CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The interesting thing about technology of nowadays is the ease in
communication. This is as a result of improvement in mobile communication
equipment through wireless technology. In communication network,
different means of channels are used such as co-axial cable, pair of wires
and fiber optic which constitute wired communication network. However,
the fastest growing network communication technologies are the use of
infra-red, blue tooth, radio waves and satellite.
A Transceiver is a transmitter-receiver circuit, a device that transmits
and receive analogue or digital signal simultaneously. In this case, it is used
as a remote control to switch ON/OFF a device. This circuit includes a
radio-frequency amplifier, which amplifies the power and output of the radio
frequency. Remote control is a system whereby control command and its
execution are separated by a relative significant distance.

1.1 PREVIOUS METHODOLOGY

Basically and empirically speaking, the hitherto usage of remote
control systems for home appliances made use of infra-red but depend on
line of sight which at times brings about inconveniences to some people at
home as result of short distance covered. In this case, the frequency employs
does not appreciate a long distance.

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1.2 PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
Radio wave comes into play due to its efficient utilization in
communication systems. It has high frequency and covers long distance.
Radio Frequency (RF) wave is used in this project to control a device by a
means of wireless communication between a transmitter and receiver (RF
transceiver).

1.3 MOTIVATION
The use of remote control has gained ground in recent time. System,
equipment and appliances at remote areas are being controlled through
wireless remote link, missiles and bombs are triggered through automated
remote control system in war fronts.
To move in trend of latest technology, and also considering the advantage of
radio wave wireless technology over a wired technology prompted me to
carry out a project on remote control system that makes use of FM wave.

1.4 OBJECTIVE
The aim is to design a portable remote control system that makes use
of FM radio wave to control a device (switching of an electrical bulb).

1.5 THESIS OUTLINE

This project is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with
introduction to wireless remote control system, objective, previous method
used, proposed method and motivation. Chapter two presents the literature
review and basic principle of the various components used. Design and
analysis is outlined in chapter three while chapter four contains the

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construction procedures, performance test and problem encountered. Lastly,
conclusion and recommendation on this project are presented in chapter five.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Communication is defined as a process of transforming information
from one point in space to another point, that is, the destination or end user.
In other words, communication involves the sending of message signal and
receiving of the signal by users which should be able to understand and read
meaning to the information received. A complete communication system
would include a transmitter, a communication channel or medium over
which the signal is to be transmitted and a receiver to pick up the
information. The conversion of the signal from electrical to electrical pulse
for onward transmission is achieved by the use of a transducer. The
transducer converts the message to an electrical signal which could be a time
varying voltage or current. The block diagram of a communication system
can be shown below in figure 1.

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 Block diagram

Input Transmitted Received Output

Input electrical electrical signal electrical signal electrical signal Output message
message signal

Input Transmi Transmi- Output

ssion channel Receiver
transducer tter transducer

Fig. 2 Block diagram of communication system

2.2 TRANSMITTER
A transmitter is a piece of broadcasting equipment where a Radio
Frequency (RF) is generated, modulated, so that it can carry a meaningful
signal from one point to another, and send the same signal out through
radio wave by an antenna. Transmitter can be classified according to the
following categories.
-Types of modulation: modulation is a process designed to match the
transmitted signal to the properties of the channel through the use of carrier
wave. It can be Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM)
or Phase Modulation (PM) transmitter.
-Service involved: a transmitter can be classified according to its service e.g.
Radio broadcasting TX e.g. Radio Kwara, Brilla FM, Ray Power.
Radio Telephony TX for relaying, telephone signals.

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Radio Telegraphy.
Radar Transmitter.
Satellite Transmitter.
-Range of frequency:
Long wave TX; below 300kz.
Medium wave TX; between 550 – 1550 KHz.
Short wave TX; between 3 – 30 MHz.
Microwave TX; beyond 10GHz.
UHF and VHF TX; used for television signal.
It is required to distinguish and define analog and digital transmission

