Mathematical Proofs

A Transition to Advanced Mathematics

Chapter 3
Direct Proof and Proof by Contrapositive

Gary Chartrand Albert D. Polimeni Ping Zhang

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Direct Proof and Proof by Contrapositive

We are now prepared to begin discussing our main topic:

mathematical proofs.

Initially, we will be primarily concerned with one question:

For a given true mathematical statement, how can we show that it
is true?
In this chapter you will be introduced to two important proof
techniques.

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Direct Proof and Proof by Contrapositive

Definition
A true mathematical statement whose truth is accepted without
proof is referred to as an axiom.
A true mathematical statement whose truth can be verified is often
referred to as a theorem, although many mathematicians reserve
the word “theorem” for such statements that are especially
significant or interesting.

We will use the word “theorem” sparingly, however, primarily

reserving it for true mathematical statements that will be used to
verify other mathematical statements that we will encounter later.
Otherwise, we will simply use the word “result.”

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Direct Proof and Proof by Contrapositive

For the most part then, our results are examples used to illustrate
proof techniques and our goal is to prove these results.
Definition
A corollary is a mathematical result that can be deduced from,
and is thereby a consequence of, some earlier result.
A lemma is a mathematical result that is useful in establishing the
truth of some other result.
Some people like to think of a lemma as a “helping result.”
Indeed, the German word for lemma is “hilfsatz,” whose English
translation is “helping theorem.” Ordinarily then, a lemma is not
of primary importance itself. Indeed, its very existence is due only
to its usefulness in proving another (more interesting) result.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

In nearly all of the implications P ⇒ Q that we will encounter, P

and Q are open sentences; that is, we will actually be considering
P(x) ⇒ Q(x) or P(n) ⇒ Q(n) or some related implication,
depending on which variable is being used. The variables x or n (or
some other symbols) are used to represent elements of some set S
being discussed, that is, S is the domain of the variable. As we
have seen, for each value of a variable from its domain, a
statement results.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Whether P(x) (or Q(x)) is true ordinarily depends on which

element x ∈ S we are considering; that is, it is rarely the case that
P(x) is true for all x ∈ S (or that P(x) is false for all x ∈ S). For
example, for

P(n) : 3n2 − 4n + 1 is even

where n ∈ Z, P(1) is a true statement while P(2) is a false

statement. Likewise, it is seldom the case that Q(x) is true for all
x ∈ S or that Q(x) is false for all x ∈ S.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

When the quantified statement ∀x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is expressed

as a result or theorem, we often write such a statement as

For x ∈ S, if P(x) then Q(x).

or as
Let x ∈ S. If P(x), then Q(x).
This implication is true if P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is a true statement for
each x ∈ S; while it is false if P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is false for at least one
element x ∈ S.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

For a given element x ∈ S, let’s recall (see the implication truth

table in the figure below) the conditions under which P(x) ⇒ Q(x)
has a particular truth value for an element x in its domain.

P(x) . Q(x) P(x) ⇒ Q(x)

...
...
T ...
...
...
T T
...
...
T ...
... F F
...
...
...
F ...
...
...
T T
...
...
F ...
... F T
..

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Definition
Accordingly, if Q(x) is true for all x ∈ S or P(x) is false for all
x ∈ S, then determining the truth or falseness of

Let x ∈ S. If P(x), then Q(x)

becomes considerably easier.

If it can be shown that Q(x) is true for all x ∈ S (regardless of the
truth value of P(x)), then, according to the truth table for the
implication, it is true. This constitutes a proof and is called a
trivial proof.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Example 1
Result Let x ∈ R. If x < 0, then x 2 + 1 > 0.
Proof. Since x 2 ≥ 0 for each real number x, it follows that

x 2 + 1 > x 2 ≥ 0.

