CONTEMPLATIVE PEDAGOGY AND STUDENT SUCCESS IN COMMUNITY

COLLEGE STUDENTS: A MIXED METHODS RESEARCH STUDY

by

Joanne L. Bagshaw

REBA GLIDEWELL, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

CHIP TURNER, EdD, Committee Member

KRISTA KREBS, PhD, Committee Member

Curtis R. Brant, PhD, Dean

Harold Abel School of Social and Behavioral Sciences

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

Add Month Year (of conference approval)

 UMI Number: 3610057

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© Joanne Bagshaw, 2013
 Abstract

Contemplative pedagogy involves integration of contemplative practices into the higher

education classroom. This study examines whether integration of contemplative pedagogy

into a community college classroom will affect academic performance, and whether exposure

to contemplative practices will increase mindfulness among community college students. The

study also explores the lived experience of students who have experienced contemplative

pedagogy. This mixed- methods sequential explanatory design consisted of two phases: 1)

quantitative data collection and analysis; and 2) qualitative data collection and analysis. A

total of N=151 participants were involved in the study. 70 participants were in the control

group and 81 participants were in the intervention group. Participants were given the

Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Survey (KIMS) for pre and posttest data collection, and

end-of-semester G.P.A.s were compared between groups. A phenomenological approach was

used for the semi-structured qualitative interviews. Data analysis revealed that there was no

significant difference in acquisition of mindfulness skills between groups, and an upward

trend, but no significant difference in end-of-semester G.P.A. scores. Qualitative interviews

revealed the following themes: Participants in the contemplative group felt connected to the

content in the course, the classroom, the instructor, and the global community, and the

instructor is an important foundation of the class, providing a relaxed, safe environment for

students to explore their opinions and take risks.

 Acknowledgments

I would like to express my appreciation for the support and assistance that I have

received in completing my dissertation. Sincere thanks go to Dr. Reba Glidewell, for her

supervision and time and to Dr. Krista Krebs and Dr. Chip Turner for your contributions

to this dissertation. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the support of Doctors Azi

Aalai, Denise Dewhurst and Memrie Gaddis- Deeney. Finally, my appreciation is

extended to my students who agreed to participate in this study, and who inspire me

daily.

iii
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgments iii

List of Tables vi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose of the Study 2

Rationale 3

Research Questions 4

Significance of the Study 5

Definition of Terms 5

Assumptions and Limitations 6

Theoretical Framework 7

Organization of the Remainder of the Study 8

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 9

Literature Review Strategy 9

Contemplative Practices and Pedagogy 10

Mindfulness 12

Empirical Studies on Effects of Mindfulness in Higher Education 13

Empirical Studies of Mindfulness and College Students 18

Empirical Studies of Mindfulness in Secondary Education 21

Research on Methodological Literature 24

Summary 28

iv
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 29

Purpose of the Study 29

Research Design 29

Target Population and Participant Selection 32

Sample Size 33

Procedures 35

Instruments and Measures 38

Variables 41

Data Analysis 41

Data Integration 44

Ethical Considerations 44

Expected Findings 45

Summary 46

CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 47

Description of the Sample 47

Summary of Results 50

Results in Detail 51

Qualitative Data 52

Overview of the Researcher 52

Description of the Sample 53

Research Methodology 54

Presentation of Data and Results of Analysis 55

v
 Summary 72

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 72

Summary of Results 72

Discussion of the Results 76

Conclusions of the Study 77

Limitations 78

Recommendations 78

Conclusion 80

REFERENCES 81

APPENDIX . SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 96

vi
 List of Tables

Table 1. Study Participant Descriptive Statistics 48

Table 2. Contemplative and Traditional Groups: Sample Size by Demographic 49

Categories

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics: Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills 50

Table 4. Independent Samples T-Test: Final Course Cumulative Posttest Scores 51

between Traditional and Contemplative Groups

Table 5. ANCOVA: KIMS Posttest Differences between Traditional and 52

Contemplative Groups

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 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The growing field of contemplative practices in pedagogy shows promise in providing a

model for transformative learning that rejects the professor as authority paradigm and seeks to

support students in learning from themselves and their experiences (Burggraf & Grossenbacher,

2007; Miller, 1994). Contemplative pedagogy relies on the assumption that students bring

knowledge to the classroom, and this knowledge can be drawn out through reflective approaches

that will enhance learning (Repetti, 2010). In contemplative pedagogy, intellectual

transformation requires the synthesis of comprehension and critical reflections. Students who are

able to take ownership of their learning in this way have developed an intellectual maturation

refined through concentration and contemplation (Altobello, 2007).

Developing a contemplative mind requires students to learn the skills of concentration

and contemplation (Altobello, 2007). Contemplative practices like meditation and mindfulness

have been accepted in other cultures and disciplines (Hart, 2004) and numerous studies support

the efficacy of meditation on mental health and human development (Shapiro, Brown & Astin,

2008). Yet, until recently, contemplative pedagogy has been absent in higher education (Hart,

2004).

Background of the Study

Community colleges offer low tuition and an open door policy. Yet only one third of

students whose plans include earning a degree, complete their degrees within 6 years. There are

various factors that affect students’ ability to complete a degree program (i.e., finances, being

under prepared for college), yet despite these challenges, nearly 50% of all U.S. undergraduates

have taken the community college to 4-year university pathway (Scrivener & Coghlan, 2011).

1
 According to Lichtmann (2010), many students enter a community college at a time in

their lives when they are seeking a change. They may be seeking a new job, or later transfer to a

four-year school. At the same time, they are challenged by financial factors that include part-

time or full-time jobs, and family responsibilities. All of these factors combined can present

opportunities for change—students can learn how to slow down, reflect, be mindful and

authentic, and community colleges can teach them the skills needed to create such

transformation.

Statement of the Problem

The emerging field of contemplative pedagogy may provide the tools and framework

necessary to affect students’ depth of understanding (Hart, 2004) and intellectual transformation

(Altobello, 2007). To date, no research directly supports the application of contemplative

methods in a community college setting. Research on using contemplative methods in clinical

settings can be used to support the use of contemplative pedagogy in the classroom. However,

there is a need for research that investigates whether teaching students the skills of concentration

and contemplation yields the same effect—or different effects as they do in clinical settings.

Further, it is not known if it is possible to teach community college students—a typically diverse

population of age and aptitude—the skills of concentration and contemplation in the classroom.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this research is to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative

pedagogy in higher education. Integrating contemplative practices into a higher education setting

has become a popular pedagogical tool among some academics; however there is not any

research that shows how contemplative pedagogy affects college students. Currently, instructors

are relying on research that supports the use of mindfulness practices in clinical populations to

2
justify its use in the classroom. And while clinical research on mindfulness is abundant, we

cannot assume that its application in the community college classroom will benefit students

unless we have relevant data to support its use.

This study investigated whether there is a relationship between the integration of

contemplative pedagogy into a community college classroom and academic performance, and

whether exposure to contemplative practices will increase mindfulness among community

college students. The independent variables are either the contemplative practices or traditional

group. The dependent variables are mindfulness skills and academic success. The study took

place in community college classrooms, where psychology students were exposed to

contemplative practices in the classroom, and compared to students in traditional classrooms.

Additionally, this study sought to understand students’ lived experience of using contemplative

practices in the classroom. Results of this research can be used to inform academics about the

inclusion of contemplative practices in the classroom, and as a basis for further research.

Rationale

Mixing qualitative and quantitative designs in educational research provides causal

explanations without neglecting the importance of meaning and the role of context (Maxwell,

2004). Mixed methods research studies are appropriate for educational psychology because

quantitative data can tell us whether a program is successful, and qualitative data can tell us why

or why not (Slayton & Llosa, 2005). For this study, quantitative data can show whether

contemplative pedagogy is effective with a specific population: community college students.

Qualitative data will explain why it was or was not effective, providing a holistic understanding

of contemplative pedagogy in higher education (Creswell, 2007). Data collected through

3
interviews, will help to understand which factors may have contributed to the effect of the

contemplative pedagogy methodologies (Berliner, 2002).

The sequencing of the study was as follows: Quantitative data collection and

interpretation was followed by qualitative interviews. The purpose of the quantitative data is to

identify findings that need additional explanation through qualitative analysis (Creswell, 2007).

Quantitative data collected from the pre and post tests will show whether or not contemplative

pedagogy increases student success, and if there is a relationship between the use of

contemplative practices and the acquisition of mindfulness skills among community college

students. Qualitative interviews were used to understand what a student’s lived experience of

contemplative pedagogy is.

Research Questions

This study analyzed if contemplative pedagogy increases academic success and

mindfulness skills. The first step in this mixed method research study is designed to answer the

following quantitative question:

Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and traditional) in final course

cumulative scores?

The second quantitative question is designed to answer the following question:

Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and traditional) in the acquisition of

mindfulness skills?

The second part of this study is designed to answer the following qualitative question:

What is a student’s lived experience of contemplative practices in the classroom?

4
 Significance of the Study

First, this study is significant because it can benefit educational psychologists who may

use the results to inform pedagogical methods. Additionally, contemplative practices like

meditation are utilized by clinical, educational, and health psychologists, and so the results of

this research may benefit not only these psychologists, but general psychologists whose research

crosses over into these subfields. Community college professors, administrators, and counseling

centers may also benefit from the results of this research when planning syllabi, continuing

education and student programming. Students may also benefit-- if this study shows that

contemplative practices improve learning.

Definition of Terms

For the purpose of this study, the following terms are noted:

Academic Success: Is defined as the students’ final cumulative scores at the end of the

semester (Ullah & Wilson, 2007).

Contemplative practices: Are defined as teaching methods that support the individual’s ability

to concentrate deeply and achieve insight (The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society,

2000-2009).

Contemplative Pedagogy: Is defined as a philosophy of education that promotes the use

contemplative practices that deepen awareness, concentration and insight (Vanderbilt University,

2012).

Lived experience: Is recognized as the everyday experience of the individual community

college student (Moustakas, 1994).

5
 Mindfulness: Is defined as the capacity to concentrate in the here and now (Hill, 2006), with

constant observation of present experience (Deikman, 1996). Mindfulness is a skill that is the

foundation for contemplative practices (Burggraf & Grossenbacher, 2007).

Assumptions and Limitations

This study analyzed whether contemplative pedagogy increases academic success and

mindfulness skills. A limitation of this study is the possibility of unequal groups: because it is

not possible to randomly assign students to classes as various individual characteristics might

influence which class times students will select when registering. This is a common problem in

educational research, which is why a quasi-experimental design is being used (DeAnda, 2007).

Although, several classes were used in the study in order to reach the desired amount of

participants. Using several groups can control for confounding effects as well as comparing

demographic information across classes to see if there are significant differences regarding

gender, age, and ethnicity (DeAnda, 2007).

Another limitation is the reliance on self-report data for the mindfulness skills, as these

may be inaccurate or biased by a socially desirable response set. A final limitation is the ethical

concerns of using students as research participants. These potential problems can be alleviated by

using a secondary researcher—who is not the instructor of the class (Ridley, 2009). The research

assistant was a colleague, who after signing confidentiality forms, administered the mindfulness

questionnaire and other research protocol. The use of a research assistant prevents the researcher

from being engaged in a dual role of researcher/professor. However, instructor bias is a possible

limitation because in order for the secondary researchers to prepare to teach their classes, they

cannot be blind to which group they have been randomly assigned: traditional or contemplative.

