CORAL LANDFORMS IN EAST AFRICA

Account for the formation of coral landforms in East Africa

Approach
 Define clearly coral landforms
 Describe the process of formation
 Identify the types
 Explain conditions which favor their formation in East Africa
 Explain the theories put forward to explain the formation of coral landforms
Answer guide
Coral landforms/ reefs are offshore limestone rock platforms formed by continuous deposition and
accumulation of shells or skeletons of small marine organisms known as coral polyps.
Polyps are minute living organisms rich in calcium carbonate and when they die; their skeletons get
deposited and accumulate on the continental shelf where they are compacted and cemented together to
form coral reefs.
The processes of coral formation therefore involve;
▪The death of coral polyps and deposition of skeletons rich in calcium carbonate on the continental shelf
▪Over time, the coral deposits increase in weight, become compressed and compacted and cemented
together
▪In this way, large banks of consolidated rocks are gradually built up, called coral reefs
▪The process of cementation and consolidation of coral reefs is facilitated by other organisms such as
algae (calcareous algae) and echinoderms.
▪The nature of the coral landforms formed depends on the position and shape of the landmass on which
they have accumulated. Thus there are three types of coral reefs namely; fringing, barrier and atoll
Types of coral reefs
Fringing reef - a narrow coral platform of about one kilometer wide joined to the coast or separated from
it by a shallow lagoon which may disappear at low water level.
▪A fringing reef is formed very close to the coast with its leeward edge sloping steeply into the sea floor.
▪Fringing reefs can be seen at the East African coast near Kilifi, Tiwi and Mombassa in Kenya and Oyster
Bay at Dar es Salaam in Tanzania.
Diagram
Barrier reef - a wide coral plat form formed much farther or several kilometers from the coast and
separated from it by a much deeper and relatively wider lagoon.
▪Barrier reefs can be cited at Mayotte Island between Mozambique and Madagascar.
Diagram
An atoll is a circular shaped coral reef surrounding a wide and fairly deep flat-floored lagoon and
generally broken in places by narrow channels.
Atolls are formed very far from the coast for example Aldabra atoll reef lies 700 km off the coast of East
Africa, Chumbe Island found on Zanzibar
Diagram
Conditions that favor development of coral reefs
The growth and development of coral landforms along the East African coast is facilitated by;
▪Warm temperatures of tropical climate between 20 0c-300c ideal for growth of coral polyps. This applies
to areas 300 N and south of the equator for example Indian Ocean coast
▪ Availability of salty, well oxygenated seawater with a salinity level of 27-40 parts per 1000 parts of
ocean water provides adequate calcium carbonate taken up from sea water by coral polyps used to build
and harden their shells /skeletons.
▪Existence of clear, silt free and calm water away from river mouth allows coral growth.
▪Existence of shallow continental shelf with depth less than 60 meters allows penetration of sun light to
the sea bottom. This enables planktons on which polyps feed to carry out photosynthesis.
▪Presence of plentiful supplies of planktons on which polyps feed and survive
▪Presence of solid rock bed along the coast upon which coral reefs grow. A continuous continental shelf
along the coast is ideal for the growth of coral reefs.
▪Occurrence of sea-level changes/ isostatic adjustments. That is, increase in the sea level encourages coral
deposition while a fall in the sea level exposes the coral reefs.
▪Presence of calm/ stable water hence no strong waves such as typhoons to destabilize normal growth and
accumulation of coral reefs.
▪Presence of coral polyps in abundance which when die; deposit skeletons of calcium carbonate which
accumulate to form coral landforms.
▪The warm Mozambique Ocean current that washes the East African coast helps to maintain the
temperatures of the Indian Ocean and thus enables the polyps to survive.
Theories of coral reef formation
The formation of barrier reefs and atolls has created a lot of controversy as they have been found at far
greater depths, in some areas exceeding 1000 meters; a level where polyps cannot survive. As a result,
relevant theories have been put forward to explain this anomaly. That is subsidence theory, deglaciation
theory and antecedent theory.
Subsidence theory by Charles Darwin 1842
Charles Darwin explained that the process of coral formation was gradual and occurred due to subsidence
of a volcanic island.
Darwin’s theory explains that volcanic eruption formed a volcanic island on the ocean floor.
Coral polyps established and colonized the edge of the volcano hence formed a fringing reef.
