Soil Mechanics T. William Lambe + Robert V. Whitman Massachusetts Instiute ef Techoiogy a {outs wan TS & SUNS, New Vork + Chichester «HesKARL TERZAGHL Karl Terzaghi, born October 2, 1883 in Prague and died October 25, 1963 in Winchester, Massachusetts, is generally recognized as the Father of Soil Mechanics. His early professional life was spent in a search for & rational approach to earthwork engineering problems. His efforts were rewarded with the publication in 1925 of his famous book on soil mechanics: this publication is now credited as being the birth of soil mechanics. Between 1925 and 1929, Terzaghi was at M.LT. initiating the first U.S. program in soil mechanics and causing soil mechanics to be widely recognized as an important discipline in civil engineering. In 1938 he joined the faculty at Harvard University where he developed and gave his course in engineering geology. 's amazing career is well documented in the Theory to Practice in Soil Mechanics (Wiley, 1960). All of Terzaghi’s publications through 1960 (256) are listed in this book. Terzaghi won many honors, ineluding the Norman Medal of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1930, 1943, 1946, and 1955, Terzaghi was given nine honorary doctorate degrees coming from universities in eight different countries. He served for many years as President of the Inter- national Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Not only did Terzaghi start soil mechanics but he exerted a profound influence on it until his death, ‘Two days before he died he was diligently working on @ professional paper. Terzaghi's writings contain signi- ficant contributions on many topics, especially con- solidation theory, foundation design and construction, cofferdam analysis, and landslide mechanisms, Probably ‘Terzaghi’s most important contribution to the profession was his approach to engineering problems, which he taught and demonstrated, To commemorate Terzaghi’s great work, the American Society of Civil Engineers created the Terzaghi Lecture and the Terzaghi Award,PREFACE Soil Mechanicg is designed a3 a text for an introductory course in soil mechanics. An intensive effort was made to identify the truly fundamental and relevant principles of soil mechanies and to present them clearly and thoroughly. Many numerical examples and problems are included to illus- trate these key principles. This text has been used successfully both in an introductory undergraduate course and in an introductory graduate course. Although Soil Mechanies has been written principally for the student, practicing engineers should find it valuable as a reference document. “The book is divided into five parts, Part I describes the nature of soil problems encountered in civil engineering and gives an overall preview of the behavior of soil. Part I describes the nature of soil, especially the transmission of stresses between soil particles. Part Ifl is devoted primarily to dry soil ‘since many aspects of soil behavior ean best be understood by considering the interaction of soil particles without the presence of water. Part IV builds upon the principles given in Parts If and III to {reat soils in which the pore water is either stationary or flowing under steady conditions, Part V considers the most complex situation in soil mechanies, that wherein pore pressures are influenced by applied loads and hence the pore water is flowing under transient conditions. This organization of the book permits the subject matter to be presented in sequential fashion, progressively building up to the more complex principles. : Parts III, IV, and V all have the same general format. First there are several chapters that set forth the basic principles of soil behavior, Then follow several chapters in which these prineiples are applied to the practical analysis and design of earth retaining structures, earth slopes, and shallow foundations, For example, chapters concerning shallow foundations appear in Part II, Part IV, and Part V. Special chapters on deep foundations and soil improvement appear at the end of Part V. These problem-oriented chapters illustrate the blending of theory, laboratory testing, and empirical evidence From past experience to provide practical but sound methods for analysis and design. Soil Mechanics does not attempt to cover all the details of these practical problems; numerous references are provided to guide the student in additional study. Soil Mechanics deliberately includes far more material than can or should be covered in a single introductory course, thus making it possible for the instructor to choose the topics to be used to illustrate the basic principles. We have found that numerical examples of practical problems should be introduced very early-in an introductory course in soil mechanics—preferably within the first eight periods. ‘Thus we organize the early portion of oir courses as follows: 1. Part Tis covered in two lectures, giving students motivation for the study of soil mechanics and an understanding of the organization of the course. 2. Chapter 3 is covered in detail, but Chapters 4 to 7 are surveyed only hastily. As questions arise later in the course, reference is made to the material in these chapters. 3. Chapter 8 describes several basic methods for calculating and displaying the stresses; students ‘must master these techniques. Chapters 9 to 12 contain certain key concepts concerning soil behavior plus descriptive matter and tables and charts of typical values, These chapters may be covered rapidly, stressing only the key concepts. Then the student is ready for an intensive study of retaining structures (Chapter 13) and shallow foundations (Chapter 14). Three or four periods may profitably be spent on each chapter. Chapter 15 serves to introduce the increasingly important problem of soil dynamics, and serves as supplementary reading for an introductory course. 4. In Chapter 16 the definition and manipulation of effective stress is emphasized and the me- chanistic interpretation of effective stress serves as supplementary reading. The depth of study of viiPREFACE Chapters 17 to 19 will vary with the treatment given this topic in other courses such as fluid mechanics. Chapters 20 to 22 are largely descriptive and may be studied quickly with emphasis on the main feavures of soil behavior. This again leaves time fora detailed study of tops from Chapters 23 to 25. ‘The choice of topics will depend on the intetests of the instructor and the material to be covered in later courses, We attempt to cover only portions of two of the three chapters, 5. Chapters 26 and 27 contain key concepts and computational procedures and detailed coverage is needed for comprehension. Similarly, detailed coverage of Chapter 28 is required to give under- standing of the Key connection between drained and undrained behavior. Chapters 29 and 30 are largely descriptive and can be covered quickly leaving time for detailed study of selected topics from the remaining chapters ‘The material not covered in an introductory course will serve to introduce students to more ad- vanced courses and can be used as reference material for those courses. ‘As the reader will see, our book presents photographs of and biographical data on six pioneers in soil mechanics. These men have made significant contributions to soil mechanics knowledge and have had a major impact on soil mechanics students. There is a second generation of leaders whose works are having and will have an impact on soil mechanics. The extensive references in, our book to the works of these people attest to this fact. We thank the many authors and publishers for permission to reproduce tables and figures. The Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers granted permission to reproduce material from Géo- rechnique. “The early stages ofthe preparation of this text was supported in part by @ grant made tothe Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology by the Ford Foundation for the purpose of aiding in the improvement of engineering education. This support is gratefully acknowledged, We thank Professor Charles L. Miller, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, for his encouragement in the undertaking of this book. We also acknowledge the contributions of our many colleagues at M.I.T. and the important role of our students who subjected several drafts to such careful scrutiny and criticism. Special recognition is due Professors Charles C. Ladd and Leslie G. Bromwell who offered comments on most of the text. Professor Bromwell contributed revisions to Part II and to Chapter 34. Professor John T. Christian helped considerably with theoretical portions of the text, as did Dr. Robert T. Martin on Part II and Dr. David D’Appolonia on Chapters 15 and 33, Professor James K. Mitchell of the University of California (Berkeley) contributed valuable comments regarding Part II, as did Professor Robert L. Schiffman of the University of Illinois (Chicago) regarding Chapter 27. Finally, wwe thank Miss Evelyn Perez and especially Mrs. Alice K. Viano for their indefatigable and meticulous typing of our many drafts, T. William Lambe Robert V. Whitman MIT 1969PARTI CHAPTER , CHAPTER PART II CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER PART Ill CHAPTER CHAPTER Introduction 1 8 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER II CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering ‘A Preview of Soil Behavior The Nature of Soil Description of an Assemblage of Particles Description of an Individual Soil Particle Normal Stress between Soil Particles Shear Resistance between Soil Particles Soil Formation Dry Soil Stresses within a Soil Mass Tests to Measure Stress-Strain Properties General Aspects of Stress-Strain Behavior Shear Strength of Cohesionless Soil Stress-Strain Relationships Earth Retaining Structures and Slopes Shallow Foundations Dynamic Loading of Soil 29 40 61 n 7 116 137 1st 162 195 27PART IV CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER 17 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 20 CHAPTER 21 CHAPTER 22 CHAPTER 23 CHAPTER 24 CHAPTER 25 PART V CHAPTER 26 CHAPTER 27 CHAPTER 28 CHAPTER 29 CHAPTER 30 CHAPTER 31 CHAPTER 32 CHAPTER 33 CHAPTER 34 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Index Soil with Water—No Flow or Steady Flow Effective Stress Concept One-Dimensional Fluid Flow Two-Dimensional Fluid Flow Soil Permeability and Filter Requirements General Aspects of Drained Stress-Strain Behavior Drained Shear Strength Stress-Strain Relations for Drained Conditions Earth Retaining Structures with Drained Conditions Earth Slopes with Drained Conditions Shallow Foundations with Drained Conditions Soil with Water—Transient Flow Pore Pressures Developed During Undrained Loading Consolidation Theory Drained and Undrained Stress-Strain Behavior Undrained Shear Strength Stress-Strain Relations for Undrained Conditions Earth Retaining Structures and Earth Slopes with Undrained Conditions ‘ Shallow Foundations with Undrained Conditions Deep Foundations ‘The Improvement of Soil Symbols Conversion References: 241 251 266 281 295 304 318+ 328 352 374 391 406 423 439 455 464 484, 498 514 525 531 535 547DONALD WOOD TAYLOR Donald Wood Taylor was born in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1900 and died in Aclington, Massachusetts on December 24, 1955. After graduating from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1922, Professor Taylor worked nine years with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and with the New England Power Association, In 1932 he joined the staff of the Civil Engineering Department at M.LT. where he re- mained until his death, Professor Taylor was active in both the Boston Society of Civil Engineers and the American Society of Civil Engineers. Just prior to his death he had been nominated for the Presidency of the Boston Society. From 1948 to 1953 he was International Secretary for the International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Pro.essor Taylor, a quiet and unassuming man, was highly respected among his peers for his very careful and accurate research work. He made major contributions to the fundamentals of soil mechanics, especially on the topics of consolidation, shear strength of cohesive soils, and the stability of earth slopes. His paper "Stability of Earth Slopes” was awarded the Desmond Fitagerald Medal, the highest award of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. His textbook, Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, hhas been widely used for many years.PARTI Introduction Part I attempts to motivate the beginning student and alert him to the few really fundamental concepts in soil mechanics. Chapter 1 gives a general picture of civil engineering problems that can be successfully attacked by using the principles of soil mechanics. Chapter 2 describes, in terms familiar to the budding engineer, the essential principles that are covered in detail in the main portion of the book.CHAPTER 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering In his practice the civil engineer has many diverse and important encounters with: soil. He uses soil as a founda- tion to support structures and embankments; he uses soil as a construction material; he must design structures to retain soils from excavations and underground open- ings; and he encounters soil in a number of special problems. This chapter deals with the nature and scope Of these engitieering problems, and with some of the terms the engineer uses to describe and solve these problems Several actual jobs are described in order to illustrate the types of questions that a soil engineer must answer. 