6
 From previous studies, it is assumed that developing a contemplative mind requires

students to learn the skills of concentration and contemplation (Altobello, 2007). It is assumed

that community college students do not already have mindfulness and concentration skills, and

that these skills need to be developed. It is assumed that participants will be willing and truthful

about their description of their experience. Finally, it is assumed that the KIMS will accurately

reflect the mindfulness skills and knowledge of course material.

Theoretical Framework

Contemplative pedagogy has roots in educational philosophies that promote depth over

breadth, and religious or spiritual practices that value mindfulness, reflection and compassion

(Repetti, 2010). Contemplative practices are present in societies around the world. Hinduism,

Taoism and Buddhism all focus on introspection and first person investigation. Western mystics

from Christianity, Judaism and Islam also explore contemplative practices (Roth, 2006).

Although rooted in many of the world’s religious traditions, contemplation can take many forms

and is being introduced in educational settings as a secular practice. At the heart of

contemplative practice, is mindfulness: awareness of the present moment (Roth, 2006).

According to Roth (2006), awareness of the present moment is developed in

contemplative pedagogy by expanding learning from Western third person thinking (analyzing,

recording, observing) to include first person investigations (first-hand experience of what is

being learned). The ability to apply what one is learning produces a deeper understanding of the

concept being taught (Roth, 2006). Wang Yangmin, a Neo-Confucian philosopher (1472-1529)

eloquently stated that knowledge depends on personal experience, particularly feelings: “If you

want knowledge of a bitter melon, you must taste one” (Tien, 2004). Contemplative pedagogy

isn’t limited to finding a balance between first and third person investigation, but also includes

7
the need for students to develop reflective, ethical, compassionate and affective skills (Zajonc,

2006).

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

The study consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction, which contains the

introduction and background of the problem. Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature.

Chapter 3 includes methodology, the population being studied, procedures for data collection and

analysis, and instrumentation. Once data has been collected, Chapter 4 will include a

presentation and an analysis of the data. The final chapter, Chapter 5, will conclude the

dissertation and will provide a summary of the findings and recommendations for future

research.

8
 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this study is to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative

pedagogy in higher education by investigating whether there is a relationship between the

integration of contemplative pedagogy into a community college classroom and academic

performance. A comprehensive review of the literature on mindfulness revealed an abundance of

research, focused mainly in clinical settings. Few studies specifically related to mindfulness in

education were found. No research on contemplative pedagogy is currently available, so research

on mindfulness, as it is related to contemplative practices, was reviewed.

Literature Review Strategy

The literature searched for this review was drawn from articles in peer-reviewed journals

and books that are found through the Capella University website. Databases searched included:

EBSCOhost, ProQuest, PsyArticles, Academic Search Premier, ERIC and Dissertations &

Theses, Education, and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences collections. Key terms used to

direct the initial literature search included: contemplative pedagogy, mindfulness, mindfulness

and learning, meditation, meditation and higher education, education, meditation and high school

students, contemplation, contemplative practices, phenomenology and mixed methods research.

This chapter explores theoretical literature that describes contemplative practices and

pedagogy, followed by research related to mindfulness in the classroom. Specifically, research

on attention and information processing, stress and resiliency, and academic achievement are

discussed. Research on mindfulness and meditation in the higher education classroom is

reviewed, along with studies on meditation in secondary schools. Finally, theoretical research in

support of the methodology used in this study is reviewed.

9
 Contemplative Pedagogy

Contemplative practices are defined as teaching methods that support the individual’s

ability to concentrate deeply and achieve insight (The Center for the Contemplative Mind in

Society, 2000-2009). In contemplative education, contemplative practices are integrated into a

traditional classroom in order to facilitate both content and context based learning (Grace, 2011;

Gunnlaugson, 2009).While traditional academia is largely focused on teaching critical thinking

skills and concepts through third person learning, contemplative pedagogy helps students

cultivate self-awareness as a foundation of critical thinking through first-person investigations

(Grace, 2011). Integrating contemplative practices into the classroom shifts the focus of

teaching from what students learn to how they learn (Napora, 2011).

Contemplative practices also provide instruction in meditative reflection (Repetti, 2010).

“Meditation can thus be thought of as extending the continuum of what constitutes education

from more quantifiable, external kinds of knowledge to those which are more interior and

abstract but no less important to students’ overall development (Sarath, 2003, p. 17).”

Contemplative practices offer instructors the opportunity to challenge students to integrate their

own experiences into their learning, and accordingly changing their relationship to the material

they are studying, leading to better retention of the material, as they now have a personal context

in which to remember it (Barbezat & Pingree, 2012). Contemplative practices quiet the mind,

cultivate compassion, focus attention and support the capacity for deep concentration (Craig,

2011; The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society, 2000-2009), “broadening the scope of

human development from what is typically addressed in the educational world (Sarath, 2003, p.

17).”

10
 Naropa University, a leader in contemplative education for 35 years defines

contemplative education as follows (“Contemplative Education”, 2013):

Contemplative education transcends the idea that knowledge arises in the thinking mind
only. Instead, it invites students to embrace the immediacy of their interior lives as a way
to fully integrate what they learn. Contemplative education is more than traditional
education with a course in meditation thrown in; it offers a new approach to what it
means to be educated in the modern Western liberal arts tradition. Woven into the fabric
of the curriculum are practices that include sitting meditation, tai chi chuan, aikido, yoga,
Chinese brushstroke, and ikebana. Students' engagement in these disciplines of
contemplative practice allows them greater depth of insight and concentration.

Despite the lack of empirical studies measuring the effects of contemplative pedagogy on

student success, interest in integrating contemplative practices in higher education is growing.

New Directions for Community Colleges (2010) devoted an entire issue to Contemplative

Teaching and Learning. The academic program in The Center for the Contemplative Mind in

Society has awarded over 100 Contemplative Practice fellowships (funded by the Fetzer

institute), to faculty of various disciplines (Grace, 2011). And, in April of 2012, The University

of Virginia announced its plans to open a Contemplative Sciences Center, fostering research

collaborations between education, medicine, nursing, humanities, business, architecture, and

leadership.

Because many contemplative practices have been developed over the last thousand years,

The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society has created a “Tree of Contemplative

Practices” that represent different categories of practices: 1) Stillness, 2) Activist, 3) Generative

Prayers, 4) Ritual/Cyclical, 5) Relational, 6) Creation Process; and 7) Movement Practices. The

roots of the Tree of Contemplative Practices symbolize the two foundational intentions of all

contemplative practices: development of awareness and promotion of wisdom. Although many

of the practices are grounded in religious traditions (e.g., Lectio Divina or sacred reading), they

11
are also used within a secular context (The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society, 2000-

2013). Despite the variety of contemplative activities, the skill that is the foundation for all

contemplative practices is mindfulness (Burggraf & Grossenbacher, 2007).

Mindfulness

Originally a Buddhist practice spanning thousands of years, mindfulness was intended to

alleviate human suffering (Young, 2011). More recently, scientific interest in mindfulness and

meditation has spanned 40 years (Shapiro, Brown & Astin, 2008). Since the 1990’s, research on

mindfulness and its application to fields as diverse as medicine, law, psychology, and

neuroscience, has grown dramatically. For example, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) has

funded over 150 research projects related to mindfulness between 2005 and 2010 (Williams &

Kabat-Zinn, 2011).

Although well-researched and empirically supported, mindfulness as a construct has been

difficult to define, largely because there are a variety of techniques used to practice mindfulness

meditation. Because of the variety of techniques used, it is difficult to provide a consistent and

coherent framework for mindfulness. That said, in this paper, mindfulness is defined as the

capacity to concentrate in the here and now (Hill, 2006), with constant observation of present

experience (Deikman, 1996).

Originally a Buddhist concept, mindfulness has become integrated within the field of

psychology, most notably in psychotherapy research and practice, such as Dialectical Behavior

Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction

(MBSR) (Davis & Hayes, 2011). In the UK, mindfulness based cognitive therapy is the

mandated treatment for depression (Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011), and ACT is one of the

evidence-based treatments for depression approved by the United States Veterans Affairs

12
(“Depression”, 2012). Moreover, mindfulness has been the central variable in many studies

focused on education, supporting the integration of mindfulness into academic settings (Shapiro,

Brown &Astin, 2008).

Empirical Studies on Effects of Mindfulness in Higher Education

There is strong research support that mindfulness contributes a protective factor in mental

health and improves psychological functioning (Birnie, Garland & Carlson, 2010; Carmody &

Baer, 2008; Gilbert & Christopher, 2009; Robins, Keng, Ekbland & Brantley, 2012).

Mindfulness has also been shown to improve emotional intelligence (Chu, 2010; Corcoran, Farb,

Anderson & Segal, 2010; Moore, Brody & Dierberger, 2009), and foster empathy (Anderson &

Morgan, 2005; Shapiro & Izett, 2008; Morgan & Morgan, 2005). But how does mindfulness

impact education? In a meta-analysis of studies related to the use of meditation in education,

Shapiro, et al. (2008), found that mindfulness skills help develop attention and information

processing, and may have the added benefits of increasing resiliency to stress, as well as improve

academic achievement. Below is a summary of research relevant to mindfulness and education.

Attention and Information Processing

“At the core of mindfulness is the practice of paying attention” (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin,

& Freedman, 2006, p. 376). “Attention” typically refers to the process of attending to different

stimuli (Treadway & Lazar, 2009). Research suggests that the ability to sustain attention during

long periods of time is related to performance (Lutz et al., 2009). Sustaining attention usually

refers to the ability to control attention (Valentine & Sweet, 2009). For most people, lapses in

attention require skills in bringing attention back to the present moment (Lutz et al., 2009). But

can skills related to refocusing attention be learned with mindfulness? Jha, Krompinger and

Baime (2007), investigated whether mindfulness can enhance aspects of attention. The authors

13
studied two groups exposed to different mindfulness training programs. One group consisted of

participants without experience in mindfulness training, and this group was trained in

mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) during the study. The participants in the second

group were experienced meditators who participated in a one month intensive mindfulness

retreat. The groups were tested before and after training. The participants in the control group

were naïve to mindfulness training and did not receive any training during the study. The results

indicated that concentrative meditation improves voluntary attentional selection (focusing), as

both groups showed better conflict monitoring (prioritizing), after the training, and the

concentrative meditators showed improved accuracy performance, and improved orienting

performance (limiting attention) compared to the control group and the MBSR participants. In

summary, the study indicated that mindfulness enhanced the aspects of attention that are related

to maintaining alertness, focusing attention, and prioritizing information.

After three months of meditation training in a silent retreat, Slagter et al., (2007), found

that participants’ performance in an attentional-blink task increased. The task involved

participants’ exposure to two stimuli presented in rapid succession (within a half second of each

other). Typically, the second stimulus is not seen, due to competition for limited attentional

resources. Compared to a control group, the researchers found that after meditation training, the

participants’ ability to attend to the second-stimulus increased, without taking attentional

resources away from the first stimuli.