The volcanic island slowly subsided due to isostatic re-adjustments that followed eruption. Such
subsidence increased the depth of water beyond the level at which coral polyps could survive.
Consequently, some polyps died while others survived on the flanks/ sides and started to grow to keep
pace with the changes in the water depth.
The polyps that survived grew vigorously upwards and outwards and in the process transformed into
barrier reefs and eventually into atolls when the volcano completely submerged.
N.B. the diagrams should show the upward ad outward growth.
Deglaciation theory by Daly
Daly based his theory on the sea level changes during and after the ice age, not subsidence of the volcanic
island.
According to Daly, before the ice age or glaciation, fringing corals colonized the edge of a Marine Island
due to warm water and other conditions that favor coral growth and development.
During the ice age/glaciation, a lot of water was locked up in ice-sheets and caused a fall in the sea level.
The cold conditions killed some coral polyps while maximum erosion removed the top of the island and
the reef to form a wave cut platform.
After the ice age, the return of warm conditions resulted into deglaciation, a rise in the sea level and
growth of corals.
As sea level increased, the polyps that survived on the flanks of the wave cut platform grew vigorously
upwards and outwards to keep pace with the changes in the water depth and be maintained at the surface
water.
Through this process, coral reefs that colonized the flanks gradually transformed into barrier reefs and
finally into atolls when the island/ wave cut platform submerged completely.
Diagram
Antecedent theory by sir john Murray
According to Murray, there existed stable submarine plat forms on which pelagic deposits including
corals accumulated at a depth below 60 meters. Barrier reefs and atolls began to form on these platforms
as fringing reefs.
As reefs grew upwards and outwards, they were pounded by waves such that masses of coral fragments
accumulated on the seaward side; cemented and consolidated into hard reefs .The polyps inside the reef
however died due to lack of food and their skeletons dissolved in water to form a lagoon inside the reef.
This changed the barrier reef in to atoll.
Diagram
Examine the relevance of Darwin’s theory to the understanding of the formation of coral landforms
in East Africa.
Approach
 Define clearly coral landforms
 Describe the process of formation
 Identify the types
 Explain conditions which favor their formation in East Africa
 Explain the formation of coral reefs with reference to Darwin’s theory.
Theories put forward to explain the formation of coral reefs.
The formation of barrier reefs and atolls has created a lot of controversy as they have been found at far
greater depths, in some areas exceeding 1000 meters, a level where polyps cannot survive. As a result,
relevant theories have been put forward to explain this anomaly including Darwin’s theory of subsidence
Subsidence theory by Charles Darwin 1842
Charles Darwin explained that the process of coral formation was gradual and occurred due to subsidence
of a volcanic island.
Darwin’s theory explains that volcanic eruption formed a volcanic island on the ocean floor.
Coral polyps established and colonized the edge of the volcano hence formed a fringing reef.
The volcanic island slowly subsided due to isostatic re-adjustments that followed eruption. Such
subsidence increased the depth of water beyond the level at which coral polyps could survive.
Consequently, some polyps died while others survived on the flanks/ sides and started to grow to keep
pace with the changes in the water depth.
The polyps that survived grew vigorously upwards and outwards and in the process transformed into
barrier reefs and eventually into atolls when the volcano completely submerged.
N.B. the diagrams should show the upward ad outward growth.
Relevance of the theory
▪The theory is relevant because there was actual submergence of the East African coastline evidenced by
presence of rias such as Mombassa and mud flats in submerged coastal areas.
▪Volcanic islands are also present off the coast of East Africa in Indian Ocean.
Examine the relevance of Daly’s theory to the understanding of the formation of coral landforms in
East Africa.
Approach
 Define clearly coral landforms
 Describe the process of formation
 Identify the types
 Explain conditions which favor their formation in East Africa
 Explain the formation of coral reefs with reference to Daly’s theory
Theories put forward to explain the formation of coral reefs.
The formation of barrier reefs and atolls has created a lot of controversy as they have been found at far
greater depth, in some areas exceeding 1000 meters, a level where polyps cannot survive. As a result,
relevant theories have been put forward to explain this anomaly including Daly’s theory of deglaciation
Deglaciation theory by Daly
Daly based his theory on the sea level changes during and after the ice age, not subsidence of the volcanic
island.