Hence, x 2 + 1 > 0.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

The symbol that occurs at the end of the proof indicates that
the proof is complete. There are definite advantages to using (or
some other symbol) to indicate the conclusion of a proof. First, as
you start reading a proof, you can look ahead for this symbol to
determine the length of the proof. Also, without this symbol, you
may continue to read past the end of the proof, still thinking that
you’re reading a proof of the result. When you reach this symbol,
you are supposed to be convinced that the result is true. If you
are, this is good! Everything happened as planned.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Definition
Let P(x) and Q(x) be open sentences over a domain S. Then
∀x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is a true statement if it can be shown that
P(x) is false for all x ∈ S (regardless of the truth value of Q(x)),
according to the truth table for implication. Such a proof is called
a vacuous proof of ∀x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x).

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Example 2
Result Let x ∈ R. If x 2 − 2x + 2 ≤ 0, then x 3 ≥ 8.
Proof. First observe that

x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 ≥ 0.

Therefore,

x 2 − 2x + 2 = (x − 1)2 + 1 ≥ 1 > 0.

Thus, x 2 − 2x + 2 ≤ 0 is false for all x ∈ R and the implication is

true.

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Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Definition
Whenever there is a vacuous proof of a result, we often say that
the result follows vacuously. While a trivial proof is almost never
encountered in mathematics, the same cannot be said of vacuous
proofs.

Example 3
Result Let S = {n ∈ Z : n ≥ 2} and let n ∈ S.
2 4
If 2n + n < 5, then 4n2 + n2
< 25.

Proof. First, we observe that if n = 2, then 2n + n2 = 5. Of

course, 5 < 5 is false. If n ≥ 3, then 2n + n2 > 2n ≥ 6. So, when
n ≥ 3, 2n + n2 < 5 is false as well. Thus, 2n + n2 < 5 is false for all
n ∈ S. Hence, the implication is true.

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Direct Proofs

Let P(x) and Q(x) be open sentences over a domain S. Suppose

that our goal is to show that P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is true for every x ∈ S,
that is, our goal is to show that the quantified statement
∀x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is true. If P(x) is false for some x ∈ S, then
P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is true for this element x. Hence, we need only be
concerned with showing that P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is true for all x ∈ S for
which P(x) is true.
Definition
In a direct proof of P(x) ⇒ Q(x) for all x ∈ S, we consider an
arbitrary element x ∈ S for which P(x) is true and show that Q(x)
is true as well for this element x. To summarize then, to give a
direct proof of P(x) ⇒ Q(x) for all x ∈ S, we assume that P(x) is
true for an arbitrary element x ∈ S and show that Q(x) must be
true for this element x.

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Direct Proofs

In order to illustrate this type of proof (and others as well), we

need to deal with mathematical topics with which we’re all
familiar. Let’s first consider the integers and some of their
elementary properties. We assume that you are familiar with the
integers and the following properties of integers:
1 The negative of every integer is an integer.
2 The sum (and difference) of every two integers is an integer.
3 The product of every two integers is an integer.

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Direct Proofs

We will agree that we can use any of these properties. No

justification is required or expected. Initially, we will use even and
odd integers to illustrate our proof techniques. In this case,
however, any properties of even and odd integers must be verified
before they can be used. For example, you probably know that the
sum of every two even integers is even but this must first be
proved to be used. We need to lay some groundwork before any
examples of direct proofs are given.

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Direct Proofs

Since we will be working with even and odd integers, it is essential

that we have precise definitions of these kinds of numbers.
Definition
An integer n is defined to be even if n = 2k for some integer k.

For example, 10 is even since 10 = 2 · 5 (where, of course, 5 is an

integer). Also, −14 = 2(−7) is even, as is 0 = 2 · 0. The integer
17 is not even since there is no integer k for which 17 = 2k.

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Direct Proofs

We could define an integer n to be odd if it’s not even but it would

be difficult to work with this definition.
Definition
Instead, we define an integer n to be odd if n = 2k + 1 for some
integer k.

Now 17 is odd since 17 = 2 · 8 + 1. Also, −5 is odd because

−5 = 2(−3) + 1. On the other hand, 26 is not odd since there is
no integer k such that 26 = 2k + 1.