Valentine and Sweet (1999) investigated the impact of concentrative and mindfulness

mediation on tasks requiring sustained attention. Participants included 19 members of a Buddhist

mediation center. Participants were rated as either concentrative or mindfulness meditators based

on self-reports. The control group included 24 college students, selected to match the

14
participant’s intellectual level. Groups were administered the Wilkins Counting Test, a measure

of sustained focused attention. Results indicated that both groups of meditators showed superior

performance in the ability to avoid distracting thoughts during the Wilkins Counting Test,

compared to the control group (but no difference on this measure between groups of meditators).

Qualitative reports during the study noted that the control group complained about, “How boring

this is” during the task, however none of the meditators had the same complaint.

While Valentine and Sweet’s study showed promising results, subsequent research should

include larger sample sizes and random assignment if possible. Additionally, as the researchers

note (Valentine & Sweet, 2009), different measures of attention need to be used as well. Studies

indicate that paying attention may be a skill that can be learned, but these studies are preliminary

(Shapiro, Brown & Astin, 2008).

Resiliency to Stress

Experiencing stressful emotional states such as anger, anxiety, or depression can interfere

with a student’s ability to pay attention, concentrate, and stay organized. Research in higher

education settings on mindfulness-based meditation (particularly the MBSR- method) and stress

indicates that mindfulness benefits students (Shapiro, Brown & Astin, 2008). Mindfulness

provides individuals the ability to observe their thoughts and emotions, be fully present, while

maintaining a detached, non-judgmental attitude (Kristeller & Hallett, 1999; Schreineer

&Malcolm, 2008). The ability to re-perceive an event is learned by taking a situation as is,

moment-to-moment without attaching a story to the event or experience (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin,

& Freedman, 2006). Mindfulness meditation works to reduce stress by changing cognitions (i.e.,

instead of self-judgment, bringing thoughts back to the present moment), and teaching body self-

15
awareness so that individuals can recognize the initial signs and symptoms of stress (Schriener &

Malcolm, 2008).

In a study designed to examine the effects of an 8-week meditation based stress reduction

program (MBSR), Shapiro, Schwartz and Bonner (1998) hypothesized that the MBSR program

would: 1) Decrease psychological symptoms; 2) Reduce trait and state anxiety; 3) increase

empathy and mindful listening skills in medical and pre-med students. The researchers randomly

assigned 78 participants to either the MBSR-intervention group or the control group. Participants

in the intervention group were divided into two class or approximately 18 participants each. The

two groups were equivalent, with the exception of different facilitators for each group.

Participants in the intervention groups and the control group were measured two times: prior to

and following the intervention.

The results indicated that students reported less psychological distress, trait and state

anxiety, an increase in spiritual experiences, and an overall significant increase in empathy. This

study is particularly noteworthy, because it contributes to research supporting that mindfulness

meditation is effective for non-clinical populations.

In a study measuring the effects of mindfulness meditation versus somatic relaxation

training in full-time medical and graduate nursing students, Jain (et al., 2007), found that while

there were no differences between groups in distress and positive mood states over time, the

meditation group did show significant differences in reduction of distractive and ruminative

thoughts and behaviors. The researchers’ hypothesize that the development of mindfulness skills

that involve the ability to redirect attention away from distressing thoughts and behaviors and

back to the present moment reduce psychological distress, and that this reduction in ruminations

16
and distressing thoughts and behaviors is a result of mindfulness meditation, and not relaxation

alone.

Oman et al., (2008) tested the effects of meditation on stress in an 8-week meditation

based stress management program for college undergraduates. The participants were enrolled in

a Roman Catholic University and ranged in age from 18-24 years and were randomly assigned to

meet in two different meditation-based groups, or a control group that met weekly in 90-minute

sessions for eight weeks. The results supported the researcher’s hypothesis that meditation-based

stress management would lower the perceived stress levels of undergraduate college students.

The researchers also found that meditation increased forgiveness and reduced rumination.

Although the study included randomization, generalizability is limited as there was a relatively

small sample size (N=48), and most of the participants were White, Roman Catholic, women in

their first year of college.

Tang et al. (2007) showed that short-term meditation training can reduce stress and

increase attention. 40 Chinese undergraduates were randomly assigned to either an experimental

or a control group for five days of 20-minute integrative meditation training or relaxation

training. The results indicated that the experimental group showed significant improvement in

reaction to stress, increased attention and self-regulation. Obviously the study lacks in

generalizabiltiy because the all of the participants in the study were Chinese.

Academic achievement.

There is scant controlled experimental research available on academic achievement and

meditation, mindfulness or contemplative pedagogy. In a small study designed to explore if

meditation is beneficial to students, Hall (1999), tested the following questions: 1) Will

participants who mediate for a semester have significantly higher semester GPA’s than non-

17
meditators, and; 2) Compared to non-meditators, will meditators have higher cumulative GPA’s?

Fifty-six undergraduates enrolled in a historically Black college were randomly assigned to

meditation and non-mediation groups. The groups did not differ in GPA prior to the study.

Participants met in semester long study groups; each group lasted one hour. The experimental

group received 10 minutes of meditation practice in the beginning of each group. The meditation

practice consisted of breathing techniques, relaxation and attention-building skills. The control

group studied for one hour. Results indicated that after a semester meditating, the experimental

group had higher GPA’s than the control group (non-meditators). Additionally, the results

indicated that the meditation group had higher cumulative GPA’s than the non-meditators.

Although this study yielded significant results in favor of meditation, the small sample size and

lack of diversity among the participants limit generalizability.

Empirical Studies of Mindfulness and College Students

There are only a few studies available on mindfulness and undergraduate students. These

studies are focused primarily on lowering stress levels in first-year undergraduate students.

While the research supports the inclusion of mindfulness programs for undergraduate students as

a means to lower stress, it is unknown if mindfulness in the classroom has any benefit for

students. In addition, these studies focus on the stressors that undergraduates who are moving

away from home for the first time face—community college students on the other hand are

experiencing different and multiple stressors that include multiple roles (parent and student) and

financial pressures (Scrivener & Coghlan, 2011)

In a study designed to explore the relationship between mindfulness, stress, and health

behaviors in college students, Roberts & Danoff (2010) recruited undergraduate students (n=553)

for their study. The majority of the participants were White (68.4%) females (n=385) and the

18
mean age of the participants was 18.8 years. The researchers hypothesized that students who had

higher scores on mindfulness would also report better health. Participants completed an online

survey with the following questionnaires: 1) The Five-Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire

(FFMQ); 2) The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System; 3) Weight and Lifestyle Inventory;

4) Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; 5) Binge Eating Scale; 6) Activity Restriction Items; 7)

Overall Health; 8) The Short-Form Perceived Stress Scale.

The results indicated that higher levels of mindfulness were related to better physical and

psychological functioning, and that mindfulness is related to decreased stress, which is beneficial

for college students. Also noted are limitations that the participants were mostly White female

European American college students, so generalizability is limited. Future studies should include

a more diverse population, and other measurements of mindfulness.

In another study measuring the effects of mindfulness on stress in college students,

Palmer & Rodger (2009) tested a sample of freshman students in a Canadian University. The

participant pool was 1,200 students, from which 135 completed the survey packages that were

mailed. 91% of the participants were female students and the majority identified themselves as

Euro-Canadian (n=88). The survey packages contained: 1) General demographic data; 2)

Perceived Stress Scale; and 3) Coping Style Questionnaire. Despite a relatively low participation

rate, the results indicated that mindfulness can help college students cope with stress: the

researchers’ identified the ability to remain aware of the present moment as a positive approach

to handling stress.

In a pilot study designed to assess mindfulness as a method to reduce stress, anxiety and

depression, Teitelbaum & Ouellette (2012) surveyed a small sample (n=49) of students in an

introductory psychology class. The participants completed measures of mindfulness, perceived

19
stress, self-esteem, psychological symptoms and quality of sleep. Results indicated a negative

correlation between psychological symptoms and mindfulness. The results support the

implementation of mindfulness programs in higher education; however the sample size in this

study was too small to yield statistical significance.

There are a few studies available on mindfulness in the undergraduate college classroom.

Mapel (2012) designed a study to determine how students’ felt about learning mindfulness in the

classroom. Participants included 49 students enrolled in a Polytechnic training program at a

university in New Zealand. The age of the participants ranged from 18-50, 42 were female and

seven participants were male. At the start of each class, participants were given 5-7 minute

guided mindfulness meditation practice. Participants were given a questionnaire that collected

quantitative (age and gender) and qualitative data regarding their experience doing mindfulness

in the class. The results indicated that the majority of students found the practice of mindfulness

in the classroom acceptable and beneficial to their education, the managements of stress, and an

enhancement to their personal lives. Response rates for participants in the 20’s age group were

very low however, making it difficult to draw conclusions about this group.

Helber, Zook & Immergut (2012) conducted a small scale pre and posttest study to

determine if incorporating meditation training in the classroom can effect students’ executive

functions (the ability to plan, control behavior and set goals). The study consisted of students

enrolled in either an upper division sociology (experimental group, N= 18) or psychology course

(control group, N=13). Participants in the experimental group were given 10 minutes of guided

meditation in the beginning of each class, and instructed to meditate on their own, outside of

class, and keep a journal, recording their experience meditating, and the days and times they

mediated outside of class. Cognitive changes were assessed by giving participants in both groups

20
the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Trail Making Test within the first two and last two

weeks of class. Results indicated that both groups showed improvement in scores from the

pretest to posttest, with no significant difference between groups. However, the researcher’s note

that there was a difference in scores between the groups, with the experimental group yielding

higher scores, but that the small sample prevented statistical significance.

In a paper written to explore the integration of mindfulness in the higher education

classroom, Bush (2011) summarizes the methods used by Contemplative Practice Fellows, in the

program funded and supported by the Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society. Fellows

have successfully integrated contemplative practices in their classrooms, but still there is no

proof, in the form of controlled experiments or rigorous qualitative research that supports the use

of contemplative practices in the classroom, or that contemplative pedagogy has any value to

students. Bush was the co-founder of the Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society and

served as their Executive Director until 2008 (“Our Team”, 2000-2011), and so is a strong

proponent of using contemplative practices in education. Still she writes (2011):

What value does mindful engagement offer to each discipline, both epistemologically and

pedagogically? Does it enhance the creative process, deepen student’s engagement with

the material or lead to specific insights? (p. 195)

Empirical Studies of Mindfulness in Secondary Education

In the last 15 years, many K-12 programs have begun to explore integrating mindfulness

programs into their classrooms and curriculum. However, like contemplative pedagogy in higher

education, mindfulness practices in K-12 education is an emerging field and peer-reviewed data

is scarce (Meiklehohn et al., 2012). The research on mindfulness and late adolescence that is

available, however is relevant to this study considering that there is an increase in traditional-age

21
students (Chen, 2013) and high-school students enrolled in community colleges (Chen, 2008),

therefore a summary of the research on contemplative practices in secondary education is

included below.

Mindfulness practices have been integrated into K-12 schools as a way to decrease

teacher stress and burnout, decrease stress for students, and increase concentration and

attentional skills for students (Meiklehohn et al., 2012). Mindfulness practices can also help

increase students’ academic achievement, social skills and feelings of empowerment (Tadlock-

Marlo, 2011). Integrating mindfulness practices in schools can also help students manage issues

like anxiety, depression, ADHD, substance abuse and eating disorders (Docksai, 2013).

