the energy of the air.

---

**11.2 Thermodynamic Modelling**

*11.2.1 Isentropic Efficiency with Adiabatic Compression or Expansion*

- **Isentropic Efficiency (η)**:

η = (h1 - h2) / (h1s - h2)

Where:
 - h = enthalpy, s = isentropic condition

*11.2.2 Reheat Effect*

- Incorporates reheating of exhaust gases to increase efficiency.

*11.2.3 Infinitesimal Efficiency; Polytropic Efficiency*

- Polytropic efficiency can be expressed as:

η_p = (h_out - h_in) / (h_out - h_in_p)

*11.2.4 Thermodynamic Properties of Air and Combustion Gas*

- Important properties include specific heat capacities (C_p, C_v).

*11.2.5 Heat Capacity Representation*

- The heat capacity ratio (γ):

γ = C_p / C_v

*11.2.6 Cooled Expansion*

- Involves cooling the gas to improve efficiency.

*11.2.7 Compression with Extraction*

- Utilizes some of the compressed air for various applications before combustion.

---

**11.3 Performance of Simple-Cycle Power Gas Turbines**

*11.3.1 Idealized Simple Cycle*

- The ideal cycle involves adiabatic compression, constant pressure combustion, and adiabatic
expansion.

*11.3.2 Simple Cycle with Component Efficiencies and Different Heat Capacities*
- Incorporates real-world efficiencies and varying gas properties into the cycle analysis.

*11.3.3 Simple Cycle with Component Efficiencies, Cooling, and Variable Gas Properties*

- Detailed calculations considering actual performance and thermal characteristics.

---

**11.4 Performance of Power Gas Turbines with Enhanced Cycles**

*11.4.1 Compression with Intercooling*

- Reduces the temperature of compressed air to improve efficiency.

*11.4.2 Expansion with Reheat*

- Reheating the gas between stages to recover energy and improve output.

*11.4.3 Recuperator*

- A heat exchanger that recovers heat from exhaust gases to preheat the compressed air.

*11.4.4 Combined Gas and Steam Cycles*

- Uses gas turbine exhaust to power a steam turbine, improving overall efficiency.

*11.4.5 Steam Injection*

- Injecting steam into the gas turbine cycle to improve power output.

---
Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 12 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,
formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 12 - Thrust Gas Turbines**

**12.1 Thrust Generation**

- Thrust is generated through the conversion of energy from fuel into kinetic energy of the exhaust
gases.

*12.1.1 Screw or Propeller*

- Uses rotating blades to produce thrust by moving air or water backward.

*12.1.2 Reactor or Jet Engine*

- Generates thrust through the expulsion of high-speed exhaust gases.

*12.1.3 Rocket*

- Produces thrust by expelling mass in the opposite direction of desired motion according to
Newton's third law.

---

**12.2 Overview of Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines**

*12.2.1 Turbojet*

- A basic jet engine that produces thrust solely through jet propulsion.

*12.2.2 Turboprop and Turbo-Shaft*

- Combines gas turbine engines with propellers or shafts for mechanical power output.
*12.2.3 Bypass Turbojet*

- A jet engine with additional bypass air to improve efficiency and reduce noise.

*12.2.4 Turbofan*

- A more efficient engine type that produces thrust through a combination of bypassed and jet
propulsion.

*12.2.5 Prop-fan and Unducted Fan*

- Utilizes large-diameter blades without a duct to generate thrust; typically used in high-efficiency
applications.

*12.2.6 Geared Turbofan*

- Incorporates a gearbox to optimize the speed difference between the engine core and the fan.

---

**12.3 Performance Parameters of Aircraft Propulsion Systems**

*12.3.1 Specific Thrust*

- Defined as the thrust produced per unit weight of the engine:

**Specific Thrust = F / W**

Where:

- F = thrust

- W = weight of the engine

*12.3.2 Dynamic Power*

- Power associated with the thrust produced by the engine:

**P_d = F * v / η**

Where:

- η = efficiency

*12.3.3 Gas Power and Dynamic Efficiency*

- Gas power can be calculated from the heat release during combustion, typically measured in kW or
HP.

