PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 (1st Quarter) a.

HEURISTICS – mental shortcuts derived from

RESEARCH experiences or calculated guesswork

How cooking and research goes the same way? How do people get their beliefs?
1. Frustrating a) Believing from “experts”
2. Lonely b) Confirmation bias – the tendency to interpret new
3. Collaborative evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or
4. Fun theories
5. Messy c) Wishful thinking

Why we settle for bad research practices? b. SKEPTICISM – pausing to consider alternatives to
1. we do not allot time for research common beliefs and to search for valid evidences
2. We settle for whatever is readily available
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
5 PHASES OF RESEARCH How to come up with good research problems?
1. CONCEPTUAL PHASE (most time consuming)
 The problem is identified Sources of Inspiration:
 Related literature is reviewed  INFORMAL OBSERVATIONS
 A theoretical framework is developed - the things you observe in yourself
 A hypothesis is formulated - the things you have observed in others
 Terms are defined - things other people have observed in others

2. PLANNING PHASE  PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

 The research design is determined - Health
 The population is identified and studied - Education
 A sampling strategy is planned - Sports
 The research instrument is developed - Law
 The data analysis procedures are identified
 PREVIOUS RESEARCH
3. EMPIRICAL PHASE - previous researches give concrete questions
 Data is collected
 The data is prepared for analysis  ASK HOW FREQUENT OR HOW INTENSE

4. ANALYTICAL PHASE  LOOK FOR STATISTICAL RELATIONSHIPS

 The gathered data is analyzed - can be used for correlational research
 The results are interpreted - can be used for adjustments
- In looking for possible related variables, ask:
5. DISSEMINATION PHASE  What could have caused it?
 The findings are published  What could be its effects?
 Which group of people would most likely exhibit
 The findings are used in practice
it?
 What situations may lead to it?
WHY DO WE RESEARCH?
How do we come to believe some things?
 REFINE PREVIOUS RESEARCH QUESTIONS
*COMMON SENSE
- use previous research problems and put a different
context to it
Facts (that contradict common sense) Proven by
 Is there another way of operationally defining
Research:
the variable?
 Anger is not relieved by “letting it out” (Bushman,
 Can you use another set of participants or
2002)
respondents?
 Innocent people confessing to a crime they did not
 Is there a context where the discovered
commit is quite common (Kassin & Gudjonsson,
statistical relationship among variables may be
2004)
found to be stronger or weaker?
How do we decide which things should we believe in?
 - ex. height, typing speed, IQ level, anxiety level
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: THE BASICS
Writing the Research Questions (Mastering the Art of 2. CATEGORICAL
Asking) - measured by assigning a label
- ex. course, nationality, occupation, whether obese
The Research Question should be: or not, yes or no questions
1. CLEAR
Bad: Why are assignments given by teachers often? RESEARCH DESIGN
Solutions when nations collide (Diplomacy)
Good: On the average, how often do teachers give 1. Negotiation
assignments in elementary school? 2. Mediation
3. Arbitration
2. FOCUSED 4. Coercive means
Bad: What are the effects of discrimination on 5. War
women?
Should you chose to go to war?
Good: What is the difference in average monthly  Economic
salary between men and women working in  Military
manufacturing companies?  Nuclear
 Biological
3. CONCISE
Bad: How much do teachers who work in private Managing your war
schools and institutions in Bulacan earn on the  Army
average on a monthly basis?  Navy
 Air Force
Good: What is the average monthly salary of private
school teachers in Bulacan? How to win a war?
Approach  Strategy  Tactics
4. ARGUABLE
Bad: Who is the president of the Philippines during Planning the Research Process
the EDSA revolution? a) Choose a RESEARCH APPROACH
- Qualitative
Good: What percentage of Filipinos support the - Quantitative
change of government from unitary to federal? - Mixed

5. COMPLEX b) Choose a RESEARCH DESIGN

Good: How many small and micro-businesses are - Descriptive
registered in Malolos? - Correlational
- Quasi-Experimental
Better: How many small and micro-businesses are - Experimental
registered and have been operational for at least 3
years in Malolos? c) Select appropriate RESEARCH METHODS
- Survey
VARIABLES - Interview
- a quantity or quality that varies across people or - Lab experiment
situations - Measurement
- others: observations, physical examinations
*CONSTANT – the variable which is not changing
(ex. value of pi, value of gravitational pull)

