Power System Protection

Date: 6th March 2010

Venue: L&T, Manapakkam, Chennai

Steady State Fault Analysis

Dr. G. Pradeep Kumar

What is Fault Analysis?
Fault Analysis
 Analysis of a power system
 during and after a fault
 Involves computation of voltages and currents under the fault
conditions.

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Why Fault Analysis?
Fault Analysis
 Important to understand what happens in the system as a result of
a fault

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Why Fault Analysis?
Study the effects of fault
 How high will the current go?
 Will the voltage rise above a limit or fall below a limit?

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Why Fault Analysis?
Ensure Ratings
 Use calculated voltage and current values
 Ensure that load and short circuit ratings of the plant are not
exceeded
 For proper selection of switchgear

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Why Fault Analysis?
Selection of Switchgear
 Rating of a breaker
 Current it has to carry under
normal conditions
 Continuous rating
 Current flowing immediately after
the fault occurs
 Short time withstand
 Current which the breaker must
interrupt
 Breaking capacity

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Why Fault Analysis?
Selection of Switchgear
 Calculated fault voltages and currents
 Verify that the breaking capacity is not exceeded
 Short time withstand is not exceeded

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Why Fault Analysis?
Protection System Design
 Fault detection
 In which system parameters will the change due to fault be
reflected more?

combination
of both ??

Voltage Current

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Why Fault Analysis?
Protection System Design
 Fault detection
 Fault voltages and currents calculated at various system locations
 Select most suitable relay characteristics for fault detection

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Why Fault Analysis?
Software Packages
 Software packages can do it - why bother?
 Understanding what is happening is important
 Eg. In a Δ-Y transformer for a single phase fault on the Y-side,
why fault current in two phases on the Δ- side.
 Spot check on the computer results
 Catch data entry errors
 Easier for simpler systems

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How to Perform Fault Analysis?
Computations
 Steady state analysis
 Solved by algebraic equations
 Does not mean system is static
 System may be fast changing
 This is like taking a set of photographs of the system behavior
under certain specified conditions
 Algebraic equations are much easier to solve!

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Per-unit Systems
Definition

A is any quantity

 A per unit quantity is a “normalized” quantity with respect to a

chosen base value.
 Any quantity can be converted to a selected base quantity of the
same dimension.
 Per unit quantities are dimensionless

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Per-unit Systems
Per-unit Applied to Power Systems
 Power system quantities that are represented in per unit are:
 Voltage
 Current
 Impedance
 Apparent power
 All of these are completely described by only two of them
 Sufficient to choose only two base quantities

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Per-unit Systems
Per-unit Applied to Power Systems
 Generally the two chosen base quantities are,
 Apparent power (SB)

 Voltage (VB)

 Equipment ratings are usually given in MVA and kV

 Other two base quantities (ZB, IB) can be fixed as follows:

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Per-unit Systems
Per-unit Calculations
 Converting from actual values to per unit

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Per-unit Systems
Per-unit Calculations
 Change of Base:
 Often require to convert per unit values from one base to another
 Most equipment impedances are given in its own MVA and kV
base
 Need to be converted to a common base when solving a
network

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Per-unit Systems
Per-unit Calculations

A is any quantity

 Basically we,
 Multiply the old per unit value by the old base to get back the
actual value
 Then divide by new base to get the new per unit value

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Per-unit Systems
Per-unit Calculations – Example Problem

T1 T2
50 + j100 ohms Load 1
G
ΔY YΔ
Load 2

 Generator: 15 MVA, 13.8 kV, x = 0.15 pu

 Load 1: 10 MVA at 0.9 pf lead
 T1: 25 MVA, 13.2/161 kV, x = 0.10 pu

 T2: 15 MVA, 161/13.8 kV, x = 0.10 pu

 Load 2: 4 MVA at 0.8 pf lag

If the load bus voltage is 15.18 kV, find the voltage at the generator terminals, Vg.