- Dynamic efficiency relates to the effective conversion of energy to thrust.

*12.3.4 Thermal Power, Thermodynamic Efficiency, and Thermal Efficiency*

- Thermal power is the rate at which heat is converted into work.

- Thermodynamic efficiency compares the actual performance of the engine to an ideal cycle.

*12.3.5 Propulsive Power and Propulsive Efficiency*

- Propulsive power is the effective power used to produce thrust.

- Propulsive efficiency indicates how effectively the engine converts fuel energy to thrust.

*12.3.6 Overall Efficiency*

- Represents the total performance of the propulsion system, incorporating thermal and propulsive
efficiencies.

*12.3.7 Rocket*
- Specific performance characteristics of rocket engines, emphasizing thrust-to-weight ratio.

*12.3.8 Generalization for Double-Flow Engines*

- Performance characteristics and analysis methods for engines with two independent flow paths.

*12.3.9 Specific Fuel Consumption*

- Indicates the fuel efficiency of the engine:

**SFC = W_f / F**

Where:

- W_f = fuel weight flow rate

- F = thrust

---

**12.4 Performance of the Gas Generator and the Single-Jet Engine**

*12.4.1 Analysis with Loss-Free Components*

- Evaluates performance based on ideal conditions without losses.

*12.4.2 Analysis with Component Losses*

- Considers real-world losses in the performance evaluation of gas generators.

---

**12.5 Performance of Double-Flow Engines**

*12.5.1 Unmixed Flows (Double-Jet Engine: Turbofan, Turboprop)*

- Analysis of engines where the flow paths do not interact.

*12.5.2 Mixed Flows (Bypass Engine)*

- Evaluates performance where flows are combined for enhanced efficiency.

*12.5.3 Intercooling and Recuperation*

- Techniques to improve efficiency by recovering energy from exhaust gases.

---

**12.6 Technological Aspects of the Turbofan Engine**

*12.6.1 Discs and Shafts*

- Mechanical design considerations for load distribution and performance.

*12.6.2 Vanes and Blades*

- Aerodynamic design principles impacting performance and efficiency.

*12.6.3 Combustion Chamber*

- Design considerations for maximizing combustion efficiency and reducing emissions.

*12.6.4 Mixer and Thrust Reverser*

- Components that influence thrust modulation and engine efficiency.

---

Here’s the detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 13 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 13 - Axial Compressors**

**13.1 Mean Line Analysis**

*13.1.1 Velocity Triangles*

- Velocity triangles are used to analyze the flow conditions at various points in the compressor.

- Important velocities include:

- Absolute velocity (V)

- Relative velocity (W)

- Blade speed (u)

*13.1.2 Fundamental Equations*

- Basic relations for compressible flow can be represented by the continuity and energy equations.

*13.1.3 Loss Representation*

- Losses in the system can be categorized into:

- Profile losses
- Secondary losses

- Shock losses in high-speed conditions

*13.1.4 Loss Coefficients*

- Loss coefficients quantify the performance reduction due to losses and are derived from
experimental data.

*13.1.5 Force Components*

- The forces acting on the blades can be resolved into axial and tangential components, impacting
performance.

*13.1.6 Diffusion Factor and Loss Correlations*

- The diffusion factor is used to analyze the efficiency and performance of the blade design:

D = (V₂u² - V₁u²) / (V₂² - V₁²)

*13.1.7 Kinematic Parameters*

- Kinematic parameters such as flow coefficients and work coefficients define the operational
characteristics of the compressor.

*13.1.8 Secondary Flow: Principle*

- Secondary flows occur due to the blade geometry and the flow turning, leading to efficiency losses.

*13.1.9 Radial Variation of Flow: Principle*

- Understanding radial variations helps in optimizing the design to minimize losses and improve
efficiency.

*13.1.10 Optimisation of a Stage*

- Various design parameters can be adjusted to optimize the performance of a compressor stage.

*13.1.11 Blade Shape*

- The shape of the blades impacts the flow dynamics, efficiency, and performance of the compressor.