Two Kinds of Variables RESEARCH DESIGNS COMMONLY USED IN

1. QUANTITATIVE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- measured by assigning a number  DESCRIPTIVE - describe what is going on
 CORRELATIONAL – checks to see if two happenings - research design which seeks to clarify patterns of
are connected relationships between two or more variables (i.e.
 QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL – tests if somethings works factors involved in the circumstances under study)
 EXPERIMENTAL – make sure that something works
General Characteristics of Correlational Research
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH A. A focus on naturally occurring patterns
- aims to answer questions about who, what, where, - The researcher simply measures variables of
when, and to what extent interest and analyzes the relations between/among
- it gives us information about capacities, needs, them
methods, practices, policies, populations and settings - No manipulation or intervention occurs
- an essential part of any experimental research; yet, t - Works best for circumstances when the variables
may be treated as a true study on its own cannot be manipulated for practical reasons, or
should not be manipulated for ethical reasons
Common Uses of Descriptive Research in Practice
1. Establishing the characteristics of a place, B. The measurement of specific variables
population, policy, procedure, or phenomenon. - Quantifiable variables are identified and measured
2. Explaining how a system and its constituent - Researchers need to decide on the level of
components operate. measurement precision
3. Diagnosing real-world problems that need to be
addressed by policies or interventions. Variable Types (Levels of Measurement Precision)
4. Prioritizing potential causal mechanisms (what do  Categorical Measurement
the data corroborate, and what do they rule out?). - variables are sorted into independent groups
5. Generating data-supported hypothesis and - ex. College major: architecture, education,
exploratory directions. accountancy, etc.
6. Describing fidelity of implementation.
7. Assessing and describing data quality.  Ordinal Scales
8. Simplifying data for improved understanding by - variables may be ordered on some basis;
researchers and other audiences (for example, measurement is more precise compared to
distilling a body of related data into a single metric). categorical classification
- ex. Educational attainment: elementary graduate,
Steps in a Descriptive Study (An Iterative Process) high school graduate, college graduate
1) Identify a phenomenon
2) Consider which features of the phenomenon are  Interval Scales
most salient - exact distances between one measurement and
3) Identify the constructs (measures) that best another is specified; measurement and another is
represent these features specified; measurement is highly precise
4) Determine whether there are observable patterns in - ex. Price: $10, $20, $30
the data
5) Communicate the patterns in the data that describe C. The use of statistics to clarify patterns of
the realities of the phenomenon relationship
6) Rethink and repeat as needed - Uses descriptive statistics which presents or
describes important relationships
What will you find out by the end of a descriptive - Uses correlational statistics to describe the
research? strength and direction of a relationship between two
a. Average values (Mean) or more variables
b. Most frequently occurring values (Mode)
c. How different or variable values are (Standard Direction of Correlation
Deviation) 1. Positive Correlation – an increase in one variable
d. Difference between groups (Percentages, tends to result in an increase in the other; a decrease in
Frequency Distribution) one tends to cause a decrease in the other (direct
e. Patterns proportion)

CORRELATONAL RESEARCH
2. Negative Correlation – an increase in one variable  Y = Effect
tends to result in a decrease in the other, or vice-versa
(inverse proportion) Causes (X) Effects (Y)
Passing water through Improved water quality
Strength of Correlation filter
- The strength of a correlation between quantitative Taking cough and cold Recovery from cough and
variables is typically measured using a statistic called medicine cold, drowsiness
Pearson’s r Going on a Ketogenic diet Weight loss, improved
- Pearson’s r ranges from -1.00 (the strongest possible BMI, dizziness, bad
negative relationship) to +1.00 (the strongest possible breath
positive relationship)
The Need to Compare
Research Methods - Establishing the certainty of a particular “cause”
 Surveys producing a certain “effect: is oftentimes a little difficult.
 Observations - By using a comparison group (more commonly called a
 Sorting control group in research), we become more certain
 Archival Study that a particular cause is producing the effect we have
observed.
Why bother looking for relationships?
- Because they tell us…
 Potential causes – Is it possible that the low English
proficiency level of call center agents it to be blamed
Experiment Gets Effect is
for low customer satisfaction? Group Treatment observed

 Consequences – If students would take notes on Control Gets Effect is not

Group Treatment observed
laptops, how would they score in exams?