1.1 FOUNDATIONS Nearly every civil engineering structure—building, bridge, highway, tunnel, wall, tower, canal, or dam— ‘must be founded in or on the surface of the earth. To perform satisfactorily each structure must have a proper foundation, ‘When firm soil is near the ground surface, a feasible means of transferring the concentrated loads feom the walls or columns of a building to the soil is through spread footings, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. An arrangement (of spread footings is called a spread foundation. In the past, timber or metal grillages, cobble pads, ete., were used (0 form spread footings, but today footings almost wariably are of reinforced concrete. Bulging Fig. 1.1 Building with spread foundation, When firm soil is not near the ground surface, a com- mon means of transferring the weight of a structure to the ground is through vertical members. such as piles (Fig. 1.2), caissons, or piers. These terms do not have sharp definitions that distinguish one from another. Generally, eaissons and piers are larger in diameter than piles and are installed by an excavation technique, where- as piles are installed by driving. The weight of the build- ing is eartied through the soft soil to firm material below with essentially no part ofthe building load being applied to the soft soil Building LeFieap ile Soft si Rock Fig. 1.2 Building with pile foundation. ‘There is much more to successful foundation engineer- ing than merely selecting sizes of footings or choosing the right number and sizes of piles. In many cases, the cost of supporting a building can be significantly reduced by 34 PART 1 INTRODUCTION applying certain treatments to the soil. Further, some structures, such as steel storage tanks, can be supported directly on a specially prepared pad of soil without the benefit of intervening structural members. Thus the ‘word foundation refers to the soil under the structure as well as any intervening load carrying member, ic., foundation cefers to the material whose behavior the civi ‘engineer has analyzed in order to provide satisfactory and economical support for the structure. Indeed, the word Foundation is used to describe the material that supports any type of engineering structure such as building, dam, highway embankment, or airfield runway. In modern usage, the term shallow foundation is used to describe an arrangement where structural loads are carried by the soil directly under the structure, and deep foundation is, used for the case where piles, caissons, or piers are used to carry the loads to firm soil at some depth. In the design of any foundation system, the central problem is to prevent settlements large enough to damage the structure or impair its functions. Just how much settlement is permissible depends on the size, type, and use of structure, type of foundation, source in the subsoil of the settlement, and location of the structure, In most. ceases, the critical settlement is not the fora! settlement but rather the differential settlement, which is the relative movement of two parts of the structure. In most metropolitan areas of the United States and Western Europe, owners of buildings usually are un- willing to accept settlements greater than a few inches, since unattractive cracks are likely to occur if the settle~ ments are larger. For example, experience has shown that settlements in excess of approximately 5 in. will cause the brick and masonry walls of buildings on the M.L.T. campus to crack However, where soil conditions are very bad, owners sometimes willingly tolerate large settlements with resulting cracking in order to avoid very significant additional costs of deep foundations over shallow ones. For example, along the waterfront in Santos, Brazil, 15-story apartment buildings are founded directly upon soft oil. Settlements as large as | ft are common, Cracks in these buildings are apparent, but most of them have remained in continuous use. Perhaps the classic case of bad foundation conditions exists in Mexico City. Here, for example, one building, the Palace of Fine Arts, shown in Fig. 1.3, isin continuous use even though it has sunk 12 ft into the surrounding soil. Where a visitor used to walk up steps to the first floor, he must now walk down steps to this floor because of the large settlement. With structures other than buildings, large settlements often are tolerated, Settlements as large as several feet are quite common in the case of flexible structures such as storage tanks and earth embankments, On the other hand, foundation movements as small as 0.01 in. may be intolerable in the case of foundations for precision tracking radars and nuclear accelerators. Example of Shallow Foundation Figure 1.4 shows the M.1.T. Student Center, which has a shallow foundation consisting of a slab under the entire building, Such a slab is called a mat. The subsoils at the site consist of the following strata starting from ground surface and working downward: a 15-(¢ layer of soft fil Fig. 1.3. Palacio de las Bellas Artes, Mexico City. The 2-m differential setlement between the street and the building on the right necessitated the steps which were added asthe settlement occurred. The general subsidence of this part of the city is 7m (photograph compliments of Raul Marsal)WEIGHT OF EXCAVATED SOIL Fig, 14 Building on shallow mat foundation ‘Weight of building» 32,000 tons Weight of friar, people ete, (ime heres) = 5,000 ons 37,000 tons Weight of excavated soil = 29,000 fons Net load to clay “8000 tons and organic silt; a 20-ft layer of sand and gravel; 75-ft of soft clay; and, finally, firm soil and rock. The weight of the empty building (called the dead load) is 32,000 tons, The weight of furniture, people, books, etc. (called live load) is 5000 tons. Had this building with its total load cof 37,000 tons been placed on the ground surface, a settlement of approximately 1 ft would have occurred due to the compression of the soft underlying soil, A settlement of such large magnitude would damage the strueture. The solution of this foundation problem was to place the building in an excavation. The weight of excavated soil was 29,000 tons, so that the net building oad applied to the underlying soil was only 8000 tons. For this arrangement the estimated settlement of the building is 2-3 in., a value which can be tolerated, This technique of reducing the net load by removing soil is called flotation. When the building is partly compen sated by relief of load through excavation the technique is called partial flotation; when entirely compensated, it is called full flotation. Full flotation of a structure in soil is based on the same principle as the flotation of a boat, The boat displaces @ weight of water equal to the ‘weight of the boat so that the stress at a given depth in the water below the boat is the same, independent of the presence of the boat. Since the building in Fig. 1.4,has fan average unit weight equal to about one-half that of water, and the unit weight of the excavated soil is about twice that of water, the building should be placed with about one-fourth of its total height under the ground surface in order to get full flotation. On this particular project, the soil engineer was called ‘upon to study the relative economy of this special shallow foundation versus a deep foundation of piles or caissons, Ch. 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering § ‘After having concluded that the shallow foundation was desirable, he had to answer questions such as the following, 1, Just how deep into the soil should the building be placed? 2. Would the excavation have to be enclosed by a wall uring construction to prevent cave-ins of soil? 3. Would it be necessary to lower the water table in order to excavate and construct the foundation and, if so, what means should be used to accomplish this lowering of the ground water (dewatering)? 4, Was therea danger of damage to adjacent buildings? (in later chapters it will be demonstrated that Towering the water table under a building can cause serious settlements, The question af just how and for what duration the water table is lowered can thus be very important.) 5. How much would the completed building settle and ‘would it settle uniformly? 6. For what stresses and what stress distribution should the mat of the building be designed? Example of Pile Foundation Figure 1.5 shows the M.LT. Materials Center, whieh has a deep pile foundation. The subsoils at the site of the Materials Building are similar to those at the Student Center with the important exception that there is litle or no sand and gravel at the Materials Center site, The total load of the Materials Building is 28,000 tons made up of a dead load of 16,000 tons and a live load of 12,000, tons. The dead Joad of the Materials Center is less than that of the Student Center primarily because the Materials Building is made of lighter materials than the Student Fig. 1.5 Building on deep pile foundation. Weight of building Weight of equipment, books, people, etc. = 12,200 tons ‘Maximum (otal weight ~ 28,000 tons = 15,650 tons6 PART | INTRODUCTION Center, and the live load is greater because of the much heavier equipment going into the Materials Building. ‘The three major reasons that the Materials Building was placed on piles to firm soil rather than floated on a mat 1. The intended use of the Materials Building was such that floor space below ground surface, i.e., base ‘ment space, was not desirable. 2. There was little or no sand and gravel at the site on which to place the mat 3. There were many underground utilities, especially a large steam tunnel crossing the site, which would have made the construction of a deep basement difficult and expensive. ‘The foundation selected consisted of 537 piles, each with a capacity of 70 tons, The piles were constructed by boring a hole about three-quarters of the way from ground surface to the firm soil, placing a hollow steel shell of 123 in, diameter in the bored hole and driving it to the firm soil, and then filling the hollow shell with concrete. (The hollow shell was covered with a steel plate at the tip to prevent soil from entering.) Such a pile is called a point-bearing pile (it receives its support at the point, which rests in the firm soil, as opposed to a friction pile, which receives its support along a large part of its Tength from the soil through which it goes) and a east-in- place concrete pile (as opposed to a pile which is precast and then driven). Soil was removed by augering for three-quarters of the length of the pile in order to reduce the net volume increase below ground surface due to the introduction of the piles. Had preaugering not been employed, the surface of the ground at the building site would have risen almost | ft because of the volume of the 537 piles. The rise of the ground surface would have been objectionable because it would have raised piles that had already been driven, and it would have been dangerous because of possible disturbance of the nearby dome shown in the background in Fig. 1.5. ‘Among the questions faced by the soil engineer in the design and construction of the pile foundation were: 1. What type of pile should be used? 2. What was the maximum allowable load for a pile? 3. At what spacing should the piles be driven? 4, How should the piles be driven? 5. How much variation from the vertical should be permitted in a pile? 6, What was the optimum sequence for driving piles? 7. Would the driving of piles have an influence on adjacent structures? Example of Embankment on Soft Soil Figure 1.6 shows a 35-ft embankment of earth placed on a 32-ft layer of soft soil. The original plan was to Soft si ER OAR TER OR TNT TR TTI EAT Fig. 1.6 Embankment on soft soil. + place a tank, shown by dashed lines in Figure 1.6, 50 ft in diameter and 56 ft high, at the site. Had the tank been placed on the soft foundation soil with no special founda- tion, a settlement in excess of 5 ft would have occurred. Even though a steel storage tank isa flexible structure, a settlement of 5 ftis too large to be tolerated. Soil engineering studies showed that a very economical solution to the tank foundation problem consisted of building an earth embankment at the site to compress the soft soil, removing the embankment, and finally placing the tank on the prepared foundation soil. Such a tech- nique is termed preloading. Since the preload was to be removed just prior to the construction of the tank, and the tank pad brought to.the correct elevation, the magnitude which’ the preload settled was of no particular importance, The only con- cern was that the fill not be so high that a shear rupture ‘of the soil would occur. If the placed fill caused shear suresses in the foundation which exceeded the shear strength, a rupture of the fonndation could occur. Such a rupture would be accompanied by large movements of earth with probably serious disturbance to the soft foundation soil and possible damage to nearby tanks. ‘Among the questions that had to be answered on this project were the following ones, How high a fill could be placed? How fast could the fill be placed? What were the maximum slopes for the fill? Could the fill be placed without employing special techniques to contain or drain the soft foundation soil? . How much would the fil settle? 6. How long should the fill be left in place in order that the foundation be compressed enough to per- rit construction and use of the tank? Example of Foundation Heave ‘The foundation engineet faces not only problems involving settlement but also problems involving the upward movement (heave) of structures. Heave prob- tems arise when the foundation soil is one that expandsCh. 