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Choose an MVA base

25 MVA 15 MVA
T1 T2 10 MVA
G Load 1

15 MVA Load 2
4 MVA

Choose an MVA base of 15

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Choose a kV base at any part of the system and fix the kV bases
at different sections of the system

13.2/161 kV 161/13.8 kV
T1 T2 13.2 kV
G Load 1

13.8 kV Load 2

13.2 kV 161 kV 13.8 kV

Choose a kV base of 161 kV at the transmission line

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Chosen bases MVAB = 15
T1 T2

G Load 1

Load 2

kVB = 13.2 kVB = 161 kVB = 13.8

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Convert all impedances to pu in the chosen bases

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Solve the network to obtain required voltages & currents in pu

Load bus voltage

Load 1 current

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Solve the network to obtain required voltages & currents in pu

Load 2 current

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Solve the network to obtain required voltages & currents in pu

Total load current

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Solve the network to obtain required voltages & currents in pu

Generator terminal voltage

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Per-unit Systems
Calculations – using per unit system
 Convert the pu values back to actual values

The generator terminal voltage is 14.623 ∠8.540 kV

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Per-unit Systems
Advantages
 Name plate details
 Manufacturers usually specify impedance of the equipment in per
unit or percent

pu ?

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Per-unit Systems
Advantages

 Relative strength of different parts of the system on the same scale

 E.g. Currents in two parts of the system with a few transformers in
between cannot be compared directly
 Per unit gives the relative values directly

Actual values PU values

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Classification of Faults

Power System Faults

Symmetrical Unsymmetrical

Shunt Faults Shunt Faults Series Faults

Three-phase Single-line to gnd Unequal Series

3-phase to gnd phase-to-phase One line open

2-phase to gnd Two lines open

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Classification of Faults
Balanced or Symmetrical Faults

 Three phase faults

 System remains balanced even after the fault
 Per-phase analysis can be done
 the easiest fault to analyze
 Generally the most severe fault

a a
b b
c c

3-phase 3 phase - ground

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Classification of Faults
Un-balanced or Un-symmetrical Faults
 Un-balanced situation
 Unbalanced load
 Any other unsymmetrical condition
 System becomes unbalanced
 Single phase representation is not valid
 Per phase analysis CANNOT be done
 Further classified into
 Shunt faults
 Series faults

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Classification of Faults
Shunt Faults
 Unbalance is between phases or between phase and neutral
 Causes
 Insulation breakdown
 Lightning discharges and other over-voltages
 Mechanical damage

a a a
b b b
c c c
e e
Single-line to ground Line to line Double-line to ground

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Classification of Faults
Series Faults
 Unbalance in the line impedances
 Doesn’t involve ground or inter-connection between the phases
 Causes
 Broken conductor
 Operation of fuses
 Maloperation of single phase circuit breakers

za
a a a
zb
b b b
zc c c
c

Unequal series Impedances One line open Two lines open

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Classification of Faults
Other Faults
 Cross-country faults

a a'
b b'
c c'

e e

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Classification of Faults
Other Faults
 Faults between adjacent parallel lines

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Classification of Faults
Other Faults
 Open-circuit + Single-line to ground fault

a
b
c

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Classification of Faults
Other Faults
 Changing fault in cable - evolving faults

a a a
c c c

b b b

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Reactance of Synch. Machines
Transients Caused by Synchronous Generator
 Consider only this ac component
 The amplitude of the ac component is given by,

Where
E – Internal voltage or no-load voltage
Xd – steady-state reactance, Xd’ – transient reactance, Xd” – sub-transient reactance

Td’ – transient decay time constant, Td” – sub-transient decay time constant

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Reactance of Synch. Machines
Transients Caused by Synchronous Generator
 The ac component of the current waveform
 Has three components

Steady-state component Sub-transient component

Transient component

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Reactance of Synch. Machines
Transients Caused by Synchronous Generator
 Transient and sub-transient currents
 decay at different rates over the sub-transient and transient period
 Reduces to negligible values after a few cycles
 The sub-transient component first
 The transient component next

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 Reactance of Synch. Machines
Sub Heading here

i(t)

t (sec)
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 Reactance of Synch. Machines
Sub Heading here

Steady-state component

i(t)

t (sec)
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 Reactance of Synch. Machines
Sub Heading here

Transient component

i(t)

t (sec)
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 Reactance of Synch. Machines
Sub Heading here
Sub-transient component

i(t)

t (sec)
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Reactance of Synch. Machines
Transients Caused by Synchronous Generator
 The time after a fault occurs can be divided into 3 periods
 Sub-transient – 2 to 3 cycles after the fault
 Characterized by the sub-transient reactance Xd”
 Transient – 10 to 15 cycles after the fault
 Characterized by the transient reactance Xd’
 Steady-state – > 20 cycles after the fault
 Characterized by the steady-state reactance Xd