*13.1.12 Attainable Pressure Ratio*

- The attainable pressure ratio is a key performance metric:

 PR = P_out / P_in

---

**13.2 Secondary Flow**

*13.2.1 Definition of Secondary Flow*

- Secondary flows are deviations from the primary flow direction, resulting in energy losses.

*13.2.2 Passage Vortex and Trailing Vortices*

- Vortices generated due to flow passing through the blade passages can contribute to efficiency
losses.

*13.2.3 Corner Vortices*

- Corner vortices form at the junctions of the blades and end walls, affecting overall flow quality.

*13.2.4 Horseshoe Vortex*

- Horseshoe vortices are associated with the blade lifting action and can impact the downstream
flow.

*13.2.5 Leakage Vortex and Scraping Vortex*

- These vortices arise from leakage flows and can significantly reduce compressor performance.

*13.2.6 Loss Assessment*

- Assessing secondary flow losses is crucial for optimizing compressor design and efficiency.

---

**13.3 Radial Flow Variation**

*13.3.1 S1-S2 Decomposition*

- Decomposing the flow from inlet to outlet helps analyze changes in energy and momentum.
*13.3.2 Radial Equilibrium*

- Understanding radial equilibrium conditions is essential for effective flow management.

*13.3.3 Free Vortex Blades*

- Blades designed for free vortex conditions help in optimizing flow and minimizing losses.

*13.3.4 Forcing of the Vortex Distribution*

- Adjusting the vortex distribution can improve performance and efficiency.

*13.3.5 Effect of End Wall Boundary Layers*

- Boundary layers near the end walls can lead to performance degradation and need to be managed.

*13.3.6 Three-dimensional Blade Design*

- Advanced designs consider three-dimensional effects for enhanced performance.

---

**13.4 Compressor Blade Profiles**

*13.4.1 Subsonic and Supercritical Cascades*

- Different blade profiles are used depending on the flow conditions (subsonic vs. supercritical).

*13.4.2 Transonic Cascades*

- Profiles designed for transonic conditions must manage shock waves effectively.

*13.4.3 Supersonic Cascades and Transonic Cascades with High Inlet Mach Number*

- Specialized profiles are needed for supersonic applications to optimize flow and minimize losses.

---
**13.5 Performance Characteristics and Operating Range**

*13.5.1 General Shape of a Characteristic Curve*

- Characteristic curves describe the relationship between pressure ratio, flow rate, and efficiency.

*13.5.2 Rotating Stall*

- Stall conditions can significantly impact performance and operational stability.

*13.5.3 Choking*
- Choking occurs when the flow reaches sonic conditions, limiting performance.

*13.5.4 Surge*

- Surge represents an unstable operating condition, often leading to operational failure.

*13.5.5 Operating Range*

- The operating range defines the limits within which the compressor can function effectively.

---

**13.6 Exercises**

- Exercises are included to reinforce the concepts discussed in this chapter.

---

Here’s a detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 14 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 14 - Radial Compressors**

**14.1 Construction Forms and Applications**

*14.1.1 Rotor Types*

- Radial compressors, or centrifugal compressors, are similar to radial fans and pumps in operation.

- The rotor (or impeller) is the component that actuates the fluid and typically features a closed
shroud with backward-swept blades.

*14.1.2 General Shape of a Radial Compressor*

- The design involves increasingly smaller through-flow areas due to increasing fluid density.

*14.1.3 Comparison Between Radial and Axial Compressors*

- Radial compressors generally have higher pressure ratios compared to axial compressors and are
suitable for various industrial applications.

*14.1.4 Examples of Radial Compressors*

- Used in chemical plants, refineries, and natural gas transport.

---

**14.2 Kinematic Parameters**

- Kinematic parameters are critical for analyzing the performance of radial compressors, including:

- Inlet and outlet velocities

- Flow angles and blade speeds

---

**14.3 Pressure Ratio**

- The pressure ratio (PR) of a compressor is defined as:

**PR = P_out / P_in**

Where:

- P_out = outlet pressure

- P_in = inlet pressure

---

**14.4 Rotor Shape**

*14.4.1 Number of Blades*

- The number of blades influences the flow characteristics and efficiency of the compressor.