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering 7 Fig. 1.7. Building on expansive soil, when the confining pressure is reduced and/or the water content of the soil is increased. Certain soils, termed expansive soils, display heaving characteristics to a rela- tively high degree. Heave problems are particularly common and eco- nomically important in those parts of the world with arid regions, e.g., Egypt, Israel, South Africa, Spain, South- ‘western United States, and Venezuela. In such areas the soils dry and shrink during the arid weather and then expand when moisture becomes available, Water can become available from rainfall, or drainage, or from capillarity when an impervious surface is placed on the surface of the soil, thereby preventing evaporation, Obviously, the lighter a structure, the more the expanding soil will raise it. Thus heave problems are commonly associated with light structures such as small buildings (especially dwellings), dam spillways, and road pave- ments Figure 1.7 shows a light structure built in Coro, Venezuela. In the Coro area the soil is very expansive, containing th: mineral montmorillonite. A number of ‘buildings in Coro have been damaged by heave. For example, the floor slab and entry slab of a local hotel, resting on the ground surface, have heaved extensively, thus cracking badly and becoming very irregular. The building in Fig. 1.7 employs a scheme that avoids heave troubles but clearly is much more expensive than a simple shallow mat. First, holes were augered into the soil, stee! shells were placed, and then concrete base plugs and piles ‘were poured. Under the building and around the piles was left an air gap, which served both to reduce the amount of heave of the soil (by permitting evaporation) and to allow room for such heave without disturbing the building, ‘The main question for the soil engineer was in selecting the size, capacity, length, and spacing of the piles. The piles were made long enough to extend below the depth of soil that would expand if given access to moisture. ‘The depth selected was such that the confining pressure rom the soil overburden plus minimum load was sufficient to prevent expansion. 1.2. SOIL AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL Soil i the most plentiful construction material in the world and in many regions its essentially the only locally available construction material. From the days of neolithic wan, earth has been used for the construction fof monuments, tombs, dwellings, transportation faci ities, and water retention structures. This section describes three structures built of earth, When the civil engineer uses soil as @ construction material, he must select the proper type of soil and the method of placement, and then control the actual place- ment. Man-placed soil is called fil, and the process of placing it is termed filing. One of the most common problems of earth construction is the wide variability of the source soil, termed borrow. An essential part of the engineer's task isto see that the properties of the placed material correspond to those assumed in the design, or to change the design during construetion to allow for any difference between the properties of the constructed fill and those employed in the design. Example of an Earth Dam Figure 1.8 is @ vertical cross section of an earth dam built to retain a reservoir of water. The two main zones of the dam are the clay core and the rock toe: the core with its impermeable clay keeps leakage low; and the heavy, highly permeable rock toe adds considerable stability to the dam, Between these zones is placed a8 PART I INTRODUCTION Fig. 1.8 Earth dam, gravel filter to prevent washing of soil particles from the ‘core into the voids of the rock toe. Between the core and the reservoir is a rock facing placed on a gravel bed, The rock facing prevents erosion of the core by rain or water in the reservoir. The gravel bed prevents large rocks on the face from sinking into the clay. This type of dam is called a zoned earth dam to differentiate it from a homo- geneous earth dam in which the same type of material is used throughout the cross section. ‘The popularity of earth dams compared to concrete dams is increasing steadily for two major reasons, First, the earth dam can withstand foundation and abutment movements betler than can the more rigid concrete structure. Second, the cast of earth construction per unit volume has remained approximately constant for the last 50 years (the increased cost of labor has been offset by the improvements in earth-handling equipment), whereas the cost of conerete per unit volume has steadily increased. One would thus expect earth dams to become increasingly popular. The relative sizes of the zones in an earth dam and the types of material in each zone depend very much on the earth materials available at the site of the dam, At the site of the dam shown in Fig, 1.8, excavation for the reservoir yielded clay and rock in about the proportions used in the dam. Thus none of the excavated material was wasted. The only scarce material was the gravel used for the filter and the bed. This material was obtained From stream beds some distance from the site and trans ported to the dam by trucks. Dam construction was carried out for the full length and the full width of the dam at the same time; ie., an attempt was made to keep the surface of the dam approx- imately horizontal at any stage of construction. The toe, consisting of rock varying in size from 6 in. to 3 ft, was ‘end-dumped from trucks and washed as dumped with water under high pressure, The clay and gravel were placed in horizontal lifts of 6 in, to 1 ft in thickness, then brought to a selected moisture content, and finally compacted by rolling compaction equipment over the surface, ‘The following questions were faced by the civil engineer during the design and construction of the earth dam. 1. What should be the dimensions of the dam to give the most economical, safe structure? 2. What is the minimum safe thickness for the gravel layers? 3. How thick a layer of gravel and rock facing is necessary to keep any swelling of the clay core to a tolerable amount? 4, What moisture content and compaction technique should be employed to place the gravel and clay materials? 5. What are the strength and permeability character istics of the constructed dam? 6. How would the strength and permeability of the dam vary with time and depth of water in the 7. How much leakage would occur under and through the dam? 8. What, if any, special restrictions on the operation of the reservoir are necessary? ° Example of a Reclamation Structure There are many parts ofthe world where good building sites are no longer available. This is particularly true of harbor and terminal facilities, which obviously need to be on the waterfront. To overcome this shortage, there is an increasingly large number of reclamation projects wherein large sites are built by filling. The soil for such projects is usually obtained by dredging it from the bottom of the adjacent river, lake, or ocean and placing it atthe location desired. This process is hydraulic filling. Figures 1.9 and 1.10 show a successful reclamation project built in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. The island was constructed by driving a ‘wall of concrete piles enclosing an area 850m Iong by 600:m wide. Soil was then dredged from the bottom of Lake Maracaibo and pumped into the sheet pile enclosure until the level of the hydraulicfillreachedthedesiredelevation. Three actors— the lack of available land onshore, the deep waterShore Pran view Ch. 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering 9 stn ‘Goncrete sheet, Section view though wall Fig. 1.9 Marine terminal built of hydraulic fil, needed for large ships to come near the terminal, and the need to dredge a channel in the lake—combined to make the construction of this man-made island an excellent solution to the need of terminal facilities at this location, On the island, storage tanks for various petroleum products were constructed. The products are brought by pipelines from shore to the tanks on the island and then pumped from the tanks to tankers docked at the two piers shown in Fig. 1.9. Many exploratory borings were made in the area to be dredged in order to permit the soil engineer to estimate the type of fill that would be pumped onto the island. This fill consisted primarily of clay in the form of hard chunks varying in size from 1 fo 6 in, plus a thin slurry of water with silt and clay particles in suspension. Upon coming out of the dredge pipe on the island, the large particles settled first, and the finer particles were trans- ported a considerable distance from the pipe exit. At one corner of the island was a' spillway to permit the excess water from the dredging operation to re-enter the lake, «Following ate some questions faced by the civil engineer on this terminal project. 1.-How deep should the sheet pile wall penetrate the foundation soil? 2. How should these piles be braced laterally? 3. What is the most desirable pattern of fill place- ment-—i-e., how should the exit of the dredge pipe be located in order to get the firmer part of the fill at the locations where the maximum foundation loads would be placed? 4. What design strength and compressibility of the hydraulic fill should be used for selecting founda- tions for the tanks, buildings, and pumping facilities to be placed on the island ? 5. Where did the soil fines in the dirty effluent which went out of the island over the spillway ultimately settle? Example of Highway Pavement One of the most common and widespread uses of sol as a construction material is in the pavements of roads and airfields. Pavements are either flexible or rigid. The primary function of a flexible pavement is to spread the Fig. 1.10 La Salina Marine Terminal (compliments of the Creole Petroleum Corporation).10 PART 1 INTRODUCTION Fig. 1.11 Highway pavement concentrated wheel loads over a sufficiently large area of the foundation soil to prevent overstressing it. The rigid pavement constructed of reinforced concrete possesses sufficient flexural strength to bridge soft spots in the foundation. Which pavement is better for a given prob- Jem depends on the nature of the foundation, availability of construction materials, and the use to be made of the pavement. Figure 1.11 shows a highway flexible pavement designed for 100 passes per lane per day of @ vehicle having a maximum wheel load of 15,000 Ib. The selected pavement consisted of an improved subgrade made by ‘compacting the top 6 in, of the in situ soil; a base course consisting of a 6-in. layer of soil from the site, mixed with 7% by soil weight of portland cement, brought to proper moisture content, mixed and then compacted; and a weaving surface consisting of a 2-in.-thick layer of hot-mixed sand-asphall, ‘Commonly, the base course of a pavement consists of gravel or crushed stone, In the desert, where the pave ment shown in Fig. 1.1] was built, there was a shortage of gravel but an abundance of desert sand. Under these circumstances, it was more economical (o improve the properties of the local sand (soif stabilization) than to haul gravel or crushed stone over large distances. The most economical soil stabilizer and the method of pre paring the stabilized base were chosen on the basis of a program of laboratory tests involving various possible stabilizers and construction techniques. ‘Among the questions faced by the engineer on the design and construction of this road were the following ones. 1, How thick should the various components of the pavement be to carry the expected loads? 2. What is the optimum miature of additives for stabilizing the desert sand? 3. Is the desert sand acceptable for the construction of the wearing surface? 4, What grade and weight of available asphalt make the most economical, satisfactory wearing surface? 5. What type and how much compaction should be used?” 1.3 SLOPES AND EXCAVATIONS When a soil surface is not horizontal there is a com= ponent of gravity tending to move the soil downward, as illustrated by the force diagram in Fig. 1.122. If along’a potential slip surface in the soil the shear stress from Bravity or any other source (such as moving water, weight of an overlying structure, or an earthquake) exceeds the strength of the soil along the surface, a shear rupture and movement can’ occur. There are many circumstances in natural slopes, compacted embank- ments, and excavations where the civil engineer must investigate the stability of a slope by comparing the shear stress with the shear strength along a potential stip surface—ice., he must make a stability analysis. Figure 1.12a shows a natural slope on which a building has been constructed. The increased shear stress from the building and the possible decrease of soil shear strength from water wasted from the building can cause a failure of the slope, which may have been stable for many years before construction. Such slides are common in the Los Angeles area. ‘The earth dam shown in Fig. 1.8 has a compacted earth slope which had to be investigated for stability. During the design of this dam, the civil engineer com- pared the shear stress with the shear strength for a num- ber of potential slip surfaces running through the clay core. Figures 1.12 and c illustrate excavations for a building and a pipe. The building excavation is a braced excava- tion and that for the pipe is an unbraced excavation? A designing engineer must be sure that the shear strength of the slope is not exceeded, for this would result in a cave @ @) © Fig, 1.12. Slopes and excavations. (a) Natural slope. (6) Excavation for building. (¢) Excavation for pipe. (d) Canal.Ch. 1 Soik Problems in Civil Engineering 11 Fig. 1.13 Landslide in @ quick clay (compliments of Laurits Bjerrum). Figure 1.12d shows a sketch of a canal. Canals usually are built by excavating through natural materials, but sometimes they are built by compacting fill, The siopes of the cana must be safe both against a shear failure, as described previously, and against the effects of moving water. Ifprotection against moving water is not furnished the canal banks may erode, requiring continuous removal of eroded earth from the canal and possibly triggering a general shear failure of the canal sides. Figure 1.13 shows a. dramatic landslide of natural slope of quick clay, Quick clay is a very sensitive clay deposited in marine water and later leached by ground water. The removal