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Lecture 2. Basics of Heat Transfer

This document discusses various topics in heat transfer, including: 1. The three modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection, and radiation. 2. Thermal contact resistance, which causes an additional temperature drop at interfaces between materials. 3. Using thermal resistances in parallel to calculate overall resistance. 4. The overall heat transfer coefficient (U-value), which characterizes heat transfer between two fluids separated by a solid boundary. 5. Heat conduction problems involving internal heat generation, and the resulting non-uniform temperature distributions in slabs and cylinders. 6. Heat sinks used for cooling electronics, which absorb heat through conduction and dissipate it via convection.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
38 views22 pages

Lecture 2. Basics of Heat Transfer

This document discusses various topics in heat transfer, including: 1. The three modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection, and radiation. 2. Thermal contact resistance, which causes an additional temperature drop at interfaces between materials. 3. Using thermal resistances in parallel to calculate overall resistance. 4. The overall heat transfer coefficient (U-value), which characterizes heat transfer between two fluids separated by a solid boundary. 5. Heat conduction problems involving internal heat generation, and the resulting non-uniform temperature distributions in slabs and cylinders. 6. Heat sinks used for cooling electronics, which absorb heat through conduction and dissipate it via convection.

Uploaded by

wellen carvalho
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 

2. BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER 
 
2.1 SUMMARY OF LAST WEEK LECTURE 
 
 There  are  three  modes  of  heat  transfer:  conduction,  convection  and 
radiation. 
 We  can  use  the  analogy  between  Electrical  and  Thermal  Conduction 
processes  to  simplify  the  representation  of  heat  flows  and  thermal 
resistances. 
 
T
q  
R
 
 Fourier’s law relates heat flow to local temperature gradient. 
 
 T 
qx   Ax k   
 x 
 
 Convection  heat  transfer  arises  when  heat  is  lost/gained  by  a  fluid  in 
contact with a solid surface at a different temperature. 
 
T  T  T  T 
q  hAs TW  Ts     [Watts]      or      q  W s  W s  
1 / hAs Rconv
 
1
Where:  Rconv   
hAs
 
 Radiation heat transfer is dependent on absolute temperature of surfaces, 
surface  properties  and  geometry.  For  case  of  small  object  in  a  large 
enclosure. 


q   s As  Ts4  Tsurr
4
   

 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     1 
 
2.2 CONTACT RESISTANCE 
 
In  practice  materials  in  thermal  contact  may  not  be  perfectly  bonded  and 
voids at their interface occur. Even a flat surfaces that appear smooth turn out to 
be rough when examined under microscope with numerous peaks and valleys.  

 
Figure 1. Comparison of temperature distribution and heat flow along two plates 
pressed against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact. 
 
In  imperfect  contact,  the  “contact  resistance”,  Ri  causes  an  additional 
temperature drop at the interface 
 
Ti  Ri q x   (1) 
 
Ri is very difficult to predict but one should be aware of its effect. Some order‐
of‐magnitude values for metal‐to‐metal contact are as follows. 
 
Material  2
Contact Resistance Ri [m  W/K] 
Aluminum  5 x 10
‐5 

Copper  ‐5
1 x 10  
Stainless steel  ‐4
3 x 10  
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     2 
 
We  use  grease  or  soft  metal  foil  to  improve  contact  resistance  e.g.  silicon 
grease between power transistor and mica sheet and heat sink. 
 
2.3 THERMAL RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL 
 
We use the electrical analogy to good effect where: 
 
1 1 1 1
        (2) 
Rtotal R1 R 2 R3
 
2.4 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIEN, U 
 
Up till now we have discussed the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) in relation to 
a fluid‐surface pair. Often heat is transferred ultimately between two fluids. For 
example,  heat  must  be  exchanged  between  the  air  inside  and  outside  an 
enclosure for telecommunications equipment. 
 

 
Figure 2. Heat transfer between air inside and outside an electrical enclosure. 
 
The heat flow is given 
 
T2  T1
q   (3) 
1 x 1
 
h1 A kA h2 A
 
For  such  situation  it  is  often  convenient  to  use  the  “overall  heat  transfer 
coefficient” defined as: 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     3 
 
1
 1 x 1 
U        (4) 
 h1 k h2 
 
And therefore the total heat flow through the wall from one fluid to the other 
is given by 
 
q  UA(T2  T1 )   (5) 
 
 
2.5 CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION 
 
This  situation  is  often  encountered  in  engineering  situations  e.g.  electrical 
heating, chemical reactions (endothermic or exothermic). 
 