*14.4.2 Inducer*
- The inducer is the component at the rotor inlet designed to improve flow entry and reduce losses.

---

**14.5 Diffusers**

*14.5.1 Flow Non-homogeneity at a Rotor Outlet*

- Variations in flow conditions can occur at the outlet, impacting performance.

*14.5.2 Mixing Zone*

- The region where the flow mixes before entering the diffuser, crucial for performance optimization.

*14.5.3 Vaneless Diffusers*

- Diffusers without vanes that help in converting kinetic energy to pressure energy with reduced
losses.

*14.5.4 Vaned Diffusers*

- Incorporate blades to enhance the pressure recovery and efficiency of the compressor.

---

**14.6 Performance Characteristics**

*14.6.1 Flow Instability*

- Instability can occur at certain flow rates, impacting compressor performance.

*14.6.2 Choking*
- A condition where the flow reaches its maximum speed, limiting the compressor's ability to
increase pressure.

*14.6.3 Operating Characteristics and Operating Range*

- The operating range defines the limits for stable and efficient compressor performance.

---

**14.7 Exercises**

- Exercises related to velocity variation and variable geometry are included for practical application of
concepts.

---

Here’s a detailed formula sheet based on Chapter 15 of *Fundamentals of Turbomachines*,

formatted in plain text for easy copying:

---

**Detailed Formula Sheet: Chapter 15 - Axial and Radial Turbines for Gases**

**15.1 General Principles of Turbine Operation**

*15.1.1 Basic Working Principle*

- Turbines convert the energy in a fluid (gas) into mechanical energy through the principle of impulse
or reaction.
*15.1.2 Types of Turbines*

- **Axial Turbines**: Fluid flows parallel to the axis of rotation.

- **Radial Turbines**: Fluid flows perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

---

**15.2 Axial Turbines**

*15.2.1 Components*
- **Nozzle**: Directs the flow onto the rotor blades.

- **Rotor**: Extracts energy from the fluid.

- **Stator**: Guides the flow and recovers energy.

*15.2.2 Flow Characteristics*

- The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of the turbine are essential for performance analysis.

*15.2.3 Choking Conditions*

- Conditions for choking in the stator and rotor depend on the pressure and flow characteristics.

*15.2.4 Work Coefficient*

- The work coefficient for axial turbines relates to the energy extracted from the flow.

---

**15.3 Radial Turbines**

*15.3.1 Applications*

- Used in turbochargers and small gas turbines due to their compact size and ability to handle high
pressure ratios.

*15.3.2 Performance Characteristics*

- Radial turbines typically exhibit lower efficiencies than axial turbines, but are advantageous in
specific applications.

*15.3.3 Dimensional Analysis with Compressible Fluids*

- A flow within a turbomachine with a compressible fluid features multiple independent parameters:

- R (Gas constant)

- Cp (Specific heat)

- μ (Viscosity)

- p₀₀ (Inlet pressure)

- T₀₀ (Inlet temperature)

- ṁ (Mass flow rate)

- Ω (Rotational speed)
- D (Characteristic diameter)

---

**15.4 Compressible Flow Analysis**

*15.4.1 Independent and Dependent Π-groups*

- Identifying independent dimensionless groups helps in understanding the performance

characteristics of turbines.

*15.4.2 Velocity of Sound*

- The velocity of sound in a compressible fluid is given by:

c = √(γRT)

Where:

- γ = specific heat ratio

- R = gas constant

- T = temperature

---
**15.5 Efficiency Considerations**

*15.5.1 Isentropic Efficiency*

- The isentropic efficiency compares the actual performance of the turbine to an ideal case:

η = (Actual Work Output) / (Isentropic Work Output)

*15.5.2 Loss Mechanisms*

- Various losses in turbines can occur due to:

- Friction
- Shock waves

- Flow separation

---

**15.6 Exercises**

- Exercises related to performance analysis, velocity triangles, and efficiency calculations are
provided to reinforce the concepts discussed.

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