of the salt in the soil pores results ina soil that loses much ofits strength when disturbed ‘The soil in the landslide zone in Fig. 1.13 had been leached for thousands of years until it became too weak to support the natural slope. Some excavation at the toe of the slope or added load may have triggered the side. Landslides of this type are common in Scandinavia and Canada Panama Canal Figure 1.14 shows one of the world’s most famous canals—the Panama Canal, Excavation on the Panama Canal was started in February 1883 by a French company that intended to construct a sea level canal across the Isthmus of Panama joining the Atlantic and Pacific ‘oceans. Excavation proceeded slowly until the end of 1899 when work ceased because of a number of engincer- ing problems and the unhealthy working conditions. In 1903, the United States signed a treaty with Colom bia granting the United States rights for the construction, operation, and control of the Panama Canal. This treaty was later rejected by the Colombian Government Following a revolt and secession of Panama from Colombia, the United States signed a treaty with Panama in 1903 for control of the Canal Zone in perpetuity Engineers studying the canal project developed two schemes: (a) @ canal with locks estimated to cost $147,000,000 and requiring 8 years to build; and (6) a sea level canal costing 250,000,000 and requiring 12-15 years to build. Congress chose the high level lock canal, and construction was started in 1907 and finished in 1914 The actual construction cost was $380,000,000. The canal is $1.2 miles from deep water to deep water and required a total excavation of 413,900,000 cubic yards of which 168,300,000 cubic yards came from the Gaillard cut shown in Fig. 1.14. The minimum width of the canal was originally 300 ft (through the Gaillard cut) and it was later widened to approximately $00 ft. ‘The ‘minimum depth of the canal is 37 ft (in Balboa Harbor at low tide) Many shear slides occurred during construction, especially in the Cucaracha formation, a notoriously soft shale. (The slides contributed to the high construction cost.) The canal was opened to traffic in August 1914; however, landslides closed the canal on several occasions for periods of a few days to 7 months. The last closure was in 1931, although constrictions have occurred on several occasions since then. Removal of soil from slides and erosion now requires continuous maintenance by12 PART 1 INTRODUCTION i Fig. 14 The Panama Canal, (a) Cross section through East Culebra Slide. 1913, (¢) Ship in Canal in 1968. canal dredges. At one location the side slopes are even today moving into the canal at the rate of 28 ft per year. ‘The long-term strength characteristics of soft shales, such as those lining parts of the Panama Canal, are a perplexing problem to the soil engineer. Since the slides along the canal appear to be related to cracks in th and special geologic features, the analysis of slopes in these materials cannot be done solely on the basis of theoretical considerations and laboratory test results, The solution of this type of problem depends very much fon an understanding of geology, and illustrates the importance geology can have to the successful practice of civil engineering. 1.4 UNDERGROUND AND EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES. Any structure built below ground surface has forces applied to it by the soll in contact with the structure. The design and construction of underground (subterranean) and earth retaining structures constitute an important phase of civil engineering. ‘The preceding pages have Slready presented examples of such structures; they include the pipe shells that were driven forthe foundation shown in Fig. 12, the basement walls of the buildings shown in Figs. 14 and 1.5, the concrete sheet pile wall (©) Cucaracha Slide of August encircling the island shown in Fig. 1.9, and the bracing for the excavation shown in Fig. 1.124. Other common examples of underground structures include tunnels for railways or vehicles, underground buildings like power- houses, drainage structures, earth retaining structures, and pipelines. . ‘The determination of forces exerted on an underground structure by the surrounding soil cannot be correctly made either from a consideration of the structure alone or from a consideration of the surrounding soil alone, since the behavior of one depends on the behavior of the other. The civil engineer therefore must be knowledge- able in soil-structure interaction to design properly structures subjected to soil loadings. Example of Earth Retaining Structure ‘A common type of earth retaining structure is the anchored bulkhead, as illustrated in Fig. 1.15. Unlike a gravity retaining wall, which has a large base in contact, with the foundation soil and enough mass for friction between the soil and the wall base to prevent excessive lateral movement of the wall, the anchored) bulkhead receives its lateral support from penetration into the foundation soil and from an anchoring system near the top of the wall ‘The bulkhead shown in Fig. 1.15 was built as part of aship-loading dock. Ships are brought alongside the bulk- head and are loaded with cargo stored on the land side of the wall. The loading is done by a crane moving on rails parallel to the bulkhead, ‘To determine the proper cross section and length of the-bulkhead wall, the engineer must compute the stresses exerted by the soil against the wall (lateral soil stresses). ‘The distribution of these stresses along the wall depends very much on the lateral movements that occur in the soil adjacent to the wall, and these strains in turn depend fon the rigidity of the wall—a problem in soil-structure interaction. ‘The selection of the lengtt and section of the bulkhead and the design of the anchoring system was only part of the problem. Consideration had to be given to the stability of the entire system against a shear rupture in which the slip surface passed through the backfill and through the soil below the tip of the bulkhead. This type of overall stability can be a much more serious problem with anchored bulkheads than is the actual design of the bulkhead itsstf. ‘The following questions had to be answered in piavining, the.design of the anchored bulkhead. 1, What type of wall (material and cross section) should be used? 2. How deep must the wall penetrate the foundation soil in order to prevent the wall from kicking out to the left at its base? = Sand gravel Medium clay Rock Fig. 1.15 Anchored bulkhead. Ch. 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering 13. 3. At what height on the wall should the anchor tie be located? 4. How far from the wall should the anchor tie extend? 5. What type of anchoring system should be employed ‘at the onshore end of the anchor tie? (One way to anchor the wall is to use a large mass of concrete, i.e, deadman, Another way is to use a sysiem of piles including some driven at a slope with the vertical; such a sloping pile is termed a hatter pile.) 6, What was the distribution of stresses acting on the wall? 7. What type of drainage system should be installed to prevent large differential water pressure from developing on the inside of the wall? 8, How close to the wall should the loaded crane (130,000 Ib when fully loaded) be permitted? 9. What restrictions, if any, are necessary on the storage of cargo on the area back of the wall? Example of Buried Frequently a pipe must be buried under a high embank- ment, railway, or roadway. The rapid growth of the pipeline industry and the construction of superhighways have greatly increased the frequency of buried pipe installations. Buried pipes are usually thin-wall metal or plastic pipes, called flexible pipes, or thick-wall rein- forced concrete pipes, called rigid pipes There have been very few recorded cases of buried pipes being crushed by externally applied loads. Most Of the failures that have occurred have been associated ‘with: (a) faulty construction; (6) construction loads in excess of design loads; and (c) pipe sag due to foundation settlement or failure, Faced with the impressive perform- ance record of the many thousands of buried pipes, we are forced to conclude that the design and construction procedures commonly used result in safe installations. ‘There is little published information, however, indicating, just how safe these installations are and whether or not, ‘they are far overdesigned, thus resulting in a great waste of money. Figure 1.16 shows an installation of two steel pipes, each 30/in, in diameter with a wall thickness of { in., buried under an embankment 80 ft high at its center line, Use of the commonly employed analytical method yielded a value for the maximum pipe deflection of 7} in, Current practice suggests a value of 5% of the pipe diameter, 1} in. for the 30-in, diameter pipe, as the maximum allowable safe deflection, [At this stage in the job, laboratory soil tests and field experimentation with installations were carried out. Use of the soil data obtained from these tests resulted in a computed pipe deflection of 0.32in., a safe value. The maximum value of pipe deflection actually measuced in the installation was only 0.17 in. These stated deflections indicate the merit of a controlled installation (and also ipeline14 PART 1 INTRODUCTION _ fied oe Eth embankment Hand-cvt eadle 7 Conforming te eunature ot pipe Fig. 116 the inaccuracy of commonly employed techniques to estimate the deflection of buried pipes) ‘The method of pipe installation employed is indicated in Fig. 1.16 and consisted of the following: carrying the fill elevation above the elevation of the tops of the pipes; cutting a trench for the pipes; shaping by hand a cradle for each pipe conforming to the curvature of the pipes backfilling under carefully controlled conditions to get a rigid backfill on the sides of the pipes and a soft spot on top of each pipe, ‘The rigid side fills were to give strong lateral support to the pipes and thus reduce their lateral expansion. ‘The soft spots were to encourage the fill directly over the pipes to tend to settle more than the rest of the fill, thus throwing some of the vertical load to the soit outside the zone of the pipes; this phenomenon is called arching. Since the vertical load on the two pipes is related to the height of the fil, one would expect the settlement of the pipes to be the maximum at the midpoint of the embankment. Such was the case with 17¢m of settle- ment occurring at the center of the embankment and about Lem at the two tors of the embankment. The flexible steel pipes, more than 100m in length, could casily withstand the 16 em sag. The civil engineer on this project had to select the thickness of the pipe wall, and work out and supervise the installation of the pipes LS SPECIAL SOIL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS, ‘The preceding sections have discussed and illustrated some common civil engineering problems that involve soil mechanics. There are, in addition, many other types ‘of soil problems that are less common but still important, Buried pipes. ‘ Some of these are noted in this section in order to give a more complete picture of the range of problems in which soil mechanics is useful, Vibrations Certain granular soils can be readily densified by vibrations. Buildings resting on such soils may undergo significant settlement due to the vibration of their equip- ment, such as large compressors and turbines. The effects of a vibration can be particularly severe when the fre- quency ofthe vibrationcoineides with thenatural frequency of the soil foundation. Upon deciding that vibrations can cause deleterious settlement in a particular structure, the engineer has the choice of several means of preventing it He ean increase the mass of the foundation, thus changing, its frequency, or densify or inject the soil, thereby altering its natural frequency and/or compressibility, Explosions and Earthquakes Civil engineers have long been concerned with ‘the effects on buildings of earth waves caused by quarry blasting and other blasting for construction purposes. ‘The ground through which such waves pass has been found to influence greatly the vibrations that reach nearby buildings, This problem has received an entirely new dimension as the result of the advent of nuclear explosives. The military has become increasingly interested in the design of underground facilities that can survive a very nearby nuclear explosion, The Atomic Energy Commission has established the Plowshare program to consider the peace- ful uses of nuclear explosions, such as the excavation of canals or highway cuts, The possibility of excavating a sea level Panama Canal by such means has receivedFig. 1.17 Oil storage reservoir (compliments of the Creole Petroleum Corporation). special attention and raises 2 whole new set of questions, such as the stability of slopes formed by a cratering process. Similar problems arise as the result of earthquakes. The type of soil on which a building rests and the type of foundation used for the building influence the damage to f building by an earthquake. The possible effects of earthquakes on large dams have recently received muich attention. The 1964 earthquake in Alaska caused one of the largest earth slides ever recorded. Ch. 