To evaluate the mindfulness program Learning to BREATHE on adolescents in a

classroom session, Broderick & Metz (2009) developed a pilot non-randomized quasi-

experiment at an all-girls secondary school. The Learning to BREATHE program is designed to

teach adolescents emotion regulation skills through mindfulness practices. Participants included

the senior class (n=120, average age 17.4 years) as the experimental group, and the control group

included junior girls (n=30, average age 16.4). The Learning to Breathe program was integrated

into the health component of the curriculum, preventing the use of a matched control group.

Participants were given the following measures for pre and posttests: Positive and Negative

Affect Schedule (PANAS), Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), Ruminative

Response Scale (RRS), and the Somatization Index of the Child Behavior Checklist (SICBC).

Learning to BREATHE program sessions were given to the experimental group twice a week for

42 weeks during Health class. Results indicated that participants in the experimental group

reported increased feelings of calmness, relaxation, emotion regulation and self-acceptance,

along with decreased tiredness and aches and pains. The authors’ acknowledge the study’s

22
limited applicability, particularly regarding the age and possible developmental differences

between the experimental and control groups.

Colbert (2013) designed a study to determine if transcendental meditation (TM) would

affect high school drop- out rates among low-income students of color. The participants included

142 students who volunteered to be included in the transcendental group, and 93 students who

joined the school’s Quiet Time program. Participants in the transcendental group were taught

TM in a seven-step course, and then given time to practice for 15 minutes at the start and end of

the school day, supervised by either a teacher or TM teacher. Participants were also encouraged

to practice as much as possible at home. The participants in the control group were not exposed

to a meditation practice during Quiet Time. Colbert analyzed students’ records, and included

overall G.P.A., and post high school plans. The results showed significant differences in

graduation rates among the TM students compared to the controls. There was a 25% difference

between the low G.P.A. group, and high G.P.A. group. A higher percentage (21%) of students

from the control group dropped out compared to the TM group (5%). As for college acceptance,

51% of the participants from the TM group were accepted into college compared with 33% of

college acceptances in the control group. Results of this study are impressive, and indicate that

including TM in a high school program can significantly improve high school graduation and

college acceptance rates. The author acknowledges that one of the key factors in the success in

this program is that the whole school (teachers, counselors, administrators) collaborated in the

TM program, and that future programs might want to consider including TM in earlier grade-

levels.

Elder (et al., 2011) designed the first study to test the effects of TM on racial and ethnic

minority students in high school students. A total of n=106 (n=68 in the experimental group;

23
n=38 in the control group) high school students in four different school sites participated in the

program. The experimental group were taught TM in a seven step course and practiced two times

a day for 15 minutes during Quiet Time. The control group also received Quiet Time, but did not

practice meditation. The following measures were used as pre and posttests: The Strengths and

Difficulties Questionnaire, The Spiel-Berger State Trait Anxiety for Children, and the Mental

Health Inventory. Results revealed that TM is effective in reducing psychological distress in

racial and ethnic minority high school students, particularly in reducing psychological symptoms

and train anxiety. The authors believe the findings can assist in improving educational outcomes

and long term health outcomes in racial and ethnic minorities.

Research on Methodological Literature

Mixed methods research is an emerging innovative research design (Simpson, 2011) that

combines elements from qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a broader and deeper

understanding of a topic than would be achieved by using one method alone (Klingner &

Broadman, 2011). Additionally, mixed methods research, by design can balance the limitations

of quantitative and qualitative methods (Griffin & Museus, 2011). For example, quantitative

methods have been criticized for not be able to aid in understanding the complexities of human

nature, and qualitative methods are costly, time consuming, and difficult to analyze (Griffin &

Museus, 2011). Mixing qualitative and quantitative designs in educational research provides

causal explanations without neglecting the importance of meaning and the role of context

(Maxwell, 2004).Mixed methods research studies are appropriate particularly for educational

psychology because quantitative data can tell us whether a program is successful, and qualitative

data can tell us why or why not (Slayton & Llosa, 2005). However, mixed-methods research

tends to take more time and effort to conduct than using one method alone, making this type of

24
study less popular to conduct than one based on a single method (Niglas, 2004). Mixed methods

research studies also pose challenges in publishing due to the complexity of the research,

methodological challenges and practical restrictions in manuscript length by journal publishers

(Lopez-Fernandez & Molina-Azorin, 2011). Additionally, most doctoral students graduate from

their respective programs without ever taking a course designed to teach mixed-methods research

(Onwuegbuzie, Frels, Collins, & Leech, 2013). In fact, despite research that supports the use of

mixed methods research (Borland, 2001), researchers have been reluctant to pursue mixed

methods in higher education research (Griffin & Museus, 2011). This may be due lack of

training in graduate programs, the additional time, effort, and cost it takes to design and conduct

mixed methods research, or any combination of these variables.

Sequential Explanatory Design

Over forty models of mixed methods designs have been identified by Teddlie &

Tashakkori (2009). The sequential explanatory design has become a popular design used for

mixed methods research and consists of two phases: Frist, the researcher collects quantitative

data, followed by qualitative data collection. The qualitative data is used to explain or understand

the quantitative data (Ivankova, Creswell & Stick, 2006). There are a few advantages to this

methodology. Since the two methodologies are conducted sequentially, the structure of the study

is easy to design, and the results can be discussed separately, with integration occurring during

the discussion section of the paper (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). The main purpose of

conducting a sequential explanatory design study is to use quantitative data to provide a general

understanding of the topic, while qualitative data can help explain the statistical results

(Ivankova, Creswell &Stick, 2006). This design is especially useful when quantitative results are

unexpected (Morse, 1991).

25
 There are a few methodological challenges with this design, however. Consideration has

to be given to the weight or priority given to quantitative and qualitative data. The sequencing of

data collection and analysis has to be decided upon as well. Additionally, combining two

methodologies in a single study extends the length of the study which may also increase costs

(Ivankova, Creswell & Stick, 2006). The complexities and challenges involved with decision

making, writing- up findings, analyzing, integrating, and interpreting results make this approach

extremely complicated (Carr, 2009).

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical perspective that seeks to understand the everyday

experience of a phenomenon without relying on preformed opinions or knowledge (Converse,

2012). Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a research method (Baillie, 1996). The

historical roots of phenomenology can be found in Plato’s, Allegory of the Cave, which

illustrates the understanding that appearances can be very different than reality, as well as early

Buddhist and Hindu philosophers who reflected on different states of consciousness (Smith,

2008). The philosophers in the 19th and 20th centuries who had the most influence on

phenomenology are Husserl and Heidegger. Husserl’s main contribution to phenomenology was

the concept of philosophical reduction—the stripping away of the researcher’s preconceived

notions of a phenomenon to reveal the essence of the phenomenon being studied. Heidegger, was

a protégé of Husserl’s and shifted the focus away from knowing a phenomenon through one’s

experience with the phenomenon, to the idea that “knowing” is a never-ending circular process,

and researchers must come to know their preconceptions before entering into the circle of

knowledge (Converse, 2012).

26
 Phenomenology as a research method can be described as the science of experience. The

researcher studies the phenomenon over and over again until the researcher uncovers the essence

and true interpretation of the phenomenon among the variety of interpretations. The

interpretations however may be biased because of external influences that affect the perception

of the phenomenon by the consciousness (Kellenberger, 1995). The phenomenological method

relies on the description of phenomena as they are given to consciousness, in their immediacy.

However, to perceive phenomena objectively, the consciousness needs to free the perception of

those phenomena of external, biased influences (Strauss, 1987).

Moustakas is one of the prominent proponents of the phenomenological method.

Moustakas developed the transcendental phenomenological approach, which is the, “Scientific

study of the appearance of things, of phenomena just as we see them and as they appear to us in

consciousness” (Moutsakas, 1994, p. 49)…in other words, looking at a phenomenon with a fresh

eye, and an open mind. (Chun, 2013). Moustakas’ approach involves the following steps

(Moustakas, 1994). An important first step in phenomenological research is getting to the

essence of things through the process of epoche—meaning refrain from judgment in Greek-- in

which the researcher will set aside what her or she already knows about the experience in order

to suspend the external, biased perception that he or she has of the phenomenon. Epoche takes

place during data collection, when interviews take place because the researcher can interview

participants with “an unbiased, receptive presence” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 180). Second, the

researcher identifies patterns and textural descriptions of the participants’ experiences, and last, a

composite description of the meanings and experiences is created (Moerrer-Urdahl & Creswell,

2004).

27
 Summary

There is a robust amount of research available on the benefits of mindfulness practices in

the psychological literature, most of which is focused on the understanding and treatment of

psychological disorders. Only recently mindfulness practices have been integrated into other

fields—including higher education. The research on contemplative practices, mindfulness, and

education shows strong support for including mindfulness based practices in the classroom.

Research on cognition and stress shows that mindfulness can support students by increasing

attention and concentration skills, and lowering stress levels; however, there is still a need for

more controlled studies, diverse populations, larger sample sizes and longitudinal research. This

literature has revealed that instructors have been using studies that are focused on clinical

populations or stress-reduction programs to support the use of contemplative practices in the

classroom. There aren’t any controlled randomized trials testing the integration of meditation,

mindfulness, or contemplative practices in the community college classroom, demonstrating a

serious gap in the literature, which this study is attempting to fill.

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 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this mixed methodology study is to contribute to the limited knowledge

on contemplative pedagogy in higher education. This study will investigate whether there is a

relationship between the integration of contemplative pedagogy into a community college

classroom and academic performance. It will also seek to understand students’ lived experiences

of using contemplative practices in the classroom.

Specifically, the research study is designed to answer the following questions:

1) Is there a significant difference between groups (contemplative and traditional) in

final course cumulative scores?

2) Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and traditional) in the

acquisition of mindfulness skills?

3) What is a student’s lived experience of contemplative practices in the classroom?

Research Design

A sequential explanatory design was used for this study (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007).

Both quantitative and qualitative data are needed in order to fully understand whether

contemplative pedagogy can support student success (Hanson et al, 2005). This two-phased

mixed methods design will use qualitative data to understand results from the quantitative data

(Creswall & Plano Clark, 2007). One of the challenges in designing mixed methods studies is to

determine which method is given more weight or priority in the data collection process.

Typically, in sequential explanatory designs, priority is given to quantitative data, because it is

usually collected first, although this isn’t always the case (Ivankova, Creswell & Stick, 2006). In

29
this study, equal weight was given to both quantitative and qualitative data, although the

quantitative data was collected first. For this study, quantitative data can show whether

contemplative pedagogy is effective with a specific population: community college students. The

qualitative data was used to explain why contemplative pedagogy was or was not effective,

providing a holistic understanding of contemplative pedagogy in higher education (Creswell,

2007). Data collected through interviews helps comprehend which factors may have contributed

to the effect of the contemplative pedagogy methodologies (Berliner, 2002). Phenomenological

qualitative data, provides an understanding of how community college students experience

contemplative pedagogy: ‘How they perceive it, describe it, feel about it, judge it, remember it,

make sense of it, and talk about it with others” (Patton, 2002, p. 104).Various research designs

were considered when planning this study however, after considering the questions and

population to be studied, a mixed methods design was the best approach to use in order to answer

all of the research questions.