2.5.1 Heat Generation in a Slab 
 
When there is heat generation in the body, the term  q in the general equation 
is non‐zero. For one dimensional problem such a slab, the conduction equation is 
 
d 2T
k   q   (6) 
dx 2

 
Figure 3. Temperature distribution in a slab with heat generation. 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     4 
 
And integrating twice with respect to distance x and solving for the unknown 
dT
constants using the boundary conditions   0 and T(L) = To gives: 
dx x 0
 
qL2   x  
2
q 2
T ( x)   x  C1 x  C 2  To  1     (7) 
2k 2k   L  
 
Which is a parabolic temperature distribution with the max temperature given 
by 
 
qL2
Tmax    (8) 
2k
 
 
2.5.2 Heat Generation in a Solid Cylinder 
 
The  conduction  equation  for  a  solid  cylinder  assuming  no  axial  heat 
conduction is reduced to  
 
1 d  dT 
k r   q   (9) 
r dr  dr 
 

 
Figure 3. Temperature distribution in a solid cylinder with heat generation. 
 
Again we integrate and use the boundary conditions to find that 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     5 
 
q r 2  r 
2

T ( r )  To  o 1      (10) 
4k   ro  
 
 
With max temperature 
 
qr 2
Tmax  o   (11) 
4k
 
A typical example of heat generation in solid cylinder is: Heat generation due 
to electrical resistance in wires. Heat generation in the wire 
 
I 2 Relec
q    (12) 
volume
 
Electrical resistance is given by 
 
L
R elec    (13) 
A
 
Where 
  is electrical resistivity (‐m) 
L  is length of wire (m) 
2
A is wire cross‐section (m ) 
 
Thus, 
 
I 2
q  2   (14) 
A
 
 
2.6 USE OF HEAT SINKS FOR ELECTRICAL COOLING 
 
The  term  “heat  sink”  can  be  used  in  the  general  sense  of  a  cool  object  that 
absorbs or dissipates heat without a significant rise in temperature.  
 
In the case of cooling of electronic equipment a “heat sink” is usually taken to 
mean a metal plate onto which electronic components are mounted and which is 
“finned” to increase the surface area. Commercial heat sinks are rated in terms of 
o
their  thermal  resistance  [ C/W].  This  resistance  includes  BOTH  the  conduction 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     6 
 
resistance  through  the  metal  (usually  aluminum)  and  the  convection  resistance 
from the metal surfaces to the air. 
 
There are as many different types of heat sink available as there are situations 
where electronics require cooling!! 
 

 
Figure 4. Example of transistor cooling. 
 
 
2.7 HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT USING FINS 
 
We use a fin on a solid object to increase convective heat transfer by increasing 
surface  area.  The  fin  must  be  made  of  a  good  thermal  conductor.  Examples  of 
this type of heat transfer enhancement include: 
 
 Heat sinks on electrical equipment 
 Satellite cooling panels 
 Radiator panels and oil coolers on power transformers 
 Fins on the outside of motors 
 
We  are  seeking  to  decrease  the  total  resistance  to  heat  flow  when  surface 
convection/radiation presents the dominant resistance i.e. by INCREASING THE 
SURFACE AREA. 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     7 
 
 
 

 
Figure 5. Increasing the surface area by adding fins in low heat transfer 
coefficient situation. 
 
Some innovative fin designs are shown in Figure 6. 
 

 
Figure 6. Some innovative fin designs. 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     8 
 
Heat  transfer  from  a  surface  is  increased  by  adding  fins.  If  fins  have  an 
extremely high thermal conductivity (k   ) then their surface temperature will 
be equal to that of the body, Tb, and the heat loss will be given by: 
 
q  h( A plane  A fin )(Tb  T )     only true if (k  )  (15) 
 
But  real  fins  have  a  finite  thermal  conductivity  so  the  temperature  must 
change  from  the  base  to  the  end  of  the  fin.  We  must  first  determine  what  the 
temperature  distribution  on  the  fin  will  be  before  finding  qfin.  The  local  rate  of 
heat  loss  per  unit  surface  area,  q x ,  from  the  fin  is  dependent  on  the  local  fin 
temperature, T(x). 
 
q x  h (T ( x)  T )   (16) 
 

 
Figure. Fins enhance heat transfer from a surface by enhancing surface area. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     9 
 
2.7.1 Temperature Distribution in fins 
We use a one‐dimensional approximation and assume that fin cross‐section is 
constant and perform an energy balance on a small element of the fin. 
 