 Xd” < Xd’ < Xd

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Reactance of Synch. Machines
Transients Caused by Synchronous Generator
 rms value of the steady current I
 Irms = Erms/Xd

 rms value of the transient current I’

 I’rms = Erms/Xd’

 rms value of the sub-transient current I”

 I”rms= Erms/Xd”

 I”rms > I’rms > Irms

 Since Xd” < Xd’ < Xd

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Transients due to Faults
Symmetrical and Un-Symmetrical Fault Currents
 When to consider unsymmetrical ?
 Circuit breaker rating
 Unsymmetrical currents usually ignored
 Assumed that it will decay fast

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Transmission Lines & Cables
Representation of Transmission Lines & Cables
 Practical transmission lines
 Not spaced equilaterally
 May not be transposed
 The errors due to this are considered minimal
 Lines are taken to be symmetrical

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Transmission Lines & Cables
Representation of Transmission Lines & Cables
 Distributed model of lines

L R L R L R L R

C C C C

G G G G

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Transmission Lines & Cables
Representation of Transmission Lines & Cables
 Shunt branches are ignored for short circuit calculations

L R L R L R L R

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Transmission Lines & Cables
Representation of Transmission Lines & Cables
 A lumped parameter model is used
 Entire line lumped into a single impedance

XL RL
RL = the total resistance of the line

XL = 2ᴨf×LLine,
where LLine - is the total inductance of the line

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Transmission Lines & Cables
Representation of Transmission Lines & Cables
 Represented by a series impedance
 Resistance equal to the total resistance of the line/cable
 Reactance equal to the total series reactance of the line/cable

ZL

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Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

I1 XL1 R1 I’2= I2/n XL2 R2 I2 n = N1/N2

I0

V1 Xm Rc E1 E2=E1/n V2

N1 N2

 Primary side impedance

 Winding resistance & Leakage reactance
 Secondary side impedance
 Winding resistance & Leakage reactance
 Magnetizing branch

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Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

I1 XL1 R1 n2XL2 I’2= I2/n n = N1/N2

I0 n2R2

V1 Xm Rc V’2=nV2

N1 N2

 Referring the secondary impedances to the primary side

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Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

I1 XL1 R1 n2XL2 I’2= I2/n n = N1/N2

n2R2

V1 V’2=nV2

N1 N2

 Magnetizing impedance is very large compared to the leakage reactance

 Can be ignored without much error

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Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

I1 XL1 n2XL2 I’2= I2/n n = N1/N2

V1 V’2=nV2

N1 N2

 The winding resistances are very small

 Can be safely neglected

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Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

XT = XL1 + n2XL2 n = N1/N2

N1 N2

 The primary & secondary leakage reactances can be lumped together

 Single reactance, XT
 Obtained from the short circuit test of the transformer

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Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

XTpu = XL1pu + XL2pu n = N1/N2

 Per unit equivalent diagram

 Total reactance is sum of the per unit reactance of the two windings

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Transformers
Representation of Two Winding Transformers
 Represented by a series reactance
 Equal to the leakage impedance of the transformer
 Obtained from the short circuit testing of the transformer

XTpu
P S
P S
Transformer

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Transformers
Representation of Three Winding Transformers
 Each winding is represented by its own leakage reactance
 XP, XS, XT
 Magnetizing impedance represented by the parallel branch ZM

Transformer

P S P XP-pu XS-pu S

XT-pu
ZM-pu T
T

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Transformers
Representation of Three Winding Transformers
 Magnetizing impedance is very large
 Usually ignored

Transformer

P S P XP-pu XS-pu S

XT-pu
T T

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Transformers
Representation of Autotransformers
 The HV & LV windings are represented by the leakage reactances XH & XL
 Magnetizing impedance represented by the parallel branch ZM

Autotransformer

H L H XH-pu XL-pu L

ZM-pu

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Transformers
Representation of Autotransformers
 Magnetizing impedance is very large
 Usually ignored

Autotransformer

H L H XH-pu XL-pu L

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Transformers
Representation of Autotransformers
 Represented by a single leakage reactance
 XH & XL lumped together
 Same as two winding transformer

Autotransformer

H L H XHL-pu L

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Transformers
Representation of Autotransformers with Tertiary Delta Winding
 The HV & LV windings are represented by the leakage reactances XH & XL
 The tertiary delta winding is represented by its leakage reactance XT
 Magnetizing impedance is ignored