1- Analog Transmission: Analog transmission implies continuity as

contrasted with digital transmission that is concerned with discrete states.
Many signals can be used in either the analog or digital sense, the means of
carrying the information being the distinguishing feature. The information
content of an analog signal is conveyed by the value or magnitude of some
characteristic(s) of the signal such as amplitude, frequency, or phase of a
voltage, the amplitude or duration of a pulse, the angular position of a shaft,
or the pressure of a fluid. Typical analog transmission are the signals we
hear on AM and FM radio and what we see (and hear) on television. In fact,
television is rather unique. The video itself uses amplitude modulation; the
sound subcarrier uses frequency modulation, and the color subcarrier
employs phase modulation. All are in analog formats.
2- Digital Transmission: The information content of a digital signal is
concerned with discrete states of the signal, such as the presence or absence
of a voltage. The output is usually open or closed position, or a hole or no
hole in certain positions on a card or paper tape. The signal is given meaning

5
by assigning numerical values or other information to the various
combinations of the discrete states of the signal.

2.3 TRANSMISSION CHANNEL

The transmission channel is the medium of connection between
transmitter and receiver, bridging the distance from source to destination.
For instance, a pair of twisted wires, a coaxial cable, a radio wave and
optical fiber, each of the transmission media is subjected to degrading
influences such as noise, interference and distortion which tend to impair the
quality of the signal transmitted. (Bruce, 2005)

2.4 RECEIVER
The receiver must be designed to receive the best possible signal
transmitted by using signal processing technique, that is, amplification,
filtering and modulation in the case of a receiver. The receiver is to extract
the desired signal from the channel and deliver it to the output transducer.
The primary requirement for any communicating receiver is that it has
the ability to select the desired signal from among thousands of other present
signals and to provide sufficient amplification to recover the modulating
signal. These two requirements are referred to as selectivity and sensitivity.

2.5 WIRELESS RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

This involves the use of radio waves as the communication channel.
Messages are transmitted in form of electromagnetic wave to the destination.
The route of transmission depends on frequency use. Each transmission link
has its own frequency to prevent interference. The advantages of Wireless
radio communication over any other form are provision of mobility in

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communication, more flexible and easy to construct, higher accessibility,
and more so, it covers a long distance and it is used in trans-oceanic
communication and other places where wire line network is impossible.

2.6 MODULATION CONCEPT

In order to transmit information, a form of modulation is necessary.
The process of modulation is to vary some parameter of a basic
electromagnetic wave usually called the carrier wave. A Radio Frequency
(RF) signal is normally used as the original information in a form which is
unsuitable for distant transmission directly and it is necessary to convert it to
a high frequency by the process of modulation.
Over the years, various modulating methods have been devised and
are aimed at transmitting the required information as effectively as possible
with minimum amount of distortion. The primary factors to be considered
are signal power, bandwidth, distortion and noise power. Ultimately, it is the
ratio of signal power to noise power or output signal – to – noise ratio (S/N)
specified for the system which determines performance. The mathematical
expression for a sinusoidal carrier wave is expressed in eqn(1) below
v=VcSin(wct + Ф)
v=VcSin(2Пfct+Ф)……………………………………………(1)
Where Vc is the amplitude of the carrier, fc is the frequency of the carrier and
Ф is the phase of the carrier.
From the equation (1) above, the three characteristics that can be varied are
phase, amplitude, and frequency of the carrier wave. Hence, we have three
different type of modulation, namely Amplitude Modulation, Frequency
Modulation and Phase Modulation.

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2.7 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
In amplitude modulation, the information signal changes the
amplitude of the carrier wave whereby the frequency and the phase are kept
constant.

2.8 PHASE MODULATION (PM)

In this case, the phase of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the
instantaneous phase of the information signal whereby the amplitude and the
frequency remain constant.

2.9 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

The process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave in
proportion to a modulating signal is known as frequency modulation (FM).
The carrier amplitude of an FM wave is kept constant during modulation and
so the power associated with an FM wave is constant.
Frequency modulation has the following advantages over its
amplitude counterpart and these are as follow.
(1) All transmitted power in FM is useful whereas in AM most of power
transmitted is in carrier which serves no useful purpose.
(2) FM has high signal to noise ratio (S ⁄ N).
(3) Adjacent channel interference is unusual due to its guard band.

2.10 BASIC COMPONENT OF RADIO FREQUENCY (RF)

REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEM
A radio frequency remote control system consists of a transmitter
and a receiver circuit otherwise called (RF TRANSCEIVER). The block

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 diagram of the transmitter and the receiver circuits are shown in fig (2) &
fig (3) below respectively.
The transmitter block diagram consists of a tone generator, ON ⁄
OFF switches (two in number), mixer circuits, carrier frequency
generator, RF amplifier, Transmitter and the power supply unit. While
the receiver circuit consists of RF receiver, demodulator circuit,
electromechanical switch, controlled device and the PSU.