 
Figure 7. Fin element for energy balance analysis. 
 
Energy balance on element is therefore: 
 
 HEAT                       ‐  HEAT  = HEAT CONVECTED 
CONDUCTED IN      CONDUCTED  OUT     OUT 
   
From the Fourier’s Law the heat flow in x‐direction 
 
 T 
q x   Ax k    (17) 
 x 
 
which when applied in the energy balance equation gives 
 
 T 
dq x  d   Ax k    h ( P dx ) (T  T )   (18) 
 x 
 
Let   = T ‐ T    
 
d  d 
 kAx   h P  0   (19) 
dx  dx 
 
Or when the fin is of constant cross‐section and constant k, 
d 2  hP 
    0   (20) 
dx 2  kA 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     10 
 
We can define a characteristic length,   with which to non‐dimensionalise our 
equation 
 
1/ 2
 kA 
     (21) 
 hP 
 
And the general solution to the 2nd order DE becomes 
 
  C1e  x /   C 2 e  x /    (22) 
 
To  solve  this  equation  the  fin  boundary  conditions  must  be  specified.  The 
temperature  of  the  plate  to  which  the  fins  are  attached  is  normally  known  in 
advance.  Therefore,  at  the  fin  base  we  have  a  specified  temperature  boundary 
condition. At fin root 
 
 = b = Tb ‐ T     at x = 0  (23) 
 
At  the  fin  tip  there  are  several  possibilities,  including  specified  temperature, 
negligible  heat  loss  (idealized  as  an  insulated  tip),  convection,  and  combined 
convection and radiation, namely: 
 
Case 1: fin is very long, temperature at the end of the fin = T 
 
Case 2: fin is of finite length with end of fin insulated. 
 
Case 3: fin is of finite elength with heat convected from the end. 
 

 
Figure 8. Boundary conditions at the fin base and the fin tip. 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     11 
 
 
Case 1‐ fin is very long, temperature at the end of the fin = T 
In this case,  = b at x = 0  and  = 0 at x = L, thus the temperature distribution 
is an exponential decay towards the ambient fluid temperature. 
 
 T ( x)  T
  e x /    (24) 
b Tb  T
 
It  can  be  seen  that  the  temperature  along  the  fin  in  this  case  decreases 
exponentially from Tb to T∞.  

 
 
Figure 9. Variation of temperature along very long fin. 
 
Case 2‐ fin is of finite length with end of fin insulated 
Generally  fins  are  not  very  long  that  their  temperature  approaches  the 
surrounding temperature at the tip. It is sometimes more accurate to consider the 
heat  transfer  from  the  tip  to  be  negligible  since  it  is  proportional  to  its  surface 
area. Since the surface area of the fin tip is usually very small fraction of the total 
fin  area  the  tip  can  be  assumed  to  be  insulated.  In  this  case  the  boundary 
d
condition at the tip is   0 at x = L, and the condition at the base remains the 
dx
same as in case 1. The application of these two conditions on the general solution 
Eq.  (22)  yields,  after  some  manipulations,  the  relation  for  temperature 
distribution 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     12 
 
 
 T ( x )  T cosh  ( L  x )
    (25) 
b Tb  T cosh L
 
Case 3‐ fin is of finite elength with heat convected from the end. 
In this case, the boundary condition at the tip is 
 
d h
  (Ttip  T )   (26) 
dx k
 
The solution of the general equation gives the temperature distribution 
 
 T ( x)  T cosh[( L  x) /  ]  (h / k ) sinh[( L  x] /  )
    (27) 
b Tb  T cosh( / L)  ( h / k ) sinh( L /  )
 
Limitations of the analysis above include: 
 Assumes  one‐dimensional  conduction  i.e.  temperature  only  varies 
along the fin major axis 
 Assumes constant surface heat transfer coefficient, h 
 
 
2.7.2 Heat Transfer from Fins 
 
To determine the total heat loss from fin, we use the Fourier’s Law at the base 
of the fin 
 
 T ( x ) 
q fin   A k     (28) 
 x  x  0
 

 
Figure 10. Under steady conditions, heat transfer from the exposed surfaces of 
the fin is equal to heat conduction to the fin at the base. 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     13 
 
Case 1‐ fin is very long, temperature at the end of the fin = T 
The  steady  rate  of  heat  transfer  from  the  entire  fin  can  be  determined  from 
Fourier’s Law of heat conduction. 
 