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering 15 ‘The Storage of Industrial Fluids in Earth Reserve Section 1.2 describes an earth structure for the reten- tion of water. Because earth is such a common and cheap construction material, it has considerable utility for the construction of reservoirs and containers to store indus- trial fluids, One of the most successful applications of this technique is the earth reservoir for the storage of fuel oil shown in Fig. 1.17. This structure, with a capacity of 11,000,000 barrels, was built at one-tenth the cost of conventional steel tankage and resulted in a saving of approximately $20,000,000. Because of the interfacial tension between water and certain industrial fluids, compacted, fine-grained, wet soil can be used to store such fluids with no leakage. Another example of this special application is the use of reservoirs for the storage of refrigerated liquefied gas. Earth reservoirs have been built for the retention of liquefied propane at —44°F and for liquefied natural gas at —260°F, Introducing a liquid at such low tempera- tures into a water-wet soil freezes the pore water in the soil. If the soil has enough water so that there are not continuous air channels in the soil, it will become im- pervious to both liquid and gas upon freezing of the pore water. Frost Because certain soils under certain conditions expand on freezing, the engineer may be faced with frost heave problems. When frost susceptible soils are in contact with moisture and subjected to freezing temperatures, they can Fig. 1.18 Frost heave. (a) Soil sample which heaved from 3.1 t0 12.6 in, on freezing, (b) Soil sample which heaved from 610 12 in. om freezing. (c) A close view of frozen soil. (Photographs compliments of C, W. Kaplar of U.S. Army CRREL,)16 PART 1 INTRODUCTION SOIL MECHANICS Stress-strain properties ‘Theoretical analyses for soil masses GEOLOGY, EXPLORATION Composition of actual soil masses 4 EXPERIENCE, Precedents—what designs have worked well under what conditions ECONOMICS ENGINEERING JUDGEMENT SOLUTIONS to > Soil Engineering + Problems Fig. 1.19 The solution of soil engineering problems. imbibe water and undergo a very large expansion. Figure 1.18 dramatically illustrates the magnitude a soil can heave under ideal conditions. Such heave exerts forces large enough to move and crack adjacent structures, and ‘can cause serious problems on thawing because of the excess moisture. The thawing of frozen soil usually proceeds from the top downward. ‘The melt water cannot drain into the frozen subsoil, thus becomes trapped, greatly weakening the soil. The movement of icehouses and ice-skating rinks is an interesting example of this phenomenon, but nowhere nearly as important and widespread as the damage to highway pavements in those areas of the world that have freezing temperatures Frost heaves and potholes, which develop when the frost thaws, are sources of great inconvenience and cost to many northern U.S. areas, such as New England. The civil engineer designing highway and airfield pave- ments in frost areas must either select ‘a combination of base soil and drainage that precludes frost heave, or design his pavement to withstand the weak soil that occurs in the spring when the frost melts. 3 Regional Subsidence Large-scale pumping of oil and water from the ground ean’ cause major settlements over a large area, For ‘example, a 16 square mile area of Long Beach, California, has settled as the result of oil pumping, with a maximum settlement to date of 25 ft. As a result, the Naval Ship- yard adjacent to the settled area has had to construct Special sea walls to keep out the ocean, and has had to reconstruct dry docks. Mexico City has settled as much as 30 ft since the beginning of the twentieth century as the result of pumping water for domestic and industrial use. The first step in minimizing such regional subsidence is to locate the earth materials that are compressing as the fluid is removed, and then consider methods of replacing the lost uid. 1.6 THE SOLUTION OF SOIL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS ‘Thus far this chapter has described some of the prob- lems the civil engineer encounters with construction on Soil, in soil, and of soil, The successful solution of each problem nearly always involves a combination of soil mechanics and one oF more of the components noted in Fig 1. Geology aids the soil engineer because the methoil of forming a mass influences its size, shape, and behavior. Exploration helps establish the boundaries of a deposit, and enables the engineer to select samples for laboratory testing Experience, as the term is used here, does not mean merely doing but the doing coupled with an evaluation of results of the act. ‘Thus, when‘the civil engineer makes a design or solves a soil problem and then evaluates the outcome on the basis of measured field performance, he is gaining experience. Too much emphasis is usually placed on the doing component of experience and too little emphasis on the evaluation of the outcome of the act. The competent soil engineer must continue to improve his reservoir of experience by comparing the predicted behavior of a structure with its. measured performance. Economics is an important ingredient in the selection of the best solution from among the possible ones. Although a detailed economic evaluation of a particular earth structure depends on the unit costs atthe site of a planned project, certain economic advantages of one Scheme over another may be obvious from the charac+ teristios of the schemes. This book is limited to one component of the solution of soil engineering problems—soil mechanics: the science underlying the solution of the problem. The reader must remember that science alone cannot solve these problems.rly all soil problems are statically indeterminate to degree. Even more important is the fact that natural soil deposits possess five complicating charac- teristics: 1. Soil does not possess a linear or unique stress-strain relationship. 2. Soil behavior depends on pressure, time, and envir- onment, The soil at essentially every location is different. 4, In nearly all cases the mass of soil involved is under- ground and cannot be seen in its entirety but must be evaluated on the basis of small samples obtained from isolated locations. 5. Most soils are very sensitive to disturbance from sampling, and thus the behavior measured by a lab- oratory test may be unlike that of the in situ soil ‘These factors combine to make nearly every soil problem unique and, for all practical purposes, impossible of an exact solution. Soil mechanics can provide a solution to a mathemati- cal model. Because of the nature and the variability of soil and because of unknown boundary conditions, the ‘mathematical model may not represent closely the actual problem. As construction proceeds and more informa- tion becomes available, soil properties and boundary Ch. 1 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering 17 conditions must often be re-evaluated and the problem solution modified accordingly The interpretation of insufficient and conflicting data, the selection of soil parameters, the modification of a solution, etc., require experience and a high degree of intuition—ie., engineering judgment. While a sound knowledge of soil mechanics is essential for the successful soil engineer, engineering judgment is usually the charac teristic that distinguishes the outstanding soil engineer. PROBLEMS 1.1 List three events of national and/or international importance that involve soil mechanics (e.g., the extensive damage from the 1964 Alaskan earthquake). 1.2 Note the type of foundation employed in a building ‘constructed recently in your area. List obvious reasons why this type of foundation was selected. 1.3 On the basis of your personal experience, describe briefly an engineering project that was significantly influenced by the nature of the soil encountered at the site of the project. 1.4 Note several subsoil and building characteristics that ‘would make a pile foundation preferable to a spread founda- tion. 1.5. List difficulties you would expect to result from the large settlement of the Palacio de las Bellas Artes shown in Fig. 13. 1.6 Note desirable and undesirable features of building flotation.CHAPTER 2 A Preview of Soil Behavior This chapter presents a preliminary and intuitive glimpse of the behavior of homogeneous soil. This pre- view is intended to give the reader a general picture of the way in which the behavior of soil differs from the behavior of other materials which he has already studied in solid and fluid mechanics, and also to indicate the basis for the organization of this book. To present clearly the broad picture of soil behavior, this chapter leaves to Tater chapters a consideration of exceptions to, and details of, this picture, 21 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF SOIL. If we examine a handful of beach sand the naked eye notices that the sand is composed of discrete particles ‘The same can be said of all soils, although many soil particles are so small that the most refined microscopic techniques are needed to discern the particles. The dis- crete particles that make up soil are not strongly bonded together in the way that the erystals of @ metal are, and hence the soil particles are relatively free to move with respect to one another. The soil particles are solid and cannot move relative to each other as easily as the ele- ments in a fluid. Thus soit is inherently a particulate system.) It is this basic fact that distinguishes soil mechanics from solid mechanics and fluid mechanics. Indeed, the science that treats the stress-strain behavior af soil may well be thought of as particulate mechanics. The next sections examine the consequences of the particulate nature of soil 2.2 NATURE OF SOIL DEFORMATION Figure 2.1 shows a cross section through a box filled with dry soil, together with a piston through which a vertical load can be applied to the soil. By enlarging a portion of this cross section to see the individual particles, 1 The word “particulate” means “of or pertaining to a system of particles." 18 Wwe are able to envision the manner in which the applied force is transmitted through the soil: contact forces Gevelop between adjacent particles. For convenience, these contact forces have been resolved into components normal N and tangential 7 to the contact surfaces The individual particles, of course, deform as the result of these contact forces. The most usual type of deforma- tion is an elastic or plastic strain in the immediate vicinity of the contact points. Particle crushing can be important in certain situations (as later chapters discuss). These formations lead to an enlargement of the contact area between the particles, as shown in Fig. 2.24, and thus permit the centers ofthe particles to come closer together. If platelike particles are present, these particles will bend, @ Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation of force transmission through soil. (a) Cross section through box filled with soil, (6) Enlargement through portion of eross section showing forces at (wo of the contact points.as in Fig. 2.26, thus allowing relative movements between the adjacent particles. In addition, once the shear force at a contact becomes larger than the shear resistance at the contact, there will be relative sliding between the particles (Fig. 2.2c). The overall strain of a soil mass will be partly the result of deformation of individual particles ‘and partly the result of relative sliding between particles However, experience has shown that interparticle sliding, with the resultant rearrangement ofthe particles, generally makes by far the most important contribution to overall strain, The mineral skeleion of soil usually is quite deformable, due to interparticle sliding and rearrange- ‘ment, even though the individual particles are very rigid Thus we see the first consequence of the particulate nature of soil: the deformation of a mass of soil is con- trolled by interactions between individual particles, espe- cially by sliding between particles. Because sliding is @ nonlinear and irreversible deformation, we must expect that the stress-strain behavior of soil will be strongly nonlinear and irreversible? Moreover, a study of phe- nomena at the contact points will be fundamental to the study of soils, and we shall inevitably be concerned with concepts such as friction and adhesion between particles. There are, of course, a fantastically large number of individual contact points within a soil mass. For example, there will be on the order of 5 million contacts within just I em? of a fine sand. Hence it is impossible to build up a stress-strain law for soil by considering the behavior at each contact in turn even if we could describe exactly what happens at each contact. Rather it is necessary to rely upon the direct experimental measure- ment of the properties of a system involving a large number of particles. Nonetheless, study of the behavior at typical contact points still plays an important rol serves as a guide to the understanding and interpretation of the direct experimental measurements. This situation may be likened to the study of metals: knowledge of the behavior of a single crystal, and the interactions between crystals, guides understanding the behavior of the overall metal and how the properties of the metal may be improved. If the box in Fig. 2.1 has rigid side walls, the soil will normally decrease in volume as the Joad is increased, This yolume decrease comes about because individual particles nestle closer and closer together. There are shear failures (sliding) at the many individual contact points, but there is no overall shear failure of the soil mass. The vertical load can be increased without limit Such a process is volumetric compression. Ifthe applied load is removed, the soil mass will increase in volume through a reverse process again involving rearrangement of the particles. This process of volume increase is called expansion, or in some contexts, swell 2 This statement means that a plot of stress-strain is not a straight line and is not unique for load-unload cycles, Ch. 2A Preview of Soil Behavior 19 Postion before oaing Fig, 2.2 Causes of relative motions among soil particles. (a) Motion of particles due to deformation of contacts. Solid lines show surfaces of particles after loading (the lower particle ‘was assumed not to move); dashed lines show surfaces before loading. (6) Relative motion of particles due to bending of platelike particles, (c) Relative motion of particles