Quantitative Design

A quasi-experimental design was used. Quasi-experimental designs do not include

random assignment, and they do not control for all confounding variables (Leedy & Ormrod,

2005). However, quasi-experimental designs are appropriate for research studies in educational

psychology because it is nearly impossible to include randomization (DeAnda 2007).

Additionally, the use of a pretest can at least confirm the groups’ similarities for the dependent

variable (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005).

For the research question: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores, a non- randomized control group pretest-posttest

design was used. Non randomized control group pretest-posttest design includes two groups of

30
participants that have not been randomly assigned, and pre and post treatment observations

(Leedy & Ormrod, 2005).

For the research question: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills, a non- randomized control group pretest-

posttest design was also used.

Qualitative Design

The purpose of the qualitative portion of this study is to understand the participants’ lived

experience of contemplative pedagogy; therefore a phenomenological approach was used.

Phenomenological research seeks to, “Describe the depth and meaning of participants’ lived

experience.”(Hays & Wood, 2011). The phenomenological approach explores how people make

sense of their experiences, both individually and collectively (Patton, 2002). In this study,

participants were asked to describe in semi-structured interviews (See Appendix B), how they

experienced contemplative pedagogy in the classroom. Data collected via a phenomenological

approach provides rich, detailed information of the internal experience of individuals who have

experienced contemplative pedagogy, and this data was used to understand quantitative results

(Hays & Wood, 2011).

For the research question: What is a student’s lived experience of contemplative practices

in the classroom? Moustakas’ (1994) method of transcendental phenomenology was used to

organize and analyze data. Data to answer this research question was gathered through

individual semi-structured interviews with a select number of participants, which was audiotaped

and transcribed (Creswell, 2007). Data from interviews (See Appendix B) was used to describe

the essence of the participant’s lived experience, from a small group of people who have

experienced the phenomenon (Creswell, 2007).

31
 Target Population and Participant Selection

The target population is comprised of male and female community college students. The

study was conducted at a community college in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. This

community college has three campuses, and at the campus where the research was conducted,

there are 6,000 students of which approximately 25% are international students and 38% of the

population are between the ages of 18 – 20. The mean age is 25. The population is mostly White

(45%), followed by Black (23%) Asian (15%) and Hispanic (13%). The majority of student

population is female (55%) (as stated in the college’s fact sheet).

The sample will consist of male and female community college students who are at least

18 years old. In order to be included in the study, students will have to be registered in a

psychology course. Other than the minimum age requirement, there is not any exclusion

criterion. A small sample was recruited from the population for the qualitative component. The

participants recruited for the qualitative portion will not be any different than the larger sample.

The students will sign an informed consent indicating their willingness to participate in the

research. Participants were recruited from the psychology courses they are enrolled in that

semester. These courses include those that the researcher is teaching, and courses that other

psychology professors are teaching. It is appropriate for faculty to recruit their own students as

participants when it is essential for those students to assist in answering research questions that

focus on pedagogy (Ferguson, 2004). Additionally, student participation is central to answering

the research question, and the study cannot be conducted with another population (Ferguson,

Yonge & Myrick, 2004).

The sampling procedure used is purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is convenient

and appropriate in this study because the participants are representative of the typical community

32
college student, and the researcher is a faculty member at this college, making the participants

accessible to the researcher (Calderhead, 2008; Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Students who met the

inclusion criteria and who returned the consent forms were selected to participate in the

quantitative portion of the study. Students assigned themselves to each course through the

registration process, and although random assignment is not assumed in quasi-experiments, the

researcher drew course registration numbers (CRN’s) from a hat to assign each class to either the

control or comparison group in order to reduce researcher bias. Since initial participation rates

were low, however, the researcher added another course to the study to increase the pool of

participants in the contemplative group. This course was not included in the random assignment.

Participants for the qualitative portion of the study were recruited through purposive sampling

and selected from the contemplative group, which is described more thoroughly under

“Procedures” below. Almost all qualitative studies recruit participants through purposive

sampling strategies, in order to recruit “information-rich cases” into the study (Gelo, Braakman

& Benetka, 2008; Patton, 1990, p. 169).

Sample size

Quantitative Sample Size.

For research question 1: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores? The final cumulative scores were compared

between the two groups. An independent samples t test was used to analyze the data. In order to

determine what sample size is large enough to test RQ1, an a priori power analysis for the

difference between two independent means (two-tailed) was conducted to determine the

minimum number of participants needed to observe a medium effect size (d = .50). With an

alpha of .05 and a power of .80, power analysis revealed that a total of 128 participants (n = 64

33
per group) was needed to detect a medium effect (critical t(100) = 1.98) (Faul, Erdfelbler,

Buchner & Lang, 2009).

For research question 2: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills? To answer this question, the mindfulness

skills were compared between the two groups, controlling for the mindfulness skills at the

beginning of the class, via an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). An a priori power analysis for

the difference between two independent means controlling for pre-course means (two-tailed) was

conducted to determine the minimum number of participants needed to observe a medium effect

size (f = .25). With an alpha of .05 and a power of .80, a power analysis revealed that a total of

128 participants (n = 64 per group) would be needed to detect a medium effect (critical F(1, 126)

= 3.92) (Faul, Erdfelbler, Buchner & Lang, 2009).

Qualitative Sample Size.

To answer the qualitative research question: What is a student’s lived experience of

contemplative practices in the classroom? only a small sample (i.e., between three and ten

participants) is needed for in-depth interviews, in order to understand the meaning and logic of

their experience (Dukes, 1984; Polkinghorne, 1989; Riemen 1986). Additionally, because the

skill of bracketing in phenomenology is difficult to learn, researchers are often tempted to see

what they want to see. As a result, Dukes (1984) recommends extensive interviews with small

samples. As noted by Creswell (2007) and Polkinghorne (1989), generalizability is not a factor

in qualitative research, but the ability to collect extensive data, in order to deepen the

understanding of the phenomenon is. According to Moustakas (1994), when selecting qualitative

participants, there is no specific criteria to follow, but consideration should be given to finding

participants who have experienced the phenomenon, are willing to participate in a lengthy,

34
audio-taped interview, and are willing to allow the researcher to publish the data from the

interview. Therefore, purposive sampling was used to select ideally 3-10 participants from the

contemplative group who are available for in-depth interviews after the semester has completed.

Procedures

After institutional approval was granted, faculty were recruited as secondary researchers

to participate in the study the semester before the research began. Secondary researchers were

trained by the primary researcher in how to integrate contemplative pedagogy into the classroom.

The training was completed in a workshop format that lasted approximately one and a half hours.

At the start of the semester in which the study took place, participants were selected for the study

by randomly assigning classes to either the contemplative or traditional groups by drawing

course CRN numbers from a hat. One class was added later to the contemplative group and not

included in the random assignment. Either the secondary researcher or the primary researcher

(who was not the instructor of the course) met with the potential participants in the classrooms

during the second week of class, explained the research study, answered questions and handed

out informed consent forms. The informed consent forms for the contemplative group included

consent for both the quantitative and qualitative parts of the research, and the informed consent

forms for the traditional group obtained consent for only the quantitative portion of the study.

The signed consent forms were then kept in a locked filing cabinet in a research assistant’s (who

was not one of the instructors) locked office, until final grades for that semester were turned in.

Quantitative Procedures

For the quantitative portion of the study, the following procedures took place:

1) The KIMS pretest was distributed after the informed consent forms were collected, to

both contemplative and traditional groups via the informed consent form which contained

35
 a link to the online survey data. Additionally, participants were given laptop computers to

use in class to fill out the surveys, or were moved to a classroom with a computer at each

desk, whether they chose to be participants in the research or not. This way,

confidentiality of the participants and non- participants was protected, as no one “stood

out” for not having a computer. Participants also received e-mail reminders to complete

the survey in order to increase response rates, in case participants were absent from class

that day (Kittleson, 1997). The e-mail reminders contained a hyperlink to the online

survey, but could not track the identity of who completed the survey. Since participants

were given access to a computer during class, and a link to a survey, they had an added

measure of confidentiality, as there was no way for another participant, or student, or the

instructor to know who was an actual participant in the study since participants who were

not filling out the survey in class could easily fill out the survey from another computer

outside of class.

1) The researcher and secondary researchers taught the classes using contemplative or

traditional pedagogical methods. Instructors of the contemplative group used practices

listed in on the Tree of Contemplative Practices. The instructors of the traditional class

did not include any contemplative practices in their classes.

2) During the last week of the semester, participants in both groups were reminded by the

secondary researcher (not the instructor of the class) to take the KIMS posttest, in the

online survey format. As in the pretest, participants’ received e-mail reminders that

included the hyperlink to the online survey. Additionally, both groups had access to

individual laptop computers to fill out surveys in class.

36
 3) At the end of the semester, final course scores were calculated, and the raw data from

final scores and the KIMS Pre and Post tests were analyzed.

4) Results from the data analysis of the quantitative portion were used to inform the

qualitative portion of the study and this process will be discussed in Chapter 4.

Qualitative Procedures

1) During the last week of classes, participants in the contemplative group were asked

by a secondary researcher (not the instructor of the class) to consider participating in

the qualitative portion of the study. Potential participants were asked to contact the

researcher after final grades were posted for the semester. Potential participants were

given the primary researchers’ contact information and instructions on how and when

to contact the researcher for interviews.

2) From the contemplative group, 70 participants were recruited, and the researcher

expected that between three-10 qualitative participants would volunteer to be

interviewed after the semester ended.

3) Prior to conducting qualitative interviews, the researcher described and wrote down

her own experience with contemplative pedagogy. The process called epoche enabled

the researcher to set aside her own preconceived notions of contemplative pedagogy

(Moustakas, 1994).

4) Interviews were scheduled, and conducted in the researcher’s office, located on the

college campus, which is private. Semi-structured qualitative interviews (See

Appendix B) were audiotaped, and participant’s confidentiality was maintained by

using a number to code data rather than participant’s name or other identifying

information.

37
 5) Interviews were transcribed, and analyzed using the steps outlined by Moustakas

(1994) for transcendental phenomenology.

6) Quantitative and qualitative data were integrated in Chapter 5.

Instruments & Measures

For research question 1: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores? To answer this question, final course cumulative

scores were calculated. The final course cumulative scores include grades from: tests, papers,

reflection journals, service learning and class participation. A mean score for each group was

calculated.

For research question 2: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills? The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness

Skills (Baer, Smith & Allen, 2004) was used as a pre- and posttest measure to answer this

research question. The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) was manually entered

on to SurveyMonkey. Internet surveys ensure anonymity (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava & John,

2004) and increase comfort and motivation among participants (Barry, 2001).

The KIMS was designed to measure an individual’s ability to be mindful in daily life.

The inventory is useful for general and clinical populations who may or may not have had

meditation experience. KIMS measures several components of mindfulness (Baer et al, 2004):

1) Observing, 2) Describing, 3) Acting with awareness and; 4) Accepting (or allowing) without

judgment. The instrument contains 39 items and participants rate each item on a 5-point Likert

scale that ranges from 1 (never or very rarely true) to 5 (almost always or always true).