TONE A RF AMP
ON ON/OFF
CONTROL MIXER &
TRANSMI-
TTER

CARRIER
TONE B PSU FREQEUNCY
OFF GENERATOR

Fig 2 Block diagram of a transmitter circuit

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 RF Elecrome Controlled
Demodulator
Receiver chanical Device
Circuit
switch

PSU

Fig. 3 Block diagram of the receiver circuit

2.11 TONE GENERATOR/ TONE DECODER

A device or component which produces tone with frequency which is
set by some external discrete components that is connected to, is known as a
tone generator. While a decoder is the device that responds to a tone with a
particular frequency range which must be within the bandwidth set by some
external discrete component that is connected to it.
A tone generator is an astable multivibrator, using 555 timer in this
project for the generation of tones. Tone A is determined by the choice of
R1, R2 and C while the Tone B is determined by the choice of R1, R’2 and C.
i.e. the tones A & B are function of resistors and the capacitor connected to
the 555 timer. The combinations of the three passive devices in each case
determine the oscillating frequency of the 555 timer. The following are the
general features of 555 timer.
(1.) Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18volts; supply current 3 to 6mA and a
rise/fall time of 100nsec.

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(2.) It can also withstand quite a bit of abuse
(3.) Highly stable centered frequency.
(4.) Both the rise and fall time of the output waveform is quite fast, typically
switching time being 100nsec.
(5.) Higher immunity to false signal.

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Fig. 4 Basic schematic of 555 integrated circuit

2.12 555 TIMER AS A TONE GENERATOR (LM567)

The frequency of the tone is determined by the passive devices, that is, the
resistors and the capacitor. The generated frequency is given by
1
fₒ = 1.1RC ……………………………….. (2)
The resistor raises the current level of the output at pin8 of the IC. The
capacitor is used to select the bandwidth and reduce the noise so as to
improve the output.

R1
R2
7 8 5

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 Input Output
3
6
R2I 4
2 1

Fig. 5 LM567 Connected As A Tone generator.

2.13 PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL)

A tone decoder is also called a frequency decoder. It is used to identify the
frequency of the intelligent signal. Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is a control
system. The output of the tone decoder is used to trigger the flip flop (F/F).
PLL generates a signal that has a fixed relation to the phase of a reference
signal. Phase-locked loop mechanisms may be implemented as either analog
or digital circuits. Both implementations use the same basic structure.

Fig. 6 PLL Characteristics

Both analog and digital PLL circuits include three basic elements:
• a phase detector;
• a variable electronic oscillator; and
• a feedback path (which often includes a frequency divider).

2.14 PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS CIRCUIT

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 Pre-emphasis circuit is used at the transmitter to boost the modulating
base band frequency above 1KHz. De-emphasis is employed in the receiver
to restore the modulating base band signal back to it original power
distribution. Both have the effect of improving the signal to noise ratio(S/N).
Pre-emphasis is a high pass filter circuit while the De-emphasis is a low pass
filter circuit and they can be shown below in Fig (7)

C R

R C

Fig.7 Pre-emphasis circuit De-emphasis circuit

2.15 OSCILLATOR/ MODULATOR

Oscillator / modulator are circuits used for modulation. Frequency
modulation can be done using either the varactor diode method or transistor
reactance method. The illustration of this can be shown in the circuit below
in Fig8. The carrier wave signal is produced by a LC1 tuned circuit which is
connected to the collector terminal of a modulating transistor. The input
modulating signal (base band signal) is applied through its base terminal.
The variation in the conductivity of the transistor and as a result the tuned
circuit frequency is varied.

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 A feedback capacitor C2 is connected between the collector and the
emitter terminal of modulating transmitter to restore any frequency shift or
drift that may occur during modulation.

Oscillator

Base band Modulator

signal

Fig.8 Circuit diagram of Transistor Reactance Modulation.