due to interparticle sliding. If, on the other hand, the box has flexible side walls, an overall shear failure can take place. The vertical load at which this failure occurs is related to the shear strength of the soil, This shear strength is determined by the resistance to sliding between particles that are trying to move laterally past each other. The properties of compressibility, expansibility, and shear strength will be studied in detail in later chapters, 2.3 ROLE OF PORE PHASE: CHEMICAL INTERACTION ‘The spaces among the soil particles are called pore Spaces. ‘These pore spaces are usually filled with air20 PART 1 INTRODUCTION nit Mise © ® Fig, 2.3 Fluid films surrounding very small soil patticles. (@ Before load. (b) Particles squeezed close together by load. andjor water (with or without dissolved materials). Thus soil is inherently a multiphase system consisting of a mineral phase, called the mineral skeleton, plus & fluid phase, called the pore fu ‘The nature ofthe pore fluid will influence the magnitude of the shear resistance existing between two particles by introducing chemical matter to the surface of contact. Indeed, in the case of very tiny soil particles, the pore fluid may completely intrude between the particles (see Fig. 2.3). Although these particles are no longer in contact in the usual sense, they still remain in close proximity and can transmit normal and possibly also tangential forees. The spacing of these particles will increase or decrease as the transmitted compressive forces decrease or increase. Hence anew source of over- all strain in the soil mass is introduced. “Thus we have a second consequence of the particulate nature of soil: soil is inherently multiphase, and the con- stituents of the pore phase wil influence the nature of the mineral surfaces and hence affect the processes of force transmission at the particle contacts. This interaction between the phases is called chemical interaction 2.4 ROLE OF PORE PHASE: PHYSICAL INTERACTION Let us now return to our box of soil, but now consider a soil whose pore spaces are completely filled with water— 4 saturated sol First we assume that the water pressure is hydrostatic; ice., the pressure in the pore water at any point equals the unit weight of water times the depth of the point below the water surface. For such a condition there will be no flow of water (see Fig. 24a). ‘Next we suppose that the water pressure at the base of the box is increased while the overflows hold the level of the water surface constant (Fig. 2.48). Now there must be an upward flow of water. ‘The amount of water that flows will be related to the amount of excess pressure added to the bottom and to a soil property called permeability. The more permeable a soil, the more water will flow for a given excess of pressure. Later parts of this book consider the factors that determine the perme- ability of a soil If the excess water pressure at the base is increased, a pressure will be reached where the sand is made to bi by the upward flowing water (Fig. 2.4¢). We say that a quick condition is created. Obviously, there has been a physical interaction between the mineral skeleton and the pore fluid. ‘At this stage, the soil will occupy a somewhat greater volume than initially, and clearly the soil has less shear strength in the quick condition than in the normal condi- tion. ‘These changes have occurred even though the total weights of sand and water pressing down have remained unchanged. But we have seen that changes in volume and shear strength come about through changes in the forces at contacts between particles. Hence these contact forces ‘must have been altered by the changes in, pressure in the pore phase; that is, these contact forces mnust be related Surtace otto! @ Overtow Fig. 24 Physical interaction between mineral and pore phases. (a) Hydrostatic condition: no flow. (b) Small flow ‘of water. (€) Quick condition,: Ch? A Preview of Sol Behavior 21 tt vat es Pion ve — . ree \ SL [eae OS sone Sal Chamber filled ee @ o ae yas, | eetieg Lemar t 5 - = @) Spring ng |‘ ‘Water [ tompresses: — load ie =] = rs i decreases ‘eines @ ® 1 ws é Tim —— Fig, 2.5 Hydromechanical analogy for load-sharing and consolidation. (a) Physical example (b) Hydromechanical analog; initial condition. (c) Load applied with valve closed, () Piston moves as water escapes. (e) Equilibrium with no further flow. (f) Gradual transfer of load. to the difference between the stress pressing downward (the roral stress) and the pore pressure. These observa- tions form the basis for the very important concept of effective stress. ‘We have now seen the third consequence of the par- ticulate nature of soil: water can flow through soll and ths interact with the mineral skeleton, altering the magni- tude of the forces at the-contacts between particles and influencing the compression and shear resistance of the sol. 2.5 ROLE OF PORE PHASE: THE LOAD SHARING Finally, because soil is a multiphase system, it may be expected that a load applied to a soil mass would ‘be carried in part by the mineral skeleton and in part by the pore fivid. This “sharing of the load” is analogous to partial pressures in gases The sketches in Fig. 2.5 help us to understand load sharing. Figure 2.50 shows a cylinder of saturated soil ‘The porous piston permits load to be applied to the soil and yet permits escape of the fluid from the pores of the soil, Part (b) shows a hydromechanical analog in which the properties of the soil have been “lumped”: the resistance of the mineral skeleton to compression is represented by a spring; the resistance to the flow of water through the soil is represented by a valve in an otherwise impermenble piston. Now suppose a load is applied to the piston of the hydromechanical analog but that the valve is kept closed ‘The piston load is apportioned by the water and the spring in relation to the stiffness of each. The piston in our22° PART 1 INTRODUCTION Setlerant (in) Paint 3 Point 10 1310 1950 1955 37 Fig. 2.6 Settlement of Building 10 at M.L'T, hydromechanical analogy will move very little when the load is applied because the water is relatively incompres sible. Since the spring only shortens slightly it will carry very little of the load. Essentially all of the applied load is resisted by an increase in the fluid pressure within the chamber. ‘The conditions at this stage are represented in Fig. 2.5. ‘Next we open the valve. The fluid pressure within the chamber will force water through this valve (Fig. 2.54) [As water escapes the spring shortens and begins to carry 4 significant fraction of the applied load. There must be a corresponding decrease in the pressure within the chamber fluid. Eventually a condition is reached (Fig 2.Se) in which all of the applied load is carried by the spring and the pressure in the water has returned to the original hydrostatic condition. Once this stage is reached there is no further flow of water. Only a limited amount of water can flow out through the valve during any interval of time. Hence the process of transferring load from the water to the spriag must take place gradually. This gradual change in the way that the load is shared is illustrated in Fig. 2.5f. Sharing the load between the mineral and pore phases also occurs in the physical example and in actual soil problems, although the pore fluid will not always earry all of the applied load initially. We shall return to this subject in detail in Chapter 26. Moreover, in actual problems there will be the same process of a gradval ‘change in the way thatthe load is shared, ‘This process of gradual squeezing out of water is called consolidation, and the time interval involved is the hydrodynamic time lag The amount of compression that has occurred at any time is related not only to the applied load but also to the amount of stress transmitted at the particle contaets, ie., to the difference between the applied stress and the pore pressure. This difference is called effective siress. Con- solidation and the reverse process of swelling (which occurs when water is sucked into a soil following load removal) are treated in several chapters. Here then is the fourth consequence of the particulate nature of soil: when the load applied to a soil is suddenly changed, this change is carried jointly by the pore fluid and by the mineral skeleton. The change i pore pressure will cause water to move through the soil, hence the properties Of the soil will change with time This last consequence was discovered by Karl Terzaghi around 1920. This discovery marked the beginning of ‘modern soil engineering. It was the first of many con- tributions by Terzaghi, who is truly the “father of soil mechanics.” The most important effect of the hydrodynamic time Jag is to cause delayed settlement of structures. That is, the settlement continues for many years after the structure hhas been completed. Figure 2.6 shows the time-settle- ment record of two points on Building 10 on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ‘The settlement of this building during the first decade after its completion was the cause of considerable alarm. ‘erzaghi examined the building when he first came to the United States in 1925, and he correctly predicted that the rate of settlement would decrease with time. ‘A further look at consolidation. At this stage it is essential that the student have a general appreciation of the duration of the hydrodynamic time lag in various typical soil deposits. For this purpose i is useful to make an intuitive analysis of the consolidation process to learn which soil properties affect the time lag and how they affect it. (Chapter 27 presents a precise derivation and solution for the consolidation process.) The time required for the consolidation process should be related to two factors 1, The time should be directly proportional to the volume of water which must be squeezed wut of the soil, This volume of water must in turn be related to the product of the stress change, the compressibility of the mineral skeleton, and the volume of the soi 2. The time should be inversely proportional to howfast the water can flow through the soil. From fluid ‘mechanics we know that velocity of flow is related to the product of the permeability and the hydraulic gradient, and that the gradient is proportional to the fluid pressure lost within the soil divided by the distance through which the pore fluid must flow. ‘These considerations can be expressed by the relation + aan) '~"@G@ert ep where 1 = the time required to complete some percentage of the consolidation process ‘Ac = the change in the applied stress ‘m = the compressibility of the mineral skeleton LH = the thickness of the soil mass (per drainage surface) k = the permeability of the soil Hence the time required to reach a specified stage in the consolidation process is mi? Kk This relation tells us that the consolidation time: 2.2) 1. Increases with increasing compressibility 2;-Decreases with increasing permeability. 3. Increases rapidly with increasing size of soil mass. 4, Is independent of the magnitude of the stress change. ‘The application of this relation is illustrated by Examples 2.1 dnd 2.2. Ch. 2 A Preview of Soil Behavior 23 > Example 2.1 A stratum of sand and a stratum of clay are each 10 ft thick. ‘The compressibility of the sand is } the compressibility of the clay and the permeability of the sand is 10,000 times that of the clay, What is the ratio of the consolidation time for the Clay to the consolidation time of the sand? ‘Solution. 1 10,000 t fewy 50,000 fana (US 1 < > Example 2.2 A stratum of clay 10 ft thick will be 90% consolidated in 10 years. How much time will be required t0 achieve 90% consolidation in a 40--thick stratum of this same clay? Solution. ‘for 40 foo stm = 10 yee x $= eye < Soils with a significant clay content will require long, times for consolidation—from one year to many hun- dreds of years. Coarse granular soils, on the other hand, will consolidate very quickly, usually in a matter of minutes, As we shall see, this difference in consolidation time is one of the main distinctions among different soils, 2.6 ORGANIZATION OF BOOK This chapter has described the important consequences of soil being particulate and hence multiphase. As shown in Table 2.1, these consequences are used as the basis for organizing this book. Part II will study individual particles, the way that they are put together, and the chemical interaction between Table 2.1 Soil Is a Different Type of Material because It Is Particulate, and Hence Multiphase Discussed Concepts Needed from Consequence Example of Importance in Part Previous Studies Stress-strain behavior of Great compressibility of soil Hn Stress and strain; mineral skeleton deter- Strength is frictional in nature, continuity; limiting mined by interactions be- and related to density equilibrium; Mohr tween discrete particles circle ‘There are chemical inter- Affects density (and hence mL Principles of chemical actions between pore fluid strength) which soil will attain bonding and minczal particles under given stress Quick clays ‘There are physical inter- Quicksands v Fluid mechanics: actions between pore fluid Slope instabilities affected by potential flow, and mineral skeleton ground water Jaminar flow Loads applied to soil masses Consolidation time-lag v are “shared” by mineral skeleton and pore phase Delayed failure of slopes24 PART 1 INTRODUCTION these particles and the pore phase. Part III will study the processes of volume change and shear strength in situa- tions where there is no physical interaction between the phases, i.e., in dry soils. Part IV will then analyze the consequences of the physical interaction be:ween the phases in the cases where the flow of water is governed by natural ground water conditions. Part V will study the transient phenomena that occur after a change in load is, applied to a soil PROBLEMS 2.1 Citeat Jeast three passages from Chapter | that refer to physical interaction between the mineral skeleton and pore phase. 