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Direct Proofs

From time to time, we will find ourselves in a position where we

have a result to prove and it may not be entirely clear how to
proceed. In such a case, we need to consider our options and
develop a plan, which we refer to as a proof strategy. The idea is
to discuss a proof strategy for the result and, from it, construct a
proof.
At other times, we may wish to reflect on a proof that we have just
given in order to understand it better. Such a discussion will be
referred to as a proof analysis.
As with examples, we conclude both a proof strategy and a proof
analysis with the symbol . You will find many examples of proof
strategies and proof analyses in the textbook.

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Direct Proofs

Example 4
Result If n is an odd integer, then 3n + 7 is an even integer.
Proof. Assume that n is an odd integer. Since n is odd, we can
write n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Now,

3n + 7 = 3(2k + 1) + 7 = 6k + 3 + 7 = 6k + 10 = 2(3k + 5).

Since 3k + 5 is an integer, 3n + 7 is even.

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Direct Proofs

Example 5
Result If n is an even integer, then 3n5 is an even integer.
Proof. Since n is an even integer, n = 2x for some integer x.
Therefore,

3n5 = 3(2x)5 = 3(32x 5 ) = 96x 5 = 2(48x 5 ).

Since 48x 5 ∈ Z, the integer 3n5 is even.

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Proof by Contrapositive

Definition
For statements P and Q, the contrapositive of the implication
P ⇒ Q is the implication (∼ Q) ⇒ (∼ P).

For example, for P1 : 3 is odd and P2 : 57 is prime, the

contrapositive of the implication

P1 ⇒ P2 : If 3 is odd, then 57 is prime.

is the implication

(∼ P2 ) ⇒ (∼ P1 ): If 57 is not prime, then 3 is even.

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Proof by Contrapositive

The most important feature of the contrapositive (∼ Q) ⇒ (∼ P)

is that it is logically equivalent to P ⇒ Q. This fact is stated
formally as a theorem and is verified in the truth table shown in
the figure below.
P Q P⇒Q ∼Q ∼P (∼ Q) ⇒ (∼ P)
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

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Proof by Contrapositive

Theorem
For every two statements P and Q, the implication P ⇒ Q and its
contrapositive are logically equivalent; that is,

P ⇒ Q ≡ (∼ Q) ⇒ (∼ P).

P Q P⇒Q ∼Q ∼P (∼ Q) ⇒ (∼ P)
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

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Proof by Contrapositive

Suppose that we wish to prove a result (or theorem) which is

expressed as
Let x ∈ S. If P(x), then Q(x). (1)
or as
For all x ∈ S, if P(x), then Q(x). (2)
We have seen that a proof of such a result consists of establishing
the truth of the implication P(x) ⇒ Q(x) for all x ∈ S. If it can
be shown that (∼ Q(x)) ⇒ (∼ P(x)) is true all x ∈ S, then
P(x) ⇒ Q(x) is true for all x ∈ S.

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Proof by Contrapositive

Definition
A proof by contrapositive of the result

Let x ∈ S. If P(x), then Q(x).

is a direct proof of its contrapositive:

Let x ∈ S. If ∼ Q(x), then ∼ P(x).

or, a proof by contrapositive of the result

For all x ∈ S, if P(x), then Q(x).

is a direct proof of its contrapositive:

For all x ∈ S, if ∼ Q(x), then ∼ P(x).

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Proof by Contrapositive

Thus, to give a proof by contrapositive, we assume that ∼ Q(x) is

true for an arbitrary element x ∈ S and show that ∼ P(x) is true
for this element x.
Example 6
Result Let x ∈ Z. If 5x − 7 is even, then x is odd.
Proof. Assume that x is even. Then x = 2a for some integer a.
So

5x − 7 = 5(2a) − 7 = 10a − 7 = 10a − 8 + 1 = 2(5a − 4) + 1.

Since 5a − 4 ∈ Z, the integer 5x − 7 is odd.

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Proof by Contrapositive

Example 7
Result Let x ∈ Z. Then 11x − 7 is even if and only if x is odd.
Proof. There are two implications to prove here, namely,
(1) if x is odd, then 11x − 7 is even and

(2) if 11x − 7 is even, then x is odd.