Autotransformer

H L H XH-pu XL-pu L

∆ XT-pu
T

T
N

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Generator
 An unloaded generator is represented by the no-load phase to
neutral voltage in series with the appropriate reactance

Xg

+
Eg
-

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Generator
 Appropriate reactance is considered
 depends on time-period is of interest

Xg = Xd” or Xd’ or Xd

+
Eg
-

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Generator
 For fault currents immediately after the fault (typically 2-5 cycles)
 Use sub-transient reactance
 Eg: Instantaneous protection setting calculations
 For fault currents few cycles after the fault (typically 25 cycles)
 Use transient reactance
 Eg: Time delayed protections such as generator back-up
impedance protection
 For sustained fault currents
 Use steady-state reactance
 Eg: Power swing calculations

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Motor
 When short-circuited,
 No more electric energy supplied to it
 Still keeps rotating for some time
 Inertia of its rotor and connected load
 Field remains energized
 Starts acting like a generator

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Motor
 Synchronous motor behaves like a generator
 Contributes current to the fault
 Especially larger capacity motors
 Contribution to fault current is significant

 This current decays with time

 Stored energy is dissipated
 Rotor starts slowing down

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Motor
 Contribution from small capacity motors
 Neglected – not included in fault calculations
 Contribution from large motors
 Usually considered only if the sub-transient fault current is
calculated

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Synchronous Machines
Representation of a Synchronous Motor

 Usually modeled as a voltage behind Xd”

Typical values from IEEE standard 399

Xm = Xd”
 2 - 6 poles
 Xd” = 15%
+
Em  8 - 14 poles

-  Xd” = 20%
 ≥ 16 poles
 Xd” = 28%

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Transients due to Faults
Representation of a Induction Motor
 When fault occurs
 Input power to motor is cut
 Energy stored in the motor contributes to the fault
 Contribution decays with time
 Typical decay rate - 100 to 150 ms
 Modeled like the synchronous motor
 Voltage behind an impedance

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Transients due to Faults
Representation of a Induction Motor
 Small Motors
 Contribution from small motors are negligible
 Not considered for fault calculations
 Motors of ratings < 35kW considered as small motors

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Transients due to Faults
Representation of a Induction Motor

 Modeled as a voltage behind an impedance

 Large Motors > 35kW

Xm = Xd”
 Xd” is approximately equal to the locked
rotor reactance
+
 Typical value can be used when exact
Em
values not known
-
 Typical value Xd” = 16.7% (IEEE
Standard 399)

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Summary

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous Generators Induction Motors
Xm = Xd”
Xg = Xd” or Xd’ or Xd Xm = Xd”
+
Em + +
- Em Typical Xd” = 16.7%
Eg
- -

Trans. Lines & Cables

ZL
Three-winding transformer Autotransformer with ∆ tertiary

XP-pu XS-pu S H XH-pu XL-pu L

P

2-wdg txfr & Auto-txfr

XT-pu XT-pu
XT-pu T
T

N N

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Analysis of Symmetrical Faults
Introduction
Symmetrical Faults
 As we saw earlier
 These are three-phase faults
 System remains balanced
 Per-phase analysis can be done

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Introduction
Procedure
 In the given network replace …
 Transformers with their leakage reactances
 Transmission lines with their series impedance
 All shunt connections are neglected

 Load impedances are neglected

 Much larger than the network components
 Synchronous machines represented by
 No load-voltage behind Xd” or Xd’
 Depends on time period of interest

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Introduction
Procedure (contd.)
 Express voltage and impedances in per unit
 Reduce the network
 Solve for
 Fault current
 Current through each branch
 Bus voltages

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Single Source System
Problem 1

T1 T2
50 + j100 ohms Load
G
ΔY YΔ

 Generator: 15 MVA, 13.8 kV, xd” = 0.15 pu

 Load: 10 MVA at 0.9 pf lead

 T1: 25 MVA, 13.2/161 kV, x = 0.10 pu

 T2: 15 MVA, 161/13.8 kV, x = 0.10 pu

For a three-phase fault at the load bus, find the symmetrical current fed into the fault

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Single Source System
MVA base = 15
Problem 1 - Per-unit equivalent
kV base of 161 kV at the transmission line

0.0289 + j0.0579
G

j0.1639 j0.06 j0.1

j0.06 0.0289 + j0.0579 j0.1

j0.1639
IF”
+
1.045
-

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Single Source System
Problem 1 - Reduced equivalent circuit