2.16 DETECTOR
The RF modulated signal from the transmitter need to be detected by
removal of base band signal from the carrier wave. Super heterodyne
principle is used in this project. The idea of super heterodyne is to mix, to
frequencies together so as to produce a beat of frequency, which paves way
for the difference between the two. Generally, the term super heterodyne
refers to creating a beat frequency that is lower than the original signal.

15
 Here, RF modulated signal that is captured by the receiver antenna is
amplified by the RF amplifier. RF mixer multiplies the signal from the
amplifier and a local oscillator produce more signals with different
frequencies. These signals are filtered allowing smallest frequencies to pass;
the intermediate frequency signal is amplified before it is sent to the
demodulator that extracts the base band signal.

Antenna

Base band
IF Amplifier
RF Demodula signal
AMP Mixer and filter tion

Local
oscillator

Fig. 9 Block diagram of a Super- heterodyne Principle.

2.17 TA2003
A TA2003 is an AM/FM radio IC that is designed for AM/FM
demodulation which is the IC works, using super heterodyne principle. The
receiver stage was built around this IC. TA2003 IC possesses the following.
(1.) FM IFT, AM IFT and FM Detector Coil aren’t needed
(2.) Operating supply voltage range;
Vcc (opr) = 1.8~ 7v (Ta=25°C)
(3.) Maximum rating (Ta=25°C)
(4.) Power dissipated of 70mW
(5.) Storage Temp - 55 ~ 150°C.

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Fig.10 Block Diagram of TA2003.

2.18 FLIP FLOP

A Flip flop (F/F) is a kind of bistable multivibrator with memory

ability. Data present on the input line just before a clock transition
determines the output state after the clock has changed. These flip flops are
available as inexpensive package IC’s and are always used that form. Today,
the term flip flop has come to generally denote non-transparent (clocked or
edge triggered) devices, while the simpler transparent ones are often referred
to as latches. The flip flop is used to switch the control device ON/OFF
depending on the nature of the received frequency (tone). A flip-flop is
controlled by one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The
output often includes the component as well as the normal output. The flip-
flops are implemented electronically; they required power and ground

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connections. A flip-flop can either be simple (transparent) or clocked. Flip-
flop can be built by two cross-coupled inverting elements transistor, or
NAND or NOR gates perhaps augmented by some enable / disable (gating)
mechanism.
Clocked devices are specially designed for synchronous (time- discrete)
system and therefore one such device ignores its inputs except at the
transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clocking or pulsing,) this
causes the flip-flop to either change or retain its output signal based upon the
values of the input signal at the transition. Some flip-flop change output on
the rising edge of the clock, while the others on the falling edge. Clocked
(non transparent) flip flops are typically implemented as master slave
devices where two basic flip flops with some additional logics collaborate to
make it insensitive to spikes and noise between the short clock transitions;
nevertheless, they often include asynchronous clear or set inputs which may
be used to change the current output independent of the clock. Flip-flop is
further divided into types that have found common applicability in both
asynchronous and clock sequential systems: the SR (Set- Reset); D (Delay)
T (Toggle); JK types are the common ones; all of which may be synthesized
from other types by a few logic gate.

2.19 SET_ RESET FLIP FLOPS (SR FLIP- FLOPS)

S Q

R Q

Fig. 11 SR Flip flop symbol

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 The most fundamental latch is the simple SR latch (or a simple SR
flip flop), where S and R stand for set and reset. It can be constructed from a
pair of cross – coupled (NOR) (negative OR) logic gates. The stored bit is
present on the output marked Q, normally, in storage mode, the S and R
inputs are both low, and feedback maintains the Q and Q output in a constant
state, with Q the complement of Q, if S (set) is pulsed high while R is held
low, then the Q output is forced high , and the stays high even after S returns
low; similarly, if R (reset) is pulsed high while S is held low, the Q output is
forced low and stay low even after R returns low.

SR Latch Operation
SR Action
00- Keep state
01- Q =0
10- Q =1
11- Unstable combinations

2.20 RELAY
A relay is a specialized electrical switch, whereby a high power device
can be controlled by a device of much lower power. It consists of an
electromagnetic coil and mechanical switch contacts that are pushed and
pulled by the electromagnet. The electromagnet requires a current of only a
few hundred milliamps produced by only a current of only a few volts,
where the contact may be subject to hundred of volts and tens of amps may
be pass through them .The switch therefore enables a small electric current
and voltage to control a much larger current and voltage.