Content validity of KIMS was measured using expert raters consisting of psychologists and

doctoral students who had experience with Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), a type of

38
psychotherapeutic intervention created by Marsha Linehan (1993) that teaches mindfulness skills

to individuals with borderline personality disorder. The KIMS yielded a mean interrater

agreement ranging from 64% to 100% for individual items, with a mean of 86% overall,

indicating adequate to good content validity (Baer et al, 2004).

Internal consistency was measured using two samples of undergraduate students (n =

420) and one sample of adults diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (n = 26). Internal

consistency ranged from .76 to .91, indicating adequate to good internal consistency (Baer et al.,

2004).

Test-retest reliability was measured using students from Sample Number 2 (n = 49).

Correlations for each component were as follows: Observe (.65), Describe (.81), Act with

awareness (.86); and Accept without judgment (.83), indicating adequate to good test-retest

reliability (Baer et al., 2004).

For the research question: What is a student’s lived experience of contemplative practices

in the classroom? Moustakas’ steps for transcendental phenomenology were followed: 1)

epoche; 2) transcendental phenomenological reduction; and 3) imaginative variation; 4)

Textural-structural synthesis of the data (Kostere & Percy, 2008, p. 51, Moustakas, 1994). Data

to answer this research question were gathered through individual semi-structured interviews

which were audiotaped and transcribed (Creswell, 2007). Semi-structured interviews (see

Appendix B) are formal interviews, during which the researcher follows a guide, or preselected

set of questions, with the flexibility to veer from the guide if necessary (“Semi-structured

interviews”, 2008). Data from interviews was used to describe the essence of the participant’s

lived experience, for a small group of people who have experienced the phenomenon (Creswell,

2007).

39
 Research Questions and Hypothesis

Below are the research questions the study is attempting to answer, along with the

hypotheses for the quantitative questions:

Research Question 1 (Quantitative):

Is there a significant difference between groups (contemplative and traditional) in final

course cumulative scores?

Hypothesis 1:

H01: There will be no difference between contemplative and traditional groups in final

course cumulative scores.

HA1: The contemplative group will have higher final course cumulative scores than the

traditional group.

Research Question 2 (Quantitative):

Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and traditional) in the acquisition of

mindfulness skills?

Hypothesis 2:

Ho2: There will be no difference between groups on scores from the Kentucky Inventory

of Mindfulness Skills.

HA2: There will be a difference between groups on scores from the Kentucky Inventory

of Mindfulness Skills.

Research Question 3 (Qualitative):

What is a student’s lived experience of contemplative practices in the classroom?

40
 Variables

The independent variable is either the contemplative practices or traditional group. In the

contemplative practices group, classroom pedagogy will include any of the practices listed on

The Tree of Contemplative Practices (The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society, 2000-

2009). Contemplative practices are exercises that support the individual’s ability to concentrate

deeply and to achieve insight (The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society, 2000-2009).

For example, in the contemplative group, the instructors may integrate the following exercises

into the classroom: journaling, visualization, mindfulness meditation exercises, guided

meditation, and service work. In the traditional classroom, classroom pedagogy will consist of

primarily lecture and discussion. The pedagogy in the traditional classroom will not contain any

contemplative practices.

The dependent variables are mindfulness skills and academic success. Mindfulness is

defined as the capacity to concentrate in the here and now (Hill, 2006), with constant observation

of present experience (Deikman, 1996). Mindfulness is a skill that is the foundation for

contemplative practices (Burggraf & Grossenbacher, 2007). Academic success is defined as the

student’s final cumulative scores at the end of the semester (Ullah & Wilson, 2007). These

variables were used to determine whether the contemplative teaching practices could increase the

students’ mindfulness and academic success.

Data Analysis

Statistical Analysis

For research question 1: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores? To answer this question, the researcher compared

the final cumulative scores between the two groups. Scores were analyzed by an independent

41
samples t- test. The independent samples t test is appropriate because it is used to test the

difference between the means of two independent groups (Howell, 2008). Further, the

independent t-test can manage the variability of the means from two different groups, and

estimate the standard error of the mean difference from the variances and sample sizes (Norusis,

2005-2011).

For research question 2: Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills? To answer this question, the researcher

compared the mindfulness skills between the two groups, controlling for the mindfulness skills at

the beginning of the class. This was analyzed using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).

ANCOVA is the appropriate statistic because it holds one variable constant while testing the

difference between the means of two independent groups. In this study, it will hold the pretest

scores constant while comparing the difference between the posttest scores across groups

(Sherry, 1997). The ANCOVA will ensure that the two independent groups start out

approximately equal by removing the effects of pre-existing mindfulness skills, without having

to use a repeated measures design (Lowry, 1999-2011).

Qualitative Analysis

Audiotaped interviews were transcribed and Moustakas’ transcendental phenomenology

was used for data analysis (Moustakas, 1994). The first step in the analysis is epoche, which

required the researcher to look at the phenomena in a fresh way (Moustakas, 1994) through self-

reflection (Patton, 2002), and then setting aside any biases or preconceived ideas, so that the

researcher avoids looking at the phenomenon from a biased view (Moustakas, 1994). The next

step is transcendental-phenomenological reduction, in which the researcher bracketed

information directly related to the phenomenon, identified key words or phrases that illustrate a

42
textural description of the phenomenon, and removed any statements that overlapped or were

unclear (Kostere & Percy, 2008; Moustakas, 1994). Next, meanings were made from themes that

consistently appeared in the data, as the researcher used imaginative variation to identify

structural descriptions of the experience, that account for how the experience came to be

(Kostere & Percy, 2008). Lastly, textural and structural meanings were integrated and

synthesized (Moustakas, 1994).

Data Storage

Storage of both quantitative and qualitative data were as follows: Data from participants’

end of the semester grades were recorded anonymously and maintained on a password protected

computer, located in the researcher’s locked office. Qualitative participants’ anonymity was

protected by assigning each participant a number. Data from qualitative interviews, including

demographic information, audio recording transcriptions and notes were identified by number

only, and were also held in the researcher’s password protected computer in a locked office.

Handwritten notes did not link to any participant’s identifying information, and were held in a

locked filing cabinet in the researcher’s locked office.

Data Integration

The purpose of the data is to complement each other (Schifferdecker & Reed, 2009).

Quantitative was used to examine if contemplative pedagogy supports student success and the

acquisition of mindfulness skills. The qualitative data was be used to provide in-depth,

comprehensive and contextual understandings of the experience of contemplative pedagogy

(Creswell, 2007). Data analysis is integrated in Chapter 5, through combining information from

the quantitative and qualitative data and exploring areas of overlap or uniqueness (Ivankova,

Creswell & Stick, 2006). Data was integrated to assist in enhancing the effectiveness of

43
contemplative pedagogy, clarifying results, describing research findings (Schifferdecker & Reed,

2009) and drawing inferences and implications for future study (Ivankova, Crewswell & Stick,

2006).

Ethical Considerations

Even when student participants are essential in the research study, there are ethical issues

involved, largely because a power differential exists between students and their professors

(Ridley, 2009). Students who are participants in research are considered captive participants,

because their ability to consent voluntarily is compromised, and they are vulnerable to the power

of the researcher. Engaging students in research also puts the researcher in a dual role, possibly

creating a conflict of interest (Ferguson, 2004). The main ethical issues in using students as

research participants have been identified as: 1) unequal power relationship and coercion; 2)

obtaining valid informed consent; 3) anonymity and confidentiality of data; and 4) fair treatment

(Ferguson, Yonge & Myrick, 2004).

While informed consent is intended to protect participants, the major impediment to

informed consent is an unequal power relationship, which is inherent in this type of research

(Clark & McCann, 2005). For example, a researcher may put pressure on students to participate

in the study, in order to recruit the desired number of participants needed for the study.

Participants may also feel subtle pressure to continue with the research, even though they may

want to withdraw (Ebbs, 1996). Students may feel afraid of potential consequences if they do not

choose participate, or withdraw from the study (Ferguson, Yonge & Myrick, 2004).

Students may be unwilling to participate in the study if their data is not kept confidential

and anonymous (Ferguson, Yonge & Myrick, 2004). Fair treatment can become an issue if

researchers are only using students because they are available (Clark & McCann, 2005). In

44
general, the ethical principles of autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, veracity and justice

will guide the researcher in protecting students (Ridley, 2009).

In this study, the following specific strategies were initiated to maintain ethical standards:

To demonstrate nonmaleficence (that researchers do no harm), a secondary researcher (Clemson

University, IRB, 2005) will recruit students and obtain consent in order to ensure protection of

the teacher-student relationship, and minimize the power differential (Ferguson, Yonge &

Myrick, 2004). The identity of students who choose not to participate will also be confidential,

through the use of online survey instrument that ensures participant anonymity (Moreno, 1998).

Students will also receive a plain language letter that provides information about the

study, so that they may make an informed decision about participation (Clark & McCann, 2005).

Finally, to minimize coercion and maintain confidentiality, extra credit will not be offered

(Ridley, 2009).

To demonstrate the concept of justice and fair treatment, students are only being used as

participants in this study because they are essential to answering the research questions, not

because they are a convenient sample (Ridley, 2009).

Expected Findings

This study is designed to investigate whether there is a relationship between the

integration of contemplative pedagogy into a community college classroom and academic

performance. It will also seek to understand a student’s lived experiences of using contemplative

practices in the classroom. The researcher expects to find an increase in mindfulness scores

based on the KIMS pretest and posttest data from the contemplative pedagogy group, and a

positive relationship between contemplative pedagogy and student success. Additionally, the

45
researcher expects that the qualitative data will help explain the results from the quantitative

data.

Summary

Chapter 3 outlines the methods and procedures that were used to investigate if the

integration of contemplative practices in a community college classroom will increase student

success. In this mixed methods study, data was obtained from students enrolled in both

traditional psychology classes, and psychology classes taught within a contemplative pedagogy

framework. Data was collected in three phases: 1) Quantitative data was collected through KIMS

pre and posttests; 2) End of the semester G.P.A. scores; and 3) Qualitative data was collected

through individual semi-structured interviews; quantitative data was analyzed using an

independent samples t test and the ANCOVA. Qualitative data was analyzed using Moustakas’

(1994) transcendental phenomenology method of analysis. Areas of overlap or uniqueness are

identified in order to integrate quantitative and qualitative data. Potential ethical considerations

were alleviated by providing informed consent and by using a neutral third party to administer

the pre and posttests. In Chapter 4, the results of the study are presented.

46
 CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The purpose of this mixed methodology study is to contribute to the limited knowledge

on contemplative pedagogy in higher education. Quantitative data investigated whether the

integration of contemplative pedagogy into a community college classroom will affect academic

performance. Qualitative data was collected to achieve an understanding of students’ lived

experiences of using contemplative practices in the classroom.

This chapter presents the analysis and presentation of quantitative and qualitative data.