0.0289 + j0.0579
G

j0.1639 j0.06 j0.1

0.0289 + j0.3818

1.045 IF”
-

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 Single Source System
Problem 1 - Fault current calculation

0.0289 + j0.0579
G

j0.1639 j0.06 j0.1

0.0289 + j0.3818
1.045
+ IF" = = 0.206 " j2.7214 pu
0.0289 + j0.3818
1.045 IF”
IF" = 2.7292# " 85.67 0 pu
-

!
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 107
 Single Source System
Problem 1 - Fault current calculation

0.0289 + j0.0579
G

j0.1639 j0.06 j0.1

0.0289 + j0.3818
MVA B 15
+ IBase = = kA = 627.55 A
3 " kVB 3 "13.8
1.045 IF”
IF" = 2.7292 " 627.55 = 1712.72# $ 85.67 0 A
-

!
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 108
Single Source System
Problem 1 - Solution

T1 T2 Load
G
ΔY YΔ

Fault current = 1712.72 ∠-85.670 A

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 109

Three-phase Systems
Unbalanced 3 Phase system
Va
Vc

Vb
Its Sequence Components
POSITIVE SEQUENCE NEGATIVE SEQUENCE ZERO SEQUENCE

Vb2
Vc1
1200 1200 Va0
1200 1200
Va1 Vb0
1200 Vc2 1200
Vc0
Vb1 Va2

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Three-phase Systems
Points to note

Vc1 Vb2
Va0
1200 1200 Vb0
1200 Va1 Vc2 1200
1200 Vc0
1200
Vb1 Va2
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

 There is no direct relationship between the magnitude or angles of

Va0, Va1 and Va2.

 Similarly no direct relationship between the magnitude or angles of

Vb0, Vb1 and Vb2 or Vc0, Vc1 and Vc2.

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Three-phase Systems
Points to note

Vc1 Vb2
Va0
1200 1200 Vb0
1200
1200 Va1
Vc0
1200 Vc2 1200
Va2
Vb1
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

 The magnitude and the angles of Va0, Va1 and Va2 are determined by
the system conditions.

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Symmetrical Transmission Line
Sequence Impedances

a Z0
a’ a Z1
a’ a Z2
a’
+ + + + + +

I0 I1 I2
Van0 Va’n’0 Van1 Va’n’1 Van2 Va’n’2

_ _ _ _ _ _
n n’ n n’ n n’
Zero Positive Negative

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 Star/star - Both Neutrals Grounded
A ⦁ a
IA N1:N2 ⦁ Ia

N n

IC Ib
C ⦁ ZN IN ⦁ ⦁ In Zn ⦁ b
IB Ic
B c

I0 3ZN ZT 3Zn I1 ZT I1 I2 ZT I2
P Q P Q P Q

V0’ V0 V1’ V1 V2’ V2

Reference Bus Reference Bus Reference Bus

Zero Positive Negative
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 Star/star - Ungrounded Neutral
A ⦁ a
IA N1:N2 ⦁ Ia

N n

IC Ib
C ⦁ ZN IN ⦁ ⦁ Zn= ∞ ⦁ b
IB Ic
B c

I0 3ZN ZT I1 ZT I1 I2 ZT I2
P Q P Q P Q

V0’ V0 V1’ V1 V2’ V2

Reference Bus Reference Bus Reference Bus

Zero Positive Negative
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 Delta/delta - Pu Sequence Circuit

A N1:N2 a
IA Ia

⦁ ⦁ Vab
VAB
P ∆ ∆ Q
C ⦁ ⦁
IC
Transformer
⦁ ⦁ Ib
b

B IB Ic
c

I0 ZT I1 ZT I1 I2 ZT I2
P Q P Q P Q

V0’ V0 V1’ V1 V2’ V2

Reference Bus Reference Bus Reference Bus

Zero Positive Negative
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 Star/delta - Neutral Grounded
A ⦁ N1:N2
IA
Ia
a
VAN
⦁
P ∆ Q
N ⦁ Vab

Transformer
IC VN
C ⦁ ZN IN ⦁ ⦁ Ib
b
Ic
IB c
B
Per-unit Sequence Ckt.
1∠30˚:1 1∠-30˚:1
I0 3ZN ZT IA1 ZT Ia1 IA1 ZT Ia1
P Q P Q P Q