19
 The type of relay employed in this project is the transistor driven
electromagnetic relay and it is shown in Fig.12 below. Freewheel diode is to
provide a path for reverse current generated by the coil.

Freewheel
diode

Input
signal

Fig12. Transistor Driven Electromagnetic Relay

2.21 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

This is the source stable DC voltage supply to all components used in the
transmitting and receiving unit. The transmitting unit makes use of 12V DC
battery. In the case of receiving circuit, the input is 220V power supply from
the power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN) which is stepped down,
filtered, and regulated to 12V. It can be illustrated using the block diagram
shown below.

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Input Transfor Rectifier Filter Voltage output
mer regulator

Fig.13 Block Diagram of the power supply unit.

2.22 TRANSFORMER
Control of signal from one voltage level to another is done using a
transformer and this is done with little lose of power. There are two closely
coupled coil identified as a primary secondary coil. The input coil is called
the primary and that of the output is called the secondary. There is no
electric connection between the coils but they are linked by alternating
magnetic field created in soft- iron core of the transformer .The ratio of the
voltages and the turns determine the current and the power at both side of
the transformer.
Vp Np
Therefore, ____ = _____-------------------------------------- (3)
Vs Ns
Where
Vp = primary (input voltage)
Np = Number of turns of primary coil
Ns = Number of turns of secondary coil
Vp = Secondary (output) voltage
And the power;
Vs Is =Vp Ip ------------------------------------------ (4)
Where Is = secondary output current
Ip = primary input current.

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2.23 RECTIFIER
The process of converting an alternating current (ac) to pulsating direct
current is known as rectification. The most important rectifying component
is semiconductor diode. Full wave rectification is the most effective
rectification since it produces fewer ripples that can be easily filtered and
significantly, more efficient and cheaper. For the purpose of this project,
four diodes IN4001 are used. These diodes are silicon semiconductor
therefore 1.2V is used up in bridge rectification because each diode uses
0.6V when conducting.

Step down A.C D D

D D
Rectified
voltage

Fig. 14 Circuit Diagram of a full wave Bridge Rectifier

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 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION
3.1 Tone generating stage (555 timer is used)

It is connected for astable multivibrator operation to generate pulses.

T = 1/F. where T = pulse, F = frequency.
Generally, T = 0.693C (R1 + 2R2)
Therefore, F = 1
0.693C1 (R1 + 2R2)

Chosen C1 = 0.1µF
For tone A put FA = 1 KHz
R1+2R2 = 1
0.693x0.1x10-6x1x103

R1+2R2 = 14,430Ω
But R1 is large compare to R2.
Assume R1 = 4R2
Hence, R1+2R2 = 14,430.01Ω = 6R2
R2 = 2.4KΩ
Therefore, R1 = 4 x 1.2 KΩ = 9620.00Ω
Nearest value R1 = 10kΩ.

For tone B put FB = 2 KHz

R1 + 2RI2 = 1
0.693 x 0.1 x 10-6 x 2 x 103

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R1 + 2RI2 = 7215.00Ω

But R1 is large compare to R12

Assume R1 = 4R12
Therefore 4R12 + 2R12 = 7215Ω
6R12 = 7215Ω
R12 = 1.2KΩ
So R1 = 4 x 1.2 KΩ = 4810.00Ω
Taken the nearest value
R1 = 5KΩ

3.2 DESIGN FOR THE OSCILLATOR / MODULATING SECTION

Generally, Fc = 1
2√LC
For a carrier frequency of 90MHz whereby C3 is a trimmer varies from
2p – 10pF
L1 = 1
f2c x 4п2 x C3

Put C = 5pF
= 1
(90 x 106) 2 x 4(3.1415) 2 x 5 x 10-12

L1 = 0.693µH
C2 =?
(C2 + C6) = 1
2 2
4п f L1
c

C2 + C6 = 1
4(3.1415) x (90 x 106) 2 x 0.63 x 10-6
2

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C2 + C6 = 5 x 10-12 = 5pF
But C6 is a trimmer chosen to be 20pF
C2 = 5pF – 2pF = 3pF
Therefore C2 = 3pF
C4 is a feedback capacitor of 10pF dr4 C4 = 10pF.
In order to eliminate waveform distortion i.e. to have a distortion-free
output, the emitter voltage is chosen to be half of the Vcc. i.e.
VE = ½ Vcc = 9/2 = 4.5V
For the transistor BC547, the maximum collector current
Ic = 100mA. Put Ic= 9.57mA.
Therefore RE = VE/IE but Ic ≈ IE
Therefore RE = 4.5 = 470 Ω
9.57 x 10-3

Therefore R3 = 470Ω

VB = VE + VBE = 4.5 + 0.7 = 5.2V

C5 is a coupling capacitor chosen to be 10pF.