The purpose of this chapter is to review the data and explain the statistical analysis from the

quantitative portion of the study and the data and analysis from the qualitative portion of the

study. The mixed- methods sequential explanatory design consisted of two phases: 1)

quantitative data collection and analysis; and 2) qualitative data collection and analysis (Creswell

& Plano Clark, 2011). Quantitative data was collected via end-of-semester G.P.A.s, and results

of the KIMS Inventory (Appendix “C”). Qualitative data was collected from semi-structured

interviews (Appendix “B”). Since quantitative data was collected first, the quantitative results are

presented first in this chapter, followed by a presentation of the qualitative data. The data is

integrated later, in Chapter Five.

Description of the Sample

Sample

The total number of participants who completed the pretest was N = 151. Within this

pretest group, n = 70 participants were in the intervention (i.e., contemplative) group and n = 81

were in the control (i.e., traditional) group. Of the 151 participants, the majority were 18-20

years of age (n = 92, 60.9%) and White (n = 70, 46.4%) (please see Table 1 for descriptive data

on participants). Of the 151 participants in the pretest group, of the participants, N = 151 or

47
100% were retained to posttest. Within this posttest group, n = 70 were students in the

contemplative group and n = 81 were in the traditional group.

Table 1

Study Participant Descriptive Statistics (N = 151)

Frequency Percentage
Age
18-20 years of age 92 60.9
21-29 years of age 44 29.1
30-39 years of age 9 6.0
40-49 years of age 4 2.6
50-59 years of age 2 1.4

Race/Ethnicity
White/Caucasian 70 46.4
Black/African American 34 22.5
Hispanic 14 9.3
Asian 19 12.6
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 2 1.3
Multiple Races 12 7.9

Preliminary Analysis

A series of chi-square (χ²) tests of independence were conducted to determine if the

contemplative and traditional group of students differed with regard to age and race/ethnicity.

These chi-square (χ²) tests provided the numerical breakdown of the participants by intervention

and control group for each demographic variable (see Table 2). As seen in Table 2, the

participants in the intervention and control groups were very similar. There were not any

significant differences between the contemplative and traditional groups with regard to age

group, χ²(4) = 4.13, p = .388, or racial group, χ²(5) = 1.83, p = .972.

48
Table 2

Contemplative & Traditional Groups: Sample Size by Demographic Categories (N = 151)

Contemplative Traditional
Group Group
Age Groups
18-20 years of age 47 45
21-29 years of age 23 21
30-39 years of age 7 2
40-49 years of age 2 2
50-59 years of age 2 0
χ²(4) = 4.13, p = .388
Racial Groups
White/Caucasian 34 36
Black/African American 19 15
Hispanic 8 6
Asian 11 8
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 1 1
Multiple Races 8 4
χ²(5) = 1.83, p = .972

Prior to hypothesis testing, the items from the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills

(KIMS; Baer et al., 2004) were analyzed to determine inter-item reliability at pretest and

posttest. The KIMS scale demonstrated very good inter-item reliability, with Cronbach’s α = .83

at pretest and α = .86 at posttest. The pretest and posttest scales of the KIMS were then

computed by summing all 39 items. The mean KIMS score at pretest was M = 124.89 (SD =

14.21), with scores ranging from 75.00 to 160.00. The mean KIMS score at posttest was M =

126.72 (SD = 14.22), with scores ranging from 100.00 to 160.00 (see Table 3 for descriptive

information for the contemplative and traditional groups).

The skewness values of -.46 for the pretest KIMS and .23 for the posttest KIMS for all

participants were both less than the critical value of 1.00 that indicates substantial skewness.

49
The data were not skewed for either measure nor were they skewed across groups (Muijs, 2010).

The critical value for kurtosis is 2.00 (Muijs, 2010). The kurtosis values of .34 for the pretest

KIMS and -.55 for the posttest KIMS for all participants were less than this critical value of 2.00.

The data did not show significant peakedness or flatness for either measure nor by group. To

validate that the pretest and posttest KIMS scale data were normally distributed, two

Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) D tests were conducted (Muijs, 2010). The K-S test was not

significant for the KIMS pretest, D(151) = .79, p =.556, nor for the KIMS posttest, D(151) = .97,

p =.300, indicating that both KIMS scales showed normality.

The mean final course cumulative score was M = 79.91 (SD = 20.74), and the scores

ranged from 00.00 to 100.00.

Table 3.

Descriptive Statistics: Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer et al., 2004)

N M SD Min Max SK K ?
KIMS Pretest 151 124.89 14.21 75.00 160.00 - .46 .34 .83
Intervention Group 70 125.30 14.28 93.00 154.00 - .37 - .66 .84
Control Group 81 124.53 14.23 75.00 160.00 - .55 1.29 .83
KIMS Posttest 151 126.72 14.22 100.00 160.00 .23 - .55 .86
Intervention Group 70 126.11 14.22 100.00 160.00 .26 - .47 .85
Control Group 81 127.25 14.09 100.00 160.00 .22 - .49 .86

Summary of Results

Research question 1: “Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores?” The results showed that the traditional group of

students had a lower mean percentage final course cumulative score of 77.14% than did the

contemplative group of students, who had a mean percentage final course cumulative score of

83.11%.

50
 Research question 2: “Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills?” Results from the ANCOVA showed the

following: the traditional group mean score was M = 127.25 (SD = 14.29) and the contemplative

group mean score was M = 126.11 (SD = 14.22)

Results in Detail

Research question 1 was “Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores?” To answer this question, the researcher

compared the final cumulative scores between the two groups. Scores were analyzed by an

independent samples t test. The Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant, F(1,

149) = .952, p = .331: thus, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was met. Results from

the independent samples t test showed a trend toward significance, t(149) = -1.78, p = .077 (see

Table 4 for full results). Although not significant at the p < .05, results showed that the

traditional group of students had a lower mean percentage final course cumulative score of

77.14% than did the contemplative group of students, who had a mean percentage final course

cumulative score of 83.11%.

Table 4.

Independent-Samples T-Test: Final Course Cumulative Posttest Scores between Traditional and

Contemplative Groups (N = 151)

N Mean SD t df P
Grade
Traditional 81 77.14 23.26 -1.78 149 .077
Contemplative 70 83.11 16.99

Research question 2 was “Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

51
traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills?” To answer this question, the researcher

compared the mindfulness skills between the two groups, controlling for the mindfulness skills at

the beginning of the class. This was analyzed using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The

Levene’s test of equality of variances showed that variances were equivalent across the

contemplative and traditional groups, F(1, 149) = .003, p = .954: the data did not violate the

assumption of equality of variances. Results from the ANCOVA showed that the contemplative

and traditional groups did not significantly differ on KIMS posttest scores, F(2, 148) = .308, p =

.736, with the traditional group mean score being M = 127.25 (SD = 14.29) and the

contemplative group mean score being M = 126.11 (SD = 14.22) (see Table 5).

Table 5.

ANCOVA: KIMS Posttest Differences between Traditional and Contemplative Groups (N = 151)

Source Type III df F p Partial

Sum of Squares Eta2
Corrected Model 125.54 2 .308 .736 .004
KIMS Pretest 77.37 1 .379 .538 .003
Group 51.50 1 .252 .616 .002
Error 30210.78 148
Corrected Total 30336.32 150

Qualitative Data

Research Question

Chapter 4 answers the qualitative research question: What is a student’s lived experience

of contemplative practices in the classroom?

Overview of the Researcher

The basis of the researcher’s professional experience originates in both academia and the

psychotherapy field. The researcher has a master’s degree in forensic psychology from John Jay

52
College and post graduate training in trauma from New York University and body-centered

therapy from the Institute of Core Energetics. The researcher is licensed for independent practice

as a clinical mental health counselor in two states and has 15 years of clinical experience.

Additionally, the researcher is an Associate Professor of Psychology at a community college and

has over ten years of teaching experience. The role of the researcher in qualitative interviews is

to become an instrument in the research by giving voice to the perceptions expressed by the

interviewees (Creswell, 2008). From professional experience, the researcher has learned to

develop listening and interviewing skills while maintaining her objectivity and minimizing any

bias by reflecting material back to the interviewee. Additionally, the researcher’s personal

experience with yoga and meditation helped develop her self-reflection skills, allowing an

intersubjective validity to be established throughout the interviews (Moustakas, 1994). A

combination of the researcher’s training in treating trauma through body-oriented techniques,

and the researcher’s 15 year yoga practice led to the development of the research questions asked

in this study.

Description of the Sample (Participants)

Purposive sampling was used to recruit the participants for the qualitative portion of the

study. Participants were selected from the contemplative group in the quantitative portion of the

study. Seventy participants were recruited to be interviewed for the qualitative portion of the

study. In the last week of class, either the researcher or one of the researcher’s assistants

announced that participants were needed for the qualitative portion of the study. The participants

in the contemplative group were asked to contact the researcher and were reminded of the

researcher’s contact information along with her office location that was listed on the informed

consent forms. Additionally, email reminders were sent to the participants’ college e-mail

53
accounts that contained the researcher’s contact information. Out of the 70 participants who were

recruited, four responded that they were willing to come in for interviews after the semester

ended and final grades were recorded. Since quantitative data was collected over multiple

semesters (Spring and Summer Sessions I and II), and quantitative data was used to inform the

questions for the qualitative interviews, the interviews were not conducted until the end of

Summer Session II, which may have impacted the availability of potential participants,

particularly those from the Spring Semester.

Participants communicated their willingness to participate in the qualitative portion of the

study either via e-mail, or by stopping by the primary researcher’s office and telling her in

person. The sampling method was successful in that the participants who responded all

experienced contemplative pedagogy, and could describe their experience in detail. Although

the sample of four participants was smaller than the researcher planned, it was adequate for a

qualitative study (Dukes, 1984; Creswell, 2007). More importantly, saturation was reached, in

that important perceptions from the experience of contemplative pedagogy were revealed, and

data from the interviews became repetitive (Mason, 2010).

Research Methodology

The researcher used Moustakas’ transcendental phenomenology method of analysis to

organize and analyze data collected from the semi-structured interviews (Creswell, 2007;

Moustakas, 2004). The first step the researcher used was the process of epoche, whereby, “The

everyday understandings, judgments, and knowings are set aside, and phenomena are revisited

freshly, naively, in a wide open sense” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 33). The researcher maintained an

open mind throughout the interview process by continuing to self-reflect and maintaining a

journal of her thoughts and reflections for each interview. The semi-structured interviews were

54
then held in the researcher’s private office and each interview took approximately 30- 50

minutes. The researcher used an interview guide (Appendix “B”) to guide the interview. Since

the quantitative results of this study were analyzed first, those results were used to inform some

of the questions during the qualitative interview. However, since no significant difference was

found on the results of the KIMS survey, but there was a non-significant increase in GPA scores

in the contemplative group, the following question was added to the interview guide: How did

your experience in the class affect your end-of-semester grade for this class? Each interview was

transcribed, and the researcher read the transcription for each interview several times for

complete understanding of the participants’ statements.

The next step in the analysis was phenomenological reduction. The researcher placed the

focus of the research in brackets, and used horizonalization to give equal weight to every related

statement the participants’ made and set aside unrelated statements (Kostere & Percy, 2008).

Focus on remaining material was maintained by identifying meaning units that were grouped

into textural themes, from which the research created textural descriptions. Last, imaginative

variation was achieved by integrating structural descriptions with the essences of the textural

descriptions to form a textural-structural synthesis of the lived experience of contemplative

pedagogy (Moustakas, 1994).