T   
q fin   A k   A k  (Tb  T )e  x /     A k P h  (Tb  T )  
1/ 2
(29) 
x x 0  x  x 0
 
Or 
 
q fin  (Tb  T ) / R fin   (30) 
 
With 
1
R fin    (31) 
( A k P h)1 / 2
 
Case 2‐ fin is of finite length with end of fin insulated 
Similarly for adiabatic (insulated) tip fin, the heat transfer from the fin can be 
determined 
 
  A k P h  (Tb  T ) tanh( L)  
dT
q fin   A k
1/ 2
(32) 
dx x  0
 
Thus, 
 
1
R fin    (33) 
( A k P h)1/ 2
tanh( L)
 
Case 3‐ fin is of finite elength with heat convected from the end. 
Finally for convecting tip fin, the heat transfer is 
 
 sinh( L /  )  (h / k ) cosh( L /  ) 
q fin  ( A k P h)1/ 2  (Tb  T )   (34) 
 cosh( L /  )  (h / k ) sinh( L /  ) 
 
And 
 
1
  sinh( L /  )  (h / k ) cosh( L /  ) 
R fin  ( A k P h)1/ 2     (35) 
  cosh( L /  )  (h / k ) sinh( L /  ) 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     14 
 
Note that A above is the cross sectional area of the fin. 
 
 
2.7.3 Fin Efficiency 
 
The idea of fin is to increase the surface area, however from the base to the tip 
the  fin  surface  temperature  decreases.  In  the  limiting  case  of  zero  thermal 
resistance or infinite thermal conductivity (k  ∞), the temperature of the fin will 
be uniform at the base value Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be maximum 
in this case and can be expressed as 
 
q fin , max  h A fin (Tb  T )   (36) 
In reality, as the temperature drops the fin heat transfer will be less than this. 
To  account  for  the  effect  of  this  decrease  in  temperature  on  heat  transfer,  we 
define fin efficiency. 
 
actual heat transfer q
  actual   (37) 
heat transfer if entire fin at base temp. qmax
 
This relation can help us to determine the efficiency of very long fins and fins 
with insulated tips. 
 
qlong fin  A k P h1 / 2 (Tb  T ) 1
  A k P h 
1
long fin  
1/ 2
  (38) 
qmax h Afin (Tb  T ) L L
 
And  
 
q fin  A k P h 1 / 2 (Tb  T ) tanh(L) tanh(L)
 insulated tip fin      (39) 
q max h A fin (Tb  T ) L
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     15 
 
2.8 WORKED EXAMPLES 
 
We will solve these examples in the lecture together. 
 
Example 1 
The  composite  wall  of  an  oven  consists  of  three  materials  as  shown  below, 
what is the heat flux,  q  through the wall? And the thermal conductivity of the 
middle layer, kb? 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     16 
 
Example 2 
A current of 200A is passed through a stainless steel wire (k = 19 W/mK) 3mm 
in  diameter  and  1.0m  long.  The  resistivity  of  the  wire  is  70.cm.  The  wire  is 
o
submerged  in  a  liquid  at  110 C  and  experiences  a  heat  transfer  coefficient  of 
2
4.0kW/m K. Calculate the wire centre temperature. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     17 
 
Example 3 
Calculate  the  transistor  case  temperature  and  junction  temperature  if  the 
transistor dissipates 20W assuming that heat loss by convection from the top of 
the transistor case is negligible. 
 
Let  the  cross‐sectional  areas  of  the  insulator  and  heat  sink  compound  be 
130mm2  and  the  thickness  be  1.6mm  and  0.025mm,  respectively.  Thermal 
conductivities are: insulator k = 15.0 W/mK, heat sink compound k = 0.39 W/mK. 
o
The  overall  thermal  resistance  of the  heat  sink  is  0.23 C/W and  junction  to case 
o
thermal resistance of the transistor is 2.2 C/W. First draw the electrical analogy of 
this thermal situation. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     18 
 
Example 4:  
An  oil‐filled,  high  voltage  power  transformer  is  to  be  cooled  by  natural 
convection.    The  transformer  containment  comprises  a  steel  tank  measuring 
600mm long, 500mm wide and 800mm high with fins on the vertical surfaces as 
shown below. 
 