 Development ideas – Do those who used longhand Differences cause Trouble

note-taking score better than those who used - In order to make the comparison valid, the members
laptops? Will the scores be better if we use a of each group should similar characteristics as much as
combination of the two methods? possible.
- If it can be said that one group is “better” than the
Limitation of the Correlational Design other, the comparison is pointless.
- Correlation does not imply causation - In order to equalize groups, randomization is done.
a) Reverse causation or directionally problem
b) Third-variable problem The Cause Established
- We can say with certainty that an “effect” was the
EXPERIMENTAL RESARCH result of a certain “cause” when between two
Conformity Studies randomized groups, the effects was observed in the
- Numerous experiments have shown that people will group which experienced the cause, while no effect was
conform to groups to fit in (normative influence) seen in the group where the cause was not present.
because of the belief that the group was better
informed than the individual. This explains why some Independent and Dependent Variables
people change behaviors or beliefs when in a new - Beyond discovering causal relationships, experimental
group or social setting, even when it goes against past research also seeks to determine how much cause will
behaviors or beliefs. produce how much effect.

*INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – the variable that you

manipulate
*DEPENDENT VARIABLE – the variable which changes
The Main Concern of Experimental Researches according to the changes made to the independent
- Discover CAUSAL relationships variable
 X = Cause
To Add and To Take Away 3. The elimination of confounding variables that
- In controlling the independent variable, stimulus may might influence the results and mess up the
either be introduced or taken away to get the desired experiment
effect. 4. A hypothesis for a causal relationship
- This manipulation by introducing or removing a
stimulus is called a treatment. *When any of the 4 key elements of an experimental
research is missing, we have a Quasi-Experimental
Ex. Effectiveness of Natural Medicines Research
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Dosage amount Changes in vital signs ANG REBYU NG MGA KAUGNAY NA LATHALAIN (The
Frequency of Elimination of symptoms Review of Related Literature)
administration
Mode of administration Speed of recovery Ang RRL ay Hindi:
Variations in formulation Production cost - Parang isang parada ng mga komento o opinyon ng
kung sino-sinong tao tungkol sa isang paksa
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
Amount of rest - Parang isang barung-barong na binubuo ng mga
Diet pinagtagpi-tagping mga artikulo o pananaliksik na sa
uanng tingin ay parang may kaugnayan sa paksa ngunit
Environment/Weather
kung titignang mabuti ay hindi naman talaga konektado
sa isinasagawang pag-aaral
The Cause Established
- We can say with certainty that an “effect” was the
- Parang isang luma at butas-butas na bra na napilitan
result of a certain “cause” when between two
ka lang ilagay sa dapat nitong paglagyan dahil lahat ay
randomized groups, the effects was observed in the
mayroon nito at magmumukha kang tanga kung hindi
group which experienced the cause, while no effect was
ka sumunod
seen in the group where the cause was not present.
And all of this was done while controlling other factors
- Parang isang traysikel na pag naka-boundary ka na ay
that may have an influence on the effect.
pwede nang gumarahe; hindi maaaring sabihin na ang
laman nito ay dapat na 10 banyagang pag-aaral at 10
Taking Control
lokal na pag-aaral. Sa halip, ang laman at haba nito ay
Elimination of Extraneous/Confounding Variables
nakabatay sa kakayanan nitong maipaliwanag ang paksa
- is the process of controlling (or removing) other
ng pagsasaliksik sa mga mananaliksik at sa mga
factors that may have an influence on the effect
mambabasa
Before the Experiment
Ang Pagsulat ng RRL ay:
- Hypothesis – prediction made by the researchers; they
- Parang ang ginagawa ng mga magulang mo saiyong
have a guess on what effect they would get from a
kasintahan; sinusuri munang mabuti at pagkatapos ay
cause
magbibigay ng mga komento o puna
- Experimental researches are designed to test or
confirm or reconfirm hypotheses.
- Parang pagbubuo ng isang banda, pag-aaralan mo
muna ang bawat isa at isasali lamang ang
Types of Hypothesis
makapagdadagdag ng halaga sa iyong trabaho at
 Null Hypothesis (H0)
makatutulong sa pagtupad ng iyong mga layunin
- there is no significant relationship or difference
between/among the groups you are studying
- Parang pagsasaayos ng loob ng isang bahay; ang lahat
ay may tamang puwesto – mayroong organisasyon. Ang
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
napili mong mga lathalain na may kaugnayan sa iyong
- alternative to null, it could be directional or non-
pagsasaliksik ay kailangang isaayos sa isang
directional
pamamaraan na kapag binasa ito, ang nagbabasa ay
Key Elements of an Experimental Study
maliliwanagan tungkol sa paksa ng iyong pananaliksik
1. A control group and a treatment group
2. Randomization in choosing members of the
control and the experiment groups
- Parang pagluluto ng pansit, mas masarap kung  Pansinin kung saan nagkakapareho at nagkakaiba ang
maraming sahog; pero alam mong ang pansit ay hindi mga binasang pag-aaral. Gumamit ng mga graphic
dapat nilalagyan ng kung ano-ano. Ang RRL na organizer kung kinakailangan.
maraming sahog na hindi naman kailangan ay parang
kaning-baboy, hayop lang ang makikinabang, walang  Panatilihing bukas ang isip, suriin ang binabasa lalo na
silbi sa tao. kung taliwas ito sa iyong inaakala o pinaniniwalaan.