V0’ V0 VA1 Va1 VA1 Va1

Reference Bus
Zero Positive Negative
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 Star/delta - Neutral Ungrounded
A ⦁ N1:N2
IA
Ia
a
VAN
⦁
P ∆ Q
N ⦁ Vab

Transformer
IC
C ⦁ ⦁ ⦁ Ib
b
Ic
IB c
B
Per-unit Sequence Ckt.
1∠30˚:1 1∠-30˚:1
I0 ZT IA1 ZT Ia1 IA1 ZT Ia1
P Q P Q P Q

V0’ V0 VA1 Va1 VA1 Va1

Reference Bus
Zero Positive Negative
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 Synchronous Machines

 Positive & Negative sequence circuits

 Grounding has no effect
 Zero sequence impedance
 Grounding impedance is included
 Ungrounded generators - no path for zero sequence

XG1 a + XG2 a + XG0 a +

n n n

I1 I2 I0
V1 V1 3ZN V0

n _ n _ gnd _
Positive Negative Zero

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 148

Sequence Networks
Positive Sequence Network

T1 T2 Load
G
ZE
(Dyn1) ΔY YY

Equivalent Positive Sequence Network ZF

ZT1(1) ZLine(1) ZT2(1)

F1
1:1∠-300
ZG(1)

+
Eg 1:1∠-300
Reference bus
-
N1
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 149
Sequence Networks
Negative Sequence Network

T1 T2 Load
G
ZE
(Dyn1) ΔY YY

Equivalent Negative Sequence Network ZF

ZT1(2) ZLine(2) ZT2(2)

F2
1:1∠300
ZG(2)

1:1∠300
N2
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 150
Sequence Networks
Zero Sequence Network

T1 T2 Load
G
ZE
ΔY YY

Equivalent Zero Sequence Network ZF

ZT1(0) ZLine(0) ZT2(0)

F0

ZG(0)

3ZE

G0
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 151
Inter-connection of seq. networks
Power System Network – Before Fault

T1 T2
Load
G
ZE
ΔY YY

Positive Sequence Network Negative Sequence Network Zero Sequence Network

Z1 Z2 Z0

+
Vf
-

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Inter-connection of seq. networks
Power System Network – Before Fault
 Positive Sequence
 Voltage source is present  Positive sequence currents flow
 Negative and Zero Sequence
 No negative and zero sequence sources
 No Negative and zero sequence currents

Positive Sequence Network Negative Sequence Network Zero Sequence Network

Z1 Z2 Z0

+
Vf i1 i2=0 i0=0
-

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 153

Inter-connection of seq. networks
Faulted Power System

T1 T2 Load
G
ZE
ΔY YY

ZF
Sequence circuits for a fault at the load bus
Z1 Z2 Z0
F1 F2 F0
+
Vf
-
N1 N2 N0

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Inter-connection of seq. networks
Faulted Power System– Redrawn sequence circuits
Z1
F1
+ +
Vf I1 V1
-
- N1

Z2
F2
+
I2 V2

- N2

Z0
F0
+
I0 V0
- N0

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 155

Single Line to Ground Fault
Inter-connection of Sequence Networks
Z1
F1
+ +
Vf I1 V1
-
-
N1
Z2
F2
+
I2 V2 3 × ZF
-
N2
Z0 F0
+
I0 V0
-
N0
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 156
Three Phase Fault
Inter-connection of sequence networks
Z1
F1
+ +
Vf I1 ZF
V1
-
-
N1
Z2
F2
+ ZF
I2 V2  Fault impedance to ground Zg
-  No effect on the fault
N2
Z0 F0 current
+
I0 ZF + 3Zg
V0
-
N0
© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 170
Analysis of Un-Symmetrical Faults
Three Phase vs. Single Phase Fault Level
 Three phase faults are generally the most severe ones
 Three phase fault level is the highest
 However, sometimes
 Single phase fault levels can be higher than 3-phase
 Solidly grounded systems
 On the Y-grounded side of Δ-Y-grounded transformer banks

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 171

Analysis of Un-Symmetrical Faults
Three Phase vs. Single Phase Fault Level
 Consider the following system with fault as shown

T
G
ΔY
ZF

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 172

Analysis of Un-Symmetrical Faults
Three Phase vs. Single Phase Fault Level
 Hence for the system shown … T1
G
Single-phase fault current ΔY
ZF

If Z0 < Z1, then

Three-phase fault current 1-φ fault level > 3- φ fault level

© Protection Engineering And Research Laboratories 173