2.2. Cite at least one passage from Chapter 1 that refers to the hydrodynamic time-lag of consolidation effect. 2.3. The time for a clay layer to achieve 99% consolidation is 10 years. What time would be required {0 achieve 99%, ‘consolidation if the layer were twice as thick, five times more permeable, and three times more compressible? 2.4 List the possible components of soil deformation. 2.5 Which component listed in the answer to Problem 2.4 would be most important in each of the following situations: 4. loading a loose array of steel balls; 6. loading an array of parallel plates; . unloading a dense sample of mica plates and quartz sand,ARTHUR CASAGRANDE Arthur Casagrande was born (August 28, 1902) and educated in Austria. Hs immigrated to the United States in 1926, There he accepted a research assistants with the Bureau of Public Roads to work under Terzaghi at M.L.T. While at M.LT. Professor Casagrande worked on soil classification, shear testing, and frost action it soils. In 1932 he initiated a program in soil mechanics at Harvard University Professor Casagrande’s work on sol classification, seepage through earth structures and shear strength has had major influence on soil mechanics. Professor Casagrand: has been a very active consultant and has participated in many important jobs through out the world. His most important influence on soil mechanics, however, has bec! through his teaching at Harvard. Many of the leaders in soil mechanics wer inspiced while students of his at Harvard. Professor Casagrande served as President of the International Society of Soi Mechanics and Foundation Engineering during the period 1961 through 1965. He ha been the Rankine Lecturer of the In Lecturer of the American Society of Civil Karl Teraaghi Award from the ASCE. sion of Civil Engineers and the Terzagh igincers. He was the first recipient of th:PART I The Nature of Soil Part II, consisting of Chapters 3 to 7, examines the nature of soil. Chapter 3 considers an assemblage of soil particles. This chapter is placed at the start of Part I] because the student must master the definitions and terms relating the phases in a soil mass before he proceeds with his study of soil mechanics. Chapter 4 looks closely at theindividual particles that makeupa soil mass. Chapters 5 and 6 consider stress transmission between Soil particles ona microscopie scale and the influence of water on these stresses. Part Il closes with a treatment (Chapter 7) of the natural soil profileCHAPTER 3 Description of an Assemblage of Particles ‘This chapter considers the description of an assemblage of particles. 1t presents relationships among the different phases in the assemblage, and discusses particle size distribution and degree of plasticity of the assemblage. ‘The phase relationships are used considerably in soil mechanics to compute stresses. The phase relationships, particle size characteristics, and Atterberg limits are employed to group soils and thus facilitate their study. 3.1 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS By being a particulate system, an clement of soil is inherently “multiphase.” Figure 3.1 shows @ typical clement of soil containing three distinct phases: solid (mineral particles), gas, and liguid (usually water), Figure 3.la represents the three phases as they would typically exist in an element of natural soil. In Part (b) the phases hhave been separated one from the others in order to facilitate the development of the phase relationships The phases are dimensioned with volumes on the left and ‘weights on the right side of the sketch. Below the soil elements in Fig. 3.1 are given expressions that relate the various phases. There are three important relationships of volume: porosity, void ratio, and degree of saturation. Porosity isthe ratio of void volume to total volume and void ratio is the ratio of void volume to solid volume. Porosity is usually multiplied by 100% and thus the values are given in percent. Void ratio is expressed in a decimal value, such as a void ratio of 0.55, and can run to values greater than unity. Both porosity and void ratio indicate the relative portion of void volume in a soil sample. This void volume is filled with fluid, either {gas or liquid, usually water. Although both terms are employed in soil mechanics, void ratio is the more useful" 4 During a typical compression ofa sil element, bath the numerator 1nd the denominator of the porosity decrease, whereas only the humerator of the void ratio Gecreases, This fact results in void Talo being more useful than porosity for studying sil compression, of the two, Two relationships between porosity mand void ratio ¢ are lte The degree of saturation indicates the percentage of the void volume which is filled with water. ‘Thus a value of S=0 indicates a dry soil, S= 100% indicates a saturated soil, and a value between 0 and 100% indicates a partially caturated soil ‘The most useful relationship between phase weights is, water content, which is the weight of water divided by the ‘weight of solid in a soil element. The water content of a soil sample is readily obtained by: weighing the natural soil; drying it in an ovens weighing the dry soil; and, finally, computing the water content as the difference in initial and dry weights divided by the dry weight. This procedure assumes that all of the volatiles are water, an acceptable assumption except when working with organic soils of soils containing additives such as asphalt. For fa saturated soil the water content and void ratio are uniquely related, as one can see by examining the expressions for the two terms. Since itis much easier to obtain weights than (0 obtain volumes, the soil engineer makes considerable use of changes in water content of a saturated soil to measure volumetric strain. ‘The lower part of Fig, 3.1 gives expressions for various unit weights, i, the weight of a given volume. The tora! unit weight 7, is, for example, the weight of the entire soil element divided by the volume of the entire element? ‘The dey unit weight, often called dry density, is the weight of mineral matter divided by the volume of the entire element. Unit weights appear in units of weight per volume such as pounds per cubic foot, grams per cubic centimeter, and tons per cubic meter. 2-The symbol » is also used for total unit weight, 2930. PART I THE NATURE OF soi * os Si = sd = Vehines eens a » Fig. 3.1 Relationships among soil phases. (a) Element of natural soil. (6) Element separated into phases. Volume Porosity: Void ratio: Degree of saturation Weight Water content: We eight finer than 27 8.2) Figure 3.5 shows some results obtained on prepared mixtures of various percentages of particles less than and greater than 24, In Part (a) several natural soils were separated into fractions greater and less than 2 yx and then the two fractions were recombined as desired, ‘The results in the right diagram were obtained on clay minerals mixed with quartz sand. Engineering Use of Atterberg Limits ‘The Atterberg limits aid related indices have proved to be very useful for soil identification and classification, as shown in the next section. The limits are often used irectly in specifications for controlling soil for use in fill and in semiempirical methods of design. ‘The plasticity index, indicating the magnitude of water content range over which the soil remains plastic, and the liquidity index, indicating the nearness of a natural soil to the liquid limit, are particularly useful characteristics Of soil. One must realize, however, that all of the limits and indices with the exception of the shrinkage limit are determined on soils that have been thoroughly worked into a uniform soil-water mixture. The limits therefore give no indication of particle fabric or residual bonds between particles which may have been developed in the natural soil but are destroyed in preparing the specimen for the determinations of the limits, 34 SOIL CLASSIFICATION ‘The direct approach to the solution of a soil engineering problem consists of first measuring the soil property needed and then employing this measured value in some rational expression to determine the answer to the prob- Jem. Examples of this approach are: 1, To determine the rate of water flowing through a sample of soil, measure the permeability of the soil, and use this value together with @ flow net and Darcy's law to determine the flow. 2. To determine the settlement of a building, measure the compressibility of the soil, and use this value in 500 1 7 || sere P, (1.33) Sodium montmorillonite | | nf see gogo Letn ay owe gel | gan 2 weve | 2 gol ass | Bam . f Men n|—/ ous 10 tee ole | ° oO SE, iy raton 21) 6) ty on (<9) 0 Fig. 3.5 Relation between plasticity index and clay fraction. “activities” of the clays. (From Skempton, 1953.) Figures in parentheses are theion of fine grained soilsTable 3.6 Soil Compon ents and Fractions Grain Size Range and Description Significant Properties Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle, average diameter more than in, Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle, average diameter smaller than 12'n, but larger than 6 in. Boulders and cobbles are very stable components, used for fills, ballast, and to stabilize slopes (riprap). Because of size and ‘weight, their occurrence in natural deposits tends to improve the ability of foundations. Angularly of particles ineveases stability. | _ soi Sell | Component | Symbol Boulder | None | Cobbte Gravel @ Coarse-grained components Rounded to angular bulky, hard, roek Particle, passing 3-in. sieve (76.2 mm) Tetained on No. 4 sieve (4.76 mm) Sto bin fin. to No.4 Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock particle, passing No, 4 sieve (4.76 ‘mm)eetained om No.200 sieve (0.074 mm) No, 4 10 10 sieves No. 10 to 40 sieves ‘No. 40 t0 200 sieves Gravel and sand have essentially same engineering properties liflering mainly in degree. The No, 4 sieves arbitrary division, and does not correspond to significant change in properties. ‘They are easy to compact, lite affected by moisture, not subject to fost ction. Gravels are generally more perviously stable, resistant to erosion and piping than are sands, ‘The well-graded sands and gravels are generally less pervious and more stable ‘than those which are poorly graded (oniform gradation). Ir regularity of particles increases the stability sightly. Finer, uniform sand approaches the characteristics of silt: ie, de- {rease in permeability and reduction in stability with increase in Particles smaller than No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm) identified by behavior that i, slightly or non-plastie regard less of moisture and exhibits litle or zo strength when air dried Sls inherently unstable, particularly when moisture is increased, tendency to become quick when saturated. Itis rela tively impervious, dificult to compact, highly susceptible to frost heave, easly erodible and subject to piping and boiling. Bulky grains reduce compressibility; Mak grains, ie, mica, siatoms, increase compressibility, produce an “elastic” sit Particles smaller shan No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm) identified by behavior; that is, it ean be made to exhibit plastic’ properties within a certain range of moisture and exhibits con- siderable strength when sie dried ‘The distinguishing characteristic of clay is cohesion or cohesive strength, which increases with decrease in moisture. The per- ‘meability of clay is very low, i is dificult to compact when wet ‘and impossible to drain by ordinary means, when compacted is resistant 10 erosion and piping, isnot susceptible to frost heave, is subject to expansion and shrinkage wih changes in moisture. “The properties are influenced not only by the sie and shape (Bat, plate-like particles) but also by their mineral composition; i, the type of clay-mineral, and chemical environment or Base ‘xchange capacity. In general the montmorillonite clay mineral has grates, ilte and kaolinite the least, adverse effect on the properties, Vea fs | Coane Medium Fine sit M £| cay ¢ E] ow Z| Organic | 0 | > mater From Wagner, 1957 Organic matter in various sizes and sages of decomposition Organic matter present even in moderate amounts increases the compressibility and reduces the stability of the fine-grained comt- ponents. It may decay causing voids or by chemical alteration change the properties of a soil, hence organic soils are not desirable for engineering uses. ‘Note. The symbols and fractions were developed for the Unified Classification System. For fed identifieation, 4 in is assumed equivalent to the No. 4, and the No. 200 is defined as “about the smallest particle visible tothe unaided eye.” The sand fractions are not equal divisions ‘on a logatthmie plot; the No. 10 was selected because ofthe significance attached to tha size by some investigators, The No. d0 was chosen because the “Atterberg limits” tests are performed on the fraction of soil finer than the No. 40 361561 vue wos id yor sieeve fing sowie pow eed n nfo fo) ods a | wot | te | aos uo ‘ane {B10 unipasjo sty Seeag ‘ ale a | — fe |e | sod | uty | soa 1 tsp cid wig J inp ear sunse 2 ‘ a fa fe} af = fo | 6 | osmt | ute | soot |ononstinos| ave sus apm “on cites | Salat so funn noone Sod poms) = | — |e fa | am | unpou | ood |snomadunor] 20 ¢ Efe ]-le}s wangou | any | snowsnaan | 19 roo} — | — fo | 9 | am | won | ams fenomndinon| aye > | 2 rn smomstun | os spor fom | aot ns i | = | om | aos | poo | soma | us fovea “apace pope oo - = | = frame | sears swoned | ss er snowuats | 39 — Je |e | poet | ssi sonisamson| 5x0 ’ ’ snorasadrras — fe |e fa] = | pvc SSMS | ao Hf | a LH] = fone} saat sowed | go tun tn poems | pens wes soy [2 poe | Peat | ads Bea 2 | Sd poretaog|paretaay | PEED "a Son ‘ou oats wits is ied Hempeoy ‘suonepuno. su0n29 (eu sure ue P>LOw oe oa >A pay asp, Supaousug Le 91QUy, ‘uedorg vwbuodiy 3738° PART IL THE NATURE OF SOIL, settlement equations based on Terzaghi's theory of consolidation. 