Mga Nilalaman ng RRL Isaayos:

- Isang pagpapakita o pagbabalik-tanaw sa mga pag-  Suriing muli ang mga napiling lathalain upang matiyak
aaral na naisagawa na at naipalaganap na may kung alin ang isasama sa RRL at alin ang hindi
mahalagang kaugnayan sa paksa ng inyong isasagawang
pananaliksik. Bigyang diin ang mga pamamaraan ng  Pagsunudsunurin ang mga lathalain sa paraang higit
pagsasagawa ng mga nakaraang pag-aaral, ang mga na mauunawaan ng mambabasa ang paksang
natuklasan, at ang mga naibunga ng mga pagsasaliksik tinatalakay. Iwasan ang pagtalun-talon ng mga ideya.
na ito.
 Pangkat-pangkatin ang mga kaisipan; ipailalim sa
- Isang pagpapaliwanag kung paanong ang ibang mga malalaking ideya ang mga mas maliliit na ideya;
naunang pag-aaral ay nagkakatulad o nagkakaiba. tiyaking ang mga tinukoy na malalaking ideya ay may
Hangga’t maaari, dapat ipaliwanag kung paanong pantay-pantay na kahalagahan.
naapektuhan ng mga pagkakatulad o pagkakaibang ito
ang resulta ng mga naunang pag-aaral.  Pagdugtong-dugtungin ang kaisipan ng mga pag-aaral;
Ipaliwanag kung paanong maikokonekta ang isang
- Sa dami ng mga pag-aaral na naisagawa na tungkol sa artikulo sa isa pang artikulo
paksa ng inyong pagsasaliksik, aling bahagi o aspeto nito
ang hindi pa masyadong nabibigyang pansin o lubusang  Bumoses. Ikaw ay kailangang magbigay ng iyong
nagagalugad? Ang kakulangan sa kaalaman tungkol sa pananaw, puna o komonto sa mga binasa mo. Kung
isang particular na bahagi ng paksang inyong napili ang sasang-ayon man o sasalungat, siguraduhing may
siyang magiging dahilan kung bakit ninyo ito sasaliksikin. basehan.

Mga Hakbang sa Pagsulat ng RRL Ang Pagsulat ng RRL

a) Mangalap (Gather) Ang Karaniwang Balangkas ng mga Sulating Akademiko
b) Magbasa (Read) a) Panimula (Introduction)
c) Isaayos (Organize) b) Katawan (Body)
c) Pagwawakas (Conclusion)
Mangalap:
 Mga pag-aaral na nailathala na (sa papel o sa internet)
 Mga artikulo ng mga eksperto (sa papel o sa internet)
 Mga libro at sulating tumatalakay sa paksa ng
isasagawang pag-aaral
 Mga panayam o ulat mula sa mga sangay ng gobyerno
o mga mapagkakatiwalaang tagapagbalita
 Mga opisyal na dokumento

Magbasa:
 Intindihin ang binabasa; gumamit ng mga
pamamaraang makakatulong sa pag-unawa ng
binabasa (hal. paggamit ng diksyunaryom
pagtatanong sa guro)
 Maging mapanuri; isiping mabuti ang sinasabi ng
teksto at saka bumuo ng sariling opinyon o puna sa
binasa