We begin with (1). In this case, a direct proof is appropriate.
Assume that x is odd. Then x = 2r + 1, where r ∈ Z. So

11x − 7 = 11(2r + 1) − 7 = 22r + 11 − 7

= 22r + 4 = 2(11r + 2).

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Proof by Contrapositive

Example 7 (continued)
Since 11r + 2 is an integer, 11x − 7 is even.
We now prove (2), which is the converse of (1). We use a proof by
contrapositive here. Assume that x is even. Then x = 2s, where
s ∈ Z. Therefore,

11x − 7 = 11(2s) − 7 = 22s − 7

= 22s − 8 + 1 = 2(11s − 4) + 1.

Since 11s − 4 is an integer, 11x − 7 is odd.

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Proof by Contrapositive

The following example will be useful to us in the future; thus, we

refer to it as a theorem.
Theorem
Let x ∈ Z. Then x 2 is even if and only if x is even.
Proof. Assume that x is even. Then x = 2a for some integer a.
Therefore,
x 2 = (2a)2 = 4a2 = 2(2a2 ).
Because 2a2 ∈ Z, the integer x 2 is even.
For the converse, assume that x is odd. So, x = 2b + 1, where
b ∈ Z. Then

x 2 = (2b + 1)2 = 4b 2 + 4b + 1 = 2(2b 2 + 2b) + 1.

Since 2b 2 + 2b is an integer, x 2 is odd.

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Proof by Contrapositive

Result to Prove: Let x ∈ Z. If 5x − 7 is odd, then 9x + 2 is even.

Lemma
Let x ∈ Z. If 5x − 7 is odd, then x is even
Proof. Assume that x is odd. Then x = 2y + 1, where y ∈ Z.
Therefore,

5x − 7 = 5(2y + 1) − 7 = 10y − 2 = 2(5y − 1).

Since 5y − 1 is an integer, 5x − 7 is even.

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Proof by Contrapositive

Example 8
Result Let x ∈ Z. If 5x − 7 is odd, then 9x + 2 is even.
Proof. Let 5x − 7 be an odd integer. By the lemma, the integer
x is even. Since x is even, x = 2z for some integer z. Thus,

9x + 2 = 9(2z) + 2 = 18z + 2 = 2(9z + 1).

Because 9z + 1 is an integer, 9x + 2 is even.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Cases

Definition
While attempting to give a proof of a mathematical statement
concerning an element x in some set S, it is sometimes useful to
observe that x possesses one of two or more properties. A common
property which x may possess is that of belonging to a particular
subset of S. If we can verify the truth of the statement for each
property that x may have, then we have a proof of the statement.
Such a proof is then divided into parts called cases, one case for
each property that x may possess or for each subset to which x
may belong. This method is called proof by cases. Indeed, it may
be useful in a proof by cases to further divide a case into other
cases, called subcases.

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Proof by Cases

Example 9
Result If n ∈ Z, then n2 + 3n + 5 is an odd integer.
Proof. We proceed by cases, according to whether n is even or
odd.
Case 1. n is even. Then n = 2x for some x ∈ Z. So,

n2 + 3n + 5 = (2x)2 + 3(2x) + 5 = 4x 2 + 6x + 5
= 2(2x 2 + 3x + 2) + 1.

Since 2x 2 + 3x + 2 ∈ Z, the integer n2 + 3n + 5 is odd.

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Proof by Cases

Example 9 (continued)
Case 2. n is odd. Then n = 2y + 1, where y ∈ Z. Thus,

n2 + 3n + 5 = (2y + 1)2 + 3(2y + 1) + 5 = 4y 2 + 10y + 9

= 2(2y 2 + 5y + 4) + 1.

Because 2y 2 + 5y + 4 ∈ Z, the integer n2 + 3n + 5 is odd.

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Proof by Cases

Definition
Two integers x and y are said to be of the same parity if x and y
are both even or are both odd.
The integers x and y are of opposite parity if one of x and y is
even and the other is odd.
For example, 5 and 13 are of the same parity, while 8 and 11 are
of opposite parity.
Because the definition of two integers having the same (or
opposite) parity requires the two integers to satisfy one of two
properties, any result containing these terms is likely to be proved
by cases. The following theorem presents a characterization of two
integers that are of the same parity.