Considering collector – emitter portion

Vcc = Vc + VCE
Therefore Vc = Vcc – VCE
From the data sheet, maximum VCE for BC547 = 45V
Chosen VCE = 4V
Therefore VC = 9 – 4 = 5V
VC = ICRC , IC is taken to be 1mA.

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RC = VC/IC = 5
1 x 10-3 = 5KΩ

Therefore R4 = 5KΩ

3.3 DESIGN FOR DETECTING STAGE

C16= C6= 10pF But, L2, C7 from the RF filter
FC = 1
2п√L2C7

4п2Fc2 = 1
L2C7

L2 = 1
4п2Fc2C7

C7 is chosen to be 5pF

L2 = 1
4(3.1415) x (90 x 106) 2 x 5 x 10-12
2

= 0.63µH
L3, C8 form the local oscillator
But FLO = FC + IF
Where FLO = Local oscillator frequency
F C = Carrier frequency
IF = Intermediate frequency.
IF = 10.7MHz (for super heterodyne principle)
FC = 90MHz
FLO = 90MHz + 10.7MHz
= 100.7MHz

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Therefore L3 = 1
2
4п2F LO C8

C8 is chosen to be 5pF
L3 = 1 = 4.995 x 10-7 H
4(3.1415) (100.7 x 106) 2 x 5 x 10-12
2

Therefore L3 = 0.5µH
Ca is a coupling capacitor for preventing the biasing of one stage from the
other. It is given as 20pF.
The tuned circuit of the local oscillator forms a quadrature oscillator with the
crystal frequency CF2.

3.4 DESIGN FOR THE DECODING STAGE.

Using F = 1
1.1RC

R= 1
1.1RC

C10 = 0.1uF, F1 1KHz, for tone A

R5 = 1/1.1 x 103 x 0.1 x 10-6 = 90,90.90Ω
R5 = 10KΩ
For tone B F2 2KHz, C11 = 0.1µF

R6 = 1 = 4545.45Ω
1.1 x 2 x 103 x 0.1 x 10-6

Therefore R6 = 5KΩ
3.5 DESIGN FOR THE RELAY CIRCUIT

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R7 =? But from the transistor T3 considering the base-emitter portion,
VB = IBRB + VBE
RB = VB – VBE/IB = R7

The relay employed is rated 10ADC6V, JZC-20F (4088) type. Shows

IC = 1A (manufacturer specification)
Using IB = IC/β, put β = 200 (TIP31) (T3), IC = 1A
IB = 1A = 0.005A = 5mA
200

Therefore RB = R7 = 6 – 0.6 = 1080Ω

0.005

Therefore R7 = 1080Ω =1KΩ

3.6 DESIGN CALCULATION FOR THE POWER

SUPPLY UNIT (PSU)
This unit design to provide 12Volts and 6volts outputs voltages.
T1 is a 220/9V, 50Hz with rating of 500mA. The peak inverse voltage
from the secondary of the transformer.
Vm = √2Vs
Where,

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Vs = secondary voltage, Vrms = 9V
Vm = √2 x 9 = 12.73V
VD = diode forward voltage drop.
Typically VD = 0.7V for most diodes.
Therefore for full wave bridge rectification
VDR = 2 x VD = 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V
For full wave rectification
Vdc = 2Vo /П

Vdc = 2 x 12.73 = 8.10V

3.1415

For full wave bridge rectification, the peak inverse voltage PIV = Vo
Therefore PIV = 12.73V

Based on the analysis, the IN4001 diode was considered appropriate

for the bridge rectifying circuit due to its following ratings.
(i) Peak inverse voltage of 50V
(ii) Average rectified current of 1.0A
(iii) Maximum reverse current of 50µA.