3. To evaluate the stability of a slope, measure the shear strength of the soil and substitute this value in an expression based on the laws of statics. ‘To measure fundamental soil properties like permeability, compressibility, and strength can be difficult, time con- suming, and expensive. In many soil engineering prob- lems, such as pavement design, there are no rational expressions available for the analysis for the solution. For these reasons, sorting soils into groups showing similar behavior may be very helpful. Such sorting is soil classification. Soil classification is thus the placing of a soil into a {group of soils all of which exhibit similar behavior. The correlation of behavior with a group in a soil classifica- tion system is usually an empirical one developed through considerable experience. Soil classification permits us to solve many types of simple soil problems and guide the test program ifthe difficulty and importance of the prob- Jem dictate further investigation. ‘Most soil ciassifications employ very simple index-type tests to obtain the characteristics of the soil needed to place it in a given group. Clearly a sol classification loses its value if the index tests become more complicated than the test to measure directly the fundamental property needed. ‘The most commonly used characteristics are particle size and plasticity. Since soil classifications are developed as an attempt to aid in the solution of problems, classifications for many types of problems have grown. Thus, for use in flow problems, soils are described as having degrees of permeability such as high, inedium, low, very low, practically impermeable. The Corps of Engineers has developed a frost susceptibility classification in which, on the basis of particle size, we can classify soil in categories of similar frost behavior. The Bureau of Public Roads developed a classification for soils in high- way construction. The Corps of Engineers and FAA cach developed a classification for airfield construction. In 1952 the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers developed a “unified system” intended for use in all engineering problems involving soils. This classi- fication is presented in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. Table 3.7 gives, fa general indication of the permeability, strength, and compressibility of the various soil groups along with an indication of the relative desirability of each group for use in earth dams, canal sections, foundations, and run- ways. Soil classification has proved to be a valuable tool to the soil engineer. It helps the engineer by giving him general guidance through making available in an empir- ical manner the results of field experience. The soil engineer must be cautious, however, in his use of soil classification. Solving flow, compression, and stability problems merely on the basis of soil classification can lead to disastrous results. As this book will show in subsequent chapters, empirical correlations between index properties and fundamental soil behavior have ‘many large deviations. 3.5 SUMMARY OF MAIN POINTS 1, There are a number of terms (given in.Fig. 3.1) used to express the phase relationships in an element of soil. These terms are an essential component of soil mechanics. 2. The looseness of a sand is expressed by its relative density, which is a most reliable indicator of the behavior of the sand. 3. The particle size distribution and the Atterberg limits are useful index tests for classifying soils. Since the conduct of these tests inherently involves disturbance of the soil, they may not give a good indication of the behavior of the in situ, undisturbed soil. PROBLEMS 3.1 Four soil samples, each having a void ratio of 0.76 and fa specific gravity of 2.74, have degrees of saturation of 85, 90, 95, and 100%, Determine the unit weight for each of the four samples. : 3.2. A cubic foot of soi in its natural state weighs 113 1b; after being dried it weighs 96 1b, The specific gravity of the soil is 2.70. Determine the degree of saturation, void ratio, porosity, and water content for the soil as it existed in its natural state 3.3. A container of saturated soil weighed 113.27 g before it was placed in an oven and 100,06 g afler it remained in the foven overnight. The container alone weighs 49.31 g; the specific gravity of the soil is 2.80. Determine the void ratio, porosity, and water content of the original soil sample. 3.4 A saturated soil has a unit weight of 120 pef and a water content of 32.5%, Determine the void ratio and sp gravity of the sol 3.5. A sample of dry sand having a unit weight of 105 pet land a specific gravity of 2.70 is placed in the rain. During the rain the volume of the sample remains constant but the degree of saturation increases to 40%. Determine the unit weight and water content of the soil after being in the rain. 3,6 Determine the submerged. unit weight of each of the following chunks of saturated soil: ‘a, A silty sand, total unit weight = 131 pef; b. A lean clay, total unit weight = 122 pef; . Avery plastic clay, total unit weight = 106 pef. Assume reasonable values for any additional data which you need. 3.7 For a soll with a specifi gravity of 2.70 prepare a chart in which total unit weight (units of gm/em*, range of 1.0-2.5) is plotted as ordinate and void ratio (range of 0.2-1.8) is plotted as abscissa. Plot forthe three percentages of satura- tion of 0, 50, and 100%,Ch. 3. Description of an Assemblage of Particles 39 Grol Sond i Gia [We ae Gana [Wats Ss ££ 2883 3% Bes F sf] = 100 T I i eo L —| | aa T lf T | l 1 UI 20 tt 1 - ° l ores ap oo. Diameter (mm) Fig, P3.10 3.8 Prove Gw = Se 3.9. A sample of parallel kaolinite particles (all have the size shown in Fig, 5.6) is saturated. The water content is 30% ‘What is the average particle spacing? 3.10 A sieve analysis on a soil yields the following results: Sieve) Bin, 2in, Jin, din #4 #10 Percentage | yoo 95 84 74 «6285. passing Sieve #20 #40 #60 #100 #200 Percentage | 4g 3246 9 passing a, Plot the particle size distribution of this soil on Fig. 3.10 and classify the soil on the basis of the scale shown in the figure. 4. Comment on the suitability of this soil as drainage ‘material behind a concrete retaining wall. Hints. (a) Use Tables 3.5-3.7 t0 predict whether or not soil will be pervious, easy to work as construction material, ete, (b) A common guide for frost susceptibility is percentage finer than 0.02. mm must be less than 3% for material to be onfrost susceptible 3.11 Prove that the identity given by Eq. 3.1 is correct.CHAPTER 4 Description of an Individual Soil Particle A sample of soil consists of an assemblage of many individual soil particles with air and/or liquid filling the voids among the particles. This chapter examines the individual soil particle 4.1 APPEARANCE OF A SOIL PARTICLE Particle Size The size of a particle, other than a sphere or cube, cannot be uniquely defined by a single linear dimension. ‘The meaning of “particle size™ therefore depends on the dimension that was recorded and how it was obtained, Two common ways of determining particle size are a sieve analysis! for particles larger than approximately 0.05 mm and a hydrometer analysis for smaller particles. In the sieve analysis, the soil particles are shaken on a sieve with square openings of specified size. Thus the “size” of a particle larger than 0.06 mm is based on the side dimension of a square hole in a screen, In the hydrometer analysis, the “size” of a particle is the diam- eter of a sphere which seiles in water at the same velocity as the particle Soil particles vary in size from 1 x 10~¢mm, i.e. 1A, up to large rocks several meters in thickness, @ range of one to more than a billion. ‘The tremendous magnitude of this range cen be better grasped by noting, that the size range between a moth ball or child's marble and our earth is also a one to a billion, In describing the size of a soil particle, we can cite either a dimension or a name that has been arbitrarily assigned to a certain size range, Table 4.1 gives such a set of names with their corresponding particle size ranges. (Noted in Table 4.1 in parentheses are other numerical values which are also used.) The word “clay” is also used to describe a fine-grained soil having plasticity, as was discussed in Chapter 3, We can avoid confusion by 8 The detailed procedures for these analyses are gi.en in Lambe (1951). 40 Table 4.1 Particle Size’ Boulder >12in Cobble 6 to 12 in. Gravel 2.0mm (or 4.76 mm) to 6 in. Sand 0.06 (or 0.076 mm) to 2.0 mm (or 4.76 mm) Silt 0.002 t0 0.06 mm (or 0.074 mm) Clay < 0.002 mm employing “clay size” rather than merely “‘clay” to denote a particle smaller than 2 y. In Fig. 4.1 are plotted the sizes of various particles and the ranges of some methods of detecting particle size. A Widely used soil particle size classification is shown at the top of Fig. 4.1. A study of this figure will give perspective to particle size and its determination. Particle Shape ‘The preceding discussion noted that the size of a ‘par- ticle could be given by a single number only when the particle was equidimensional, as a cube or sphere. This situation is not too far from true for soil particles in the silt range and coarser, but itis far from true for particles in the clay size range. This is illustrated in Figs. 4.2 and 43, which show sand particles, and in Fig. 4.4, which shows clay particles. Sheetlike particles, such as mica, do occur in the silt and larger size portions of soil, and particles having shapes such as those shown in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 do occur in the clay size range. In general, how- ever, most of the particles in the silt range and coarser are approximately equidimensional and most of those in the clay size are far from equidimensional. The most common shape for clay size particles is platey, as are the kaolinite particle and illite particle shown in Fig. 4.4, Rods and laths, however, are found in soils, generally in the clay size fraction. Geologists working with rocks describe particle shapes using such terms as disk, sphere, blade, and rod on the basis of dimension ratios. ‘The civil engineer generallyCh. 4 Description of ar Individual Soil‘Particle 41 ‘Send Si tay aan [Me] Fee | ecu | Fe zo] 08 02 | ate om | com com Cola These aie set Thess lute sheet , [+The of mnietont beet inet ol water mole ih iit lini mire Naga Aete e fei ecton mi Lit of isiy tanec a mee opie “ “ Ween Sew amis | heme ana ot [oct RP ety Y ar 1 = ro 1 ro we 1 ow he oom 10m Ime 00k 1k wh Fig. 4.1. Size. finds it impractical to characterize numerically particle shape because of the smalr-sized particles with which he normally works. Degree of Roundness, Surface Texture, and Color The degree of roundness refers to the sharpness of the edges and corners of a particle. Figure 4.5 shows five levels of degree of roundness. ‘Minor features of a surface of a particle, independent of size, shape, or degree of roundness, are termed “surface texture” of the particle. Some terms used to describe surface texture are dull or polished, smooth or rough, striated, frosted, etched, or pitted. Color is a useful particle characteristic to the geologist working in mining, but it is of little value to the soil engineer. The soit engineer does, however, frequently use color to describe an assemblage of particles, eg, Boston bive clay. He must use color descriptions with caution, since the color of a soil mass can change with a change in moisture content or chemical composition. ‘The soil particles in Figs, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4 illustrate several features of particle appearance. ‘The Ottawa sand and Raguba particles are well rounded and frosted. The particles of sand formed by crushing large mineral chunks (Fig. 4.24, e, and f) have sharp edges and corners, and their surfaces are not striated, frosted, or etched. The photographs of the Venezuelan sand show that compres- sion to high pressures may cause considerable erushing of particles. The natural Venezuelan sand (Fig, 4.24) had 4% of its particles finer than 0.074 mm, whereas afier compression (Fig. 4.2) it had 20% of its particles finer than 0,074 mm. ‘lll of the Libyan sands shown except the Raguba sand are from near the Mediterranean Sea and are 70-90% carbonate minerals. The Raguba sand came from the desert 100 miles away from the sea and is 98% quartz: ‘The carbonate sands, especially those in Fig. 4.34, have a high degree of aggregation (Le., joining together of particles by cementation), as can be seen. This aggre- gation inevitably affects the behavior of the soil. For example, tests on undisturbed specimens of the aggre- gated sand displayed a significant time dependency of the stress-strain behavior. However, tests on reconstituted specimens in which the aggregation has been disintegrated show less time dependency. ‘The Kaolinite particle in Fig. 4.4 is about 1 y across and 0.08 y« thick. Two smaller kaolinite particles can be seen on top of the large one. The surface of the kaolinite particle appears to be smooth to a scale of probably 100A. ‘The smallest clay particles, montmorillonite, can and do commonly exist in platelets as thin as 10 A’ and fare smooth to within an angstrom, 42 COMPOSITION OF A SOIL PARTICLE ‘The beginning student in soil mechanics usually reasons with apparent logic that the composition of the individual particles in an element of soil is an important character- istic of soil. This belie is false since there are few use- ful, general relationships between soil composition and soil behavior. On the other hand, this beliefs true as far as @ fundamental understanding of soil behavior is con- cerned.” The nature and arrangement of the atoms in a soil particle—i.e., composition—have a significant influ- ‘ence on permeability, compressibility, strength, and stress transmission in soils especially fine-grained soils. There