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Proof by Cases
Theorem
Let x, y ∈ Z. Then x and y are of the same parity if and only if
x + y is even.
Proof. First, assume that x and y are of the same parity. We
consider two cases.
Case 1. x and y are even. Then x = 2a and y = 2b for some
integers a and b. So,
x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b).
Since a + b ∈ Z, the integer x + y is even.
Case 2. x and y are odd. Then x = 2a + 1 and y = 2b + 1, where
a, b ∈ Z. Therefore,
x + y = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2a + 2b + 2 = 2(a + b + 1).
Since a + b + 1 is an integer, x + y is even.
Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang
Proof by Cases

Proof (continued)
For the converse, assume that x and y are of opposite parity.
Again, we consider two cases.
Case 1. x is even and y is odd. Then x = 2a and y = 2b + 1,
where a, b ∈ Z. Then

x + y = 2a + (2b + 1) = 2(a + b) + 1.

Since a + b ∈ Z, the integer x + y is odd.

Case 2. x is odd and y is even. The proof is similar to the proof of
the preceding case and is therefore omitted.

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Proof by Cases

We use the phrase without loss of generality (some abbreviate

this as WOLOG or WLOG ) to indicate that the proofs of the two
situations are similar, so the proof of only one of these is needed.
Sometimes it is rather subjective to say that two situations are
similar. We present one additional example to illustrate this.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Cases

Theorem
Let a and b be integers. Then ab is even if and only if a is even or
b is even.
Proof. First, assume that a is even or b is even. Without loss of
generality, let a be even. Then a = 2x for some integer x. Thus,

ab = (2x)b = 2(xb).

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Cases

Proof (continued)
Since xb is an integer, ab is even.
For the converse, assume that a is odd and b is odd. Then

a = 2x + 1 and b = 2y + 1,

where x, y ∈ Z. Hence,

ab = (2x + 1)(2y + 1) = 4xy + 2x + 2y + 1

= 2(2xy + x + y ) + 1.

Since 2xy + x + y is an integer, ab is odd.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof Evaluations

We have now stated several results and have given a proof of each
result (sometimes preceding a proof by a proof strategy or
following the proof with a proof analysis). Let’s reverse this
process by giving an example of a proof of a result but not stating
the result being proved. We will follow the proof with several
options for the statements of the result being proved.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof Evaluations
Example 10
Given below is a proof of a result.
Proof. Assume that n is an odd integer. Then n = 2k + 1 for
some integer k. Then

3n − 5 = 3(2k + 1) − 5 = 6k + 3 − 5 = 6k − 2 = 2(3k − 1).

Since 3k − 1 is an integer, 3n − 5 is even.

Which of the following is proved above?

(1) 3n − 5 is an even integer.
(2) If n is an odd integer, then 3n − 5 is an even integer.
(3) Let n be an integer. If 3n − 5 is an even integer, then n is an
odd integer.
(4) Let n be an integer. If 3n − 5 is an odd integer, then n is an
even integer.
Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang
Proof Evaluations

Problem Evaluate the proposed proof of the following result.

Example 11
Result If x and y are integers of the same parity, then x − y is
even.
Proof. Let x and y be two integers of the same parity. We
consider two cases, according to whether x and y are both even or
are both odd.
Case 1. x and y are both even. Let x = 6 and y = 2, which are
both even. Then x − y = 4, which is even.
Case 2. x and y are both odd. Let x = 7 and y = 1, which are
both odd. Then x − y = 6, which is even.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof Evaluations

Problem Evaluate the proposed proof of the following result.

Example 12
Result If m is an even integer and n is an odd integer, then
3m + 5n is odd.
Proof. Let m be an even integer and n an odd integer. Then
m = 2k and n = 2k + 1, where k ∈ Z. Therefore,

3m + 5n = 3(2k) + 5(2k + 1) = 6k + 10k + 5

= 16k + 5 = 2(8k + 2) + 1.

Since 8k + 2 is an integer, 3m + 5n is odd.

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