According to Daly, before the ice age or glaciation, fringing corals colonized the edge of a Marine Island
due to warm water and other conditions that favor coral growth and development.
During the ice age/glaciation, a lot of water was locked up in ice-sheets and caused a fall in the sea level.
The cold conditions killed some coral polyps while maximum erosion removed the top of the island and
the reef to form a wave cut platform.
After the ice age, the return of warm conditions resulted into deglaciation, a rise in the sea level and
growth of corals.
As sea level increased, the polyps that survived on the flanks of the wave cut platform grew vigorously
upwards and outwards to keep pace with the changes in the water depth and be maintained at the surface
water.
Through this process, coral reefs that colonized the flanks gradually transformed into barrier reefs and
finally into atolls when the island/ wave cut platform submerged completely.
Diagram
Relevance of the theory
▪Daly’s theory explains why lagoons at the coast of East Africa have fairly flat floors.
▪The coast of East Africa has experienced sea level changes as evidenced by submergence landforms like
rias, estuaries, creeks and emergent landforms like raised beaches, cliffs e.t.c
Examine the relevance of Murray’s theory to the understanding of the formation of coral
landforms in East Africa.
Approach
 Define clearly coral landforms
 Describe the process of formation
 Identify the types
 Explain conditions which favor their formation in East Africa
 Explain the formation of coral reefs with reference to Murray’s theory.
Answer guide
Theories put forward to explain the formation of coral reefs.
The formation of barrier reefs and atolls has created a lot of controversy as they have been found at far
greater depths, in some areas exceeding 1000 meters, a level where polyps cannot survive. As a result,
relevant theories have been put forward to explain this anomaly including Murray’s theory
Antecedent theory by sir john Murray
According to Murray, there existed stable submarine plat forms on which pelagic deposits including
corals accumulated at a depth below 60 meters. Barrier reefs and atolls began to form on these platforms
as fringing reefs.
As reefs grew upwards and outwards, they were pounded by waves such that masses of coral fragments
accumulated on the seaward side; cemented and consolidated into hard reefs .The polyps inside the reef
however died due to lack of food and their skeletons dissolved in water to form a lagoon inside the reef.
This changed the barrier reef in to atoll.
Relevance of the theory
▪John Murray’s theory is relevant because it helps to explain why barrier reefs and atolls are found in
deep water over 60 meters deep.
Economic importance of coral reefs
Positive
▪Coral reefs are tourist attractions because of their beautiful shapes and color which make them unique
hence a source of foreign exchange for Kenya and Tanzania. For example fringing reefs at Bamburi,
Shungyu in Dar es Salaam.
▪Coral reefs contain limestone which is extracted for production of cement used in construction works for
example Bamburi cement.
▪Coral reefs are source of education material and research. For example in the field of oceanography,
geomorphology and search for oil prospects.
▪Coral reefs weather down into fertile soils which support crop cultivation for example coconuts,
mangoes, citrus fruits and cashew nuts and cloves in Pemba, Mombasa and Zanzibar.
▪Coral reefs contain limestone used in manufacturing fertilizers rich in calcium carbonates hence boosts
crop cultivation.
▪Fringing reefs have favored the development of ports by protecting the harbor from destructive waves
which would otherwise have destroyed the coast through flooding. For example port Mombasa and Dar es
Salaam.
▪Fringing reefs also protect beach swimmers from dangerous marine organisms such as crocodiles and
hippos because they find it difficult to cross the reefs to the beach. This promotes tourism.
▪Coral reefs are potential areas for mining oil because they contain a lot of fats which sip down and
accumulate into rock strata to form oil wells.
▪Fishing is carried out in the coral lagoons. For example fish, crabs and lobsters
▪Lagoons are also used for recreation purposes such as swimming and sun bathing especially tourists.
Negative effects
▪Coral reefs weather down into poor sandy soils which discourage growing of other crops apart from
coconut and cloves.
▪Fringing and barrier reefs are obstacles to marine transport and fishing because they form hard projecting
rocks which wreck ships, fishing boats and nets.
▪Coral lagoons are colonized by mangrove vegetation during the low tides leading to spread of disease
vectors such as mosquitoes which cause malaria.
▪Fringing reefs limit the size of docking area at Mombasa and Dar es Salaam Ports which results into
congestion of ships and limited space for ocean wagons.