Applying KVL to the first loop of the low voltage side of transformer
Vo = VD + VDR + dV
Where dV = ripple voltage
dV = Vo – Vdc – VDR = 12.73 – 8.10 – 1.4
dV = 3.23V
but I = CdV
dt

29
dV = I dt
C

For full wave rectification

dt = I/2f
Therefore dV = I
2fC12

For Iload = 500mA, f = 50Hz, dV = 3.23V

C12 = I = 500 x 10-3

2fdV 2 x 50 x 3.32

C12 = 1.5479 x 10-3F

Therefore the nearest value C12 = 2000µF
LED1 has an operating voltage and current of 2V and 10mA respectively
(manufacturer specification)

R8 = Vin – -32 = 9 – 2-3 = 700Ω

10 x 10 10 x 10

Since the maximum forward voltage for LED is between 1.2V and 3.2V

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 CONSTRUCTION, PERFORMANCE TEST AND PROBLEM

ENCOUNTERED

4.1 CONSTRUCTION:
The requirements as designed in the previous chapter were purchased

and tested with a digital multimeter to determine their continuities and to

ascertain how good they are. Then, each of the components was arranged on

a project board to confirm that the components and circuit designs were

intact and possessed an ideal electric circuit.

The circuit layout was drawn for the project which is then used to

arrange the components on a clean portion of matrix Vero board before they

were all soldered to the board. But, before this, sockets were fixed for each

component of IC used in this project. Then, on the socket, each IC is

soldered. The importance of the socket is to prevent the heat of the soldering

iron from damaging the IC’s. The IC’s were placed on their sockets and the

project was tested.

A well sharpened, low heat dissipating soldering iron was used for the

transistors since heat damage transistors easily.

4.2 PERFORMANCE TEST

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 At the end of the construction, a bulb was connected to the receiving

unit to serve as a controlled device through a switch. The transmitting

unit was placed at a distance from the receiving unit. This was used to

control the switch of the bulb. Both switches were used to switch

ON/OFF the bulbs. For effective control a maximum distance of 6

meters apart was achieved.

4.3 PROBLEM ENCOUTERED

The following are the problems encountered during the design and

implementation of this project work.

(1) Selection of frequency amongst the FM range was not achieved on

time, owing to oscillator circuit used, especially in selecting values

for the passive component.

(2) During the process of soldering, some components got spoilt.

(3) Unavailability of some components used in the construction brought

about a delays during the design and construction

(4) The frequency of transmission changes easily during reconstruction

therefore, it is quite difficult to set the required transmitting

frequency.

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 (5) The relay section gave a lot of problems owing to the switching

transistor that was not well biased.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The objective of this project which is the use of FM wave to control

a particular device of ones choice was achieved given a coverage distance up

to 6 meters, depending on the capacity of the transceiver. Tone A and Tone

B are the two factors that would determine if the device is to ON/OFF.

Radio Frequency (RF) remote control was used to control a particular device

of ones choice. Indeed is a means of controlling or modifying radio

frequency to control a particular device being electrical, mechanical or

electromechanical devices.

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5.2 RECOMMENDATION.

Having painstakingly perused this project, I hereby recommend that,

Radio Frequency (RF) remote control system should be modified to a

robotic remote control system for more effective performances.

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 REFERENCES

1. Bruce Carlson, An Introduction to signal and Noise in electrical

communication (2nd edition) published by Elsevier India pvt ltd, Ring
Road, New- Delhi
2. M.G Scroggle (1996), Fundamentals of wireless and Electronics (10th
edition) publication of Borland Ltd USA.
3. Theraja B.L and Theraja A.K (2001); A textbook of electrical
technology, publication Division of Schand and compand Ltd, Ram
Nigar, New Delhi.
4. onyVan Roon VA3AVR www.uoguelph.ca/~ antoon/gatgets/pll/pllhtml.
5. Semiconductor components industries, TIP41/TIP31 BC547 Data Sheet.
6. Semiconductor components industries – TA2003 Datasheet LLC, 1999,
www.national.com
7. www.radioelectronicschool.com

8. Power Supply Unit, www.electronicproject.com

9. Anthony R.H (2005), Relay Encyclopedia Encarta
10. Roger L Freeman, Fundamental of telecommunication (2nd edition) john
wiley and sons, inc , publication

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