 
 
Oil‐filled Transformer Containment 
 
The walls of the tank may be taken as thick and highly conductive (and thus of 
uniform  temperature).  The  18  fins  attached  to  the  walls  are  2mm  thick,  150mm 
long  and  800mm  high.    The  steel  has  a  thermal  conductivity,  k=55W/mK.    The 
heat transfer coefficient for heat flow from the oil to the inside walls of the tank is 
120W/m2K and the heat transfer coefficient between all outside surfaces and the 
air is 18W/m2K.  (Assume heat loss from the top of the tank is negligible). 
a) Draw an electrical analogy for the flow of heat from the hot oil inside the 
tank to the ambient air. 
b) If  the  walls  of  the  tank  are  at  40°C  and  the  air  temperature  T   =  20°C, 
calculate the rate of heat loss from the fins. 
c) What is the efficiency and thermal resistance of a single fin? 
d) Determine the heat loss from the plain (unfinned) area of the tank walls. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     19 
 
2.8 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS 
 
1. A silicon chip operating under steady state conditions is encapsulated so that all
of the power it dissipates is transferred by convection to a fluid stream where h =1000
W/m2K and T = 25°C. The chip is assumed to at a uniform temperature internally. It is
separated from the fluid by a 2mm thick aluminium cover plate and the contact resistance
of the chip-aluminium interface is 5 x 10-5 m2K/W. a) Draw an electrical analogy to this
thermal situation. b) If the chip surface area is 100mm2 and its maximum allowable
temperature is 85°C, what is the maximum allowable power dissipation in the chip? (A
5.65W)
Fluid

Aluminium cover

Insulation Chip

2. Calculate the surface temperature and the maximum internal temperature of a


10mm diameter steel conductor carrying 5000A which is forced convection cooled to a
fluid at 15°C with a convection coefficient of 5.55 kW/m2K. For the conductor, take the
electrical resistivity as 8 x 10-8 .m, and the thermal conductivity as 120 W/mK. (ans.
161.3°C and 178.0°C).

3. A semiconductor device is made up of a number of distinct layers of differing


thermal properties and power dissipation. The temperature distribution through the
device is shown in the diagram below. a) Rank the heat fluxes, q”, in descending order of
magnitude; b) rank the thermal conductivities of the three layers; c) sketch the heat flux
through the device as a function of distance, x.

(based on a tutorial problem in Incropera and De Witt)

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     20 
 
4. (worked example in the lecture) A plane slab of electrical conductor carries a very
heavy current for electrical heating purposes. The slab is 50mm thick, is perfectly
insulated on the left side (i.e. q”=0) and subjected to convection on the right side. For k =
12 W/mK, ambient temperature = 20°C and heat transfer coefficient h = 18 W/m2K. The
temperature of the insulated face is 400°C. Find the uniform heat generation rate per unit
volume and the right-side temperature under these conditions. [Hint: the insulated face
is effectively a plane of symmetry - i.e. you may consider the slab to one half of a slab of
twice the thickness with convection either side. Try sketching the situation/temperature
distribution first.]
Ans. q• = 1.32 x 105 W/m3 and T = 386°C.

5. An oil-filled, high voltage power transformer is to be cooled by natural convection.


The transformer containment comprises a steel tank measuring 600mm long, 500mm
wide and 800mm high with fins on the vertical surfaces as shown below.

Oil-filled Transformer Containment

The walls of the tank may be taken as thick and highly conductive (and thus of uniform
temperature). The 18 fins attached to the walls are 2mm thick, 150mm long and 800mm
high. The steel has a thermal conductivity, k=55W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient for
heat flow from the oil to the inside walls of the tank is 120W/m2K and the heat transfer
coefficient between all outside surfaces and the air is 18W/m2K. (Assume heat loss from
the top of the tank is negligible).
e) Draw an electrical analogy for the flow of heat from the hot oil inside the tank to
the ambient air.
f) If the walls of the tank are at 40°C and the air temperature T = 20°C, calculate the
rate of heat loss from the fins.
g) What is the efficiency and thermal resistance of a single fin?
h) Determine the heat loss from the plain (unfinned) area of the tank walls.

6. A chip, circular in plan view is held in a special heat sink arrangement as shown
below and dissipates 0.3W. A thin metal tube of height 16mm, inside diameter 12mm,
thickness 0.3mm and k=400W/mK is connected to the chip with negligible contact
Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     21 
 
resistance. The inside of the tube is filled with foam insulation of negligible thermal
conductivity. The heat transfer coefficient on all external surfaces is 55W/m2K and the
surrounding air temperature is 22°C. Assuming heat transfer to the circuit board is
negligible, a) what is the chip temperature in this cooling arrangement? b) what would
the chip temperature be if it was not connected to the tube/insulation?

(based on a tutorial problem in Incropera and De Witt)

Kosasih   2012              Lecture 2 Basics of Heat Transfer                                                     22 
 

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