Data and Results for Participant C1

The first participant (C1) is a single, 20-year-old African-American female. She

maintains three part-time jobs while attending school part-time, and has been accepted as a

transfer student into a large university, majoring in psychology.

Experience of Participant C1

Meaning units

55
 Below, are C1’s comments, organized into meaning units. From the meaning units,

textural themes are identified and described.

 It was very relaxing and calm compared to most of my other classes. We went with

the flow of things you know, versus being really strict and nobody is talking and

everyone is trying to jot down notes as fast as possible. I would say more relaxed than

anything.

 I could say whatever I thought versus, Oh I have to be politically correct here. I was

able to be myself versus trying to fit in a box.

 When we did the meditation type [exercise]. I actually like focused on and thought

about everything you said then applied it. So when you said think of somebody that

you loved, and you went over the different words that we should say, if like if you do

like somebody or don’t like somebody that is not close to you, I was actually really

thinking about it and it was like, oh this cool and I was able to apply it to my

everyday life. That was the most present I was.

 Now that I do yoga I am really consciously breathing and it’s really weird. I started

two weeks ago. I decided to become more relaxed.

 In our class, I didn’t really judge myself too much maybe because psychology is my

major and it is really easy to me, so like I know the answer of I can think a different

way, so I studied harder in this class than most of my other classes because I like it

more. I had to force myself in my other classes to actually study.

 Yes, because after we would do them [mindfulness exercises], my next class is

normally really hard, but I would be more relaxed in class and the class would go by a

lot sooner versus when we didn’t do them. And I wouldn’t be as stressed. They
56
 helped me a lot because they showed me that I have to reduce my stress level and try

to be a little more relaxed.

 If I could have you as a teacher every semester I would because you are a lot calmer

than other teachers I have had and it helps a lot when I am trying to learn. I had a

teacher who was super strict and it just didn’t work for me and I was like, ’Ok I will

just learn when I get home.

 I shut down, especially if a teacher is like really like sharp tongued or says things that

are like offensive and I will tune everything out, even if it is something that they are

teaching me I will just shut down and I will have to go home and read the chapter

myself. I won’t be present at all.

 I don’t interact with a lot of people which is different in your class, I actually talked

with everybody. And you forced us to interact. Like the current events. You made

people; everyone has to talk about it. It made people have to break out of their shells

and talk.

Textural themes for participant C1

Calm environment. The first textural theme to emerge was a calm environment. The

following statements from the participant illustrate the emergent textural theme of a calm

environment.

 It was very relaxing and calm.

 I would say [my experience] was more relaxing than anything else.

 I decided to become more relaxed.

57
  My next class is normally really hard, but I would be more relaxed in class and the

class and I wouldn’t be as stressed. They [the exercises] helped me a lot because they

showed me that I have to reduce my stress level and try to be a little more relaxed.

Personality of the Instructor. The second textural theme to emerge was the role of the

instructor. These are C1’s comments that illustrate the textural theme regarding the personality of

the instructor.

 You weren’t really strict I could say whatever I thought… I was able to be myself

versus trying to fit in a box.

 You are a lot calmer than other teachers I have had and it helps a lot when I am trying

to learn.

 I shut down, especially if a teacher is like really sharp tongued or says things that are

like offensive and I will tune everything out, even if it is something that they are

teaching me I will just shut down and I will have to go home and read the chapter

myself. I won’t be present at all.

Connection. The third textural theme to emerge was connection to the course material and

the class as a whole. Following are C1’s comments that illustrate the theme of connection.

 I studied harder in this class than most of my other classes because I like it more.

 I had to force myself in my other classes to actually study.

 I don’t interact with a lot of people which is different in your class, I actually talked

with everybody.

Textural structural description. The primary issue that emerged from this interview is

the role that a calm environment had on the participant’s levels of stress and relaxation. This can

be demonstrated in the following comments: “[The class was] relaxing and calm.” And the
58
participant remained relaxed after the class was over, remaining so in her next class: “But I

would be more relaxed in class and the [next] class would go by a lot sooner versus when we

didn’t do them. And I wouldn’t be as stressed.” Additionally, since the participant experienced

what it was like to feel relaxed, she became motivated to learn how to become more relaxed by

joining a yoga class. Finally, the participant began to experience “I was actually really thinking

about it and it was like, oh this cool and I was able to apply it to my everyday life. That was the

most present I was. Another issue that emerged was the instructor’s role in her experience: “You

weren’t really strict…I could say whatever I thought… I was able to be myself versus trying to

fit in a box.” And lastly, the participant felt connected to the class and the material: “I studied

harder in this class than most of my other classes because I like it more. I don’t interact with a lot

of people which is different in your class, I actually talked with everybody.”

Data and Results for Participant C2

The second participant is a single 25-year-old White female, returning college student,

who works part-time in a bookstore during the school year. She plans on transferring to a local

school next spring to major in psychology.

Experience of Participant C2

Meaning units

Below, are C2’s comments, organized into meaning units. From the meaning units,

textural themes are identified and described.

 It was very engaging and interactive. So there was a lot of connection happening

among the students and you. You were making sure that the knowledge was

understood but also relating it to the real world. So you take a definition, and talk

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 about how it applies to our lives and that makes it more real as opposed to being just

like this is the definition, memorize it.

 I felt connected to the subject, the students and you, you would relate by describing

your personal experiences and your profession. So it felt like we had a small

community in the classroom. It wasn’t like people were there just for the grade and

wanted to leave once the class was over. We would stand and talk and make friends,

so yeah it was very connected.

 It felt like we all as a class allowed ourselves to be vulnerable at that moment (during

meditation), it can be very uncomfortable to be told to sit in a room with people and

close your eyes and but we all did it and so afterwards there was chatter it felt like we

all allowed ourselves to be vulnerable and after the mindfulness exercise was done we

all talked about our personal experience going through that and that brought us more

together.

 I think you made the environment so relaxed that I wasn’t aware of trying to show my

attentiveness. Because you were relaxed, I was relaxed. I wasn’t trying to show my

attentiveness.

 I felt very comfortable to be able to share facts about myself, but sometimes after the

class I would think back about what I shared and feel a little insecure. Does everyone

in the class think that I talk too much or think that I’m a brown-noser or something?

But then I eventually was like, you know I don’t care what they think. By the end of

the semester, I don’t even think about it. By the end of the semester, I was like, forget

about it, I got an A, I’m good.

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  Some people would come up to me and say, I loved when you shared your experience

with, that’s so cool that you felt comfortable enough to do that’ and I was like, ‘Yeah

that’s the kind of person I am. It’s definitely connected to how comfortable I felt and

the insecurities and questioning came more from my own self-doubt, it wasn’t from

any feedback I got.

 I was very successful in the class. I didn’t just want the grade, I wanted the

information “I think I enjoyed it [the class] much more because you were present and

we were all engaged.

Textural themes for Participant C2.

Engagement. The first theme to emerge was engagement. The following quotes illustrate

the theme of engagement.

 “It [the class] was very engaging and interactive.”

 “I think I enjoyed it [the class] much more because you were present and we were all

engaged.”

Community. The second theme to emerge was community. The following quotes

provide examples for the theme of community.

 There was a lot of connection happening among the students and you.

 I felt connected to the subject, the students and you.

 It felt like we had a small community in the classroom. It wasn’t like people were

there just for the grade and wanted to leave once the class was over. We would stand

and talk and make friends, so yeah it was very connected.

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  It felt like we all allowed ourselves to be vulnerable and after the mindfulness

exercise was done we all talked about our personal experience going through that [the

exercise], and that brought us more together.

Personality of the instructor. The third theme to emerge was the personality of the

instructor. Following are quotes that illustrate the theme regarding the personality of the

instructor.

 I think you made the environment so relaxed that I wasn’t aware of trying to show my

attentiveness.

 Because you were relaxed, I was relaxed.

 I think I enjoyed it [the class] much more because you were present.

Textural structural description for participant. The issues that emerged from this

interview are that the participant’s success in the class was due to a combination of the

comfort level within the class, engagement with the material and sense of community

with peers and the instructor. This can be demonstrated with the following comments: “I

was very successful in the class. Because you were relaxed, I was relaxed…and, I think I

enjoyed it [the class] much more because you were present …and we were all engaged. It

felt like we had a small community in the classroom. It felt like we all allowed ourselves

to be vulnerable… and that brought us more together.”

Data and Results for Participant C3

The third participant is an 18-yearold white female who works as a nanny throughout the

school year. She is planning on applying to the nursing program after she finishes her required

courses.

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 Meaning units

C3’s comments are organized into meaning units below. From the meaning units, textural

themes are identified and described.

 It was definitely my favorite class that I took last semester, because it was interesting

that you are looking at your own life and analyzing your own personal experiences to

make the class a more full experience.

 Connecting what we talked in the class to my personal experience was meaningful to

me.

 The exercises were very personal and they helped you start your day (no matter what

your religion) from a perspective of, ‘I am one small person in a big world and in

order to make a difference I need a positive outlook.’ and so definitely those

experiences helped me connect to more of a whole, and as each person is doing it

they are getting something different out of it. And I was just one of a bigger group.

 “The service learning was really good. It was cool to especially use this in

psychology, [for example] the things that we learned in class [regarding] different

stages in life and how people act depending on the stage they are in and are affected

by, helped us teach the kids and grow with them in more of a personal level.

 My experience [with my body awareness] is slightly different than the average person

because I have basically a lifelong autoimmune disease and I was constantly having

to be aware of the state of my body and the health I was in because when something

was awry, I would have to correct it. I am very quick to analyze what was wrong with

my body. But the more intrigued I was with the subject, the less aware I was on my
63
 body. I was focusing on my mind, which was a positive thing because I wasn’t

focused on what didn’t feel well.

 As a teacher you made me really love that subject. You made me fascinated, and the

assignments that you gave, especially the assignments that made you introspect on

your life helped me to get a greater understanding of my own personal experiences.

The way you did that and tied into class helped me and others have a greater

understanding of the subject and how it affects the world.

Textural themes

Connection. The main textural theme to emerge was connection. The following

statements from C3 illustrate the theme of connection.

 Connecting what we talked about in the class to my personal experience was

meaningful to me.

 I am one small person in a big world and in order to make a difference I need a

positive outlook.’ …and so definitely those experiences helped me connect to

more of a whole, and as each person is doing it they are getting something

different out of it.

 And I was just one of a bigger group.

 But the more intrigued I was with the subject, the less aware I was on my body.

 I was focusing on my mind, which was a positive thing because I wasn’t focused

on what didn’t feel well.

Meaningful Assignments and discussions. The third textural theme to emerge was

meaningful assignments and discussions. C3’s statements below, illustrate the theme of

meaningful assignments and discussions.

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  The way you did that [reflective assignments] and tied [them] into class helped

me and others have a greater understanding of the subject and how it affects the

world.

 It was interesting that you are looking at your own life and analyzing your own

personal experiences to make the class a more full experience.

Textural structural description. The main theme to emerge from Participant C3’s

interview was the value she placed on connecting the course material to personal experience.

“Connecting what we talked about in the class to my personal experience was meaningful to

me… it was interesting that you are looking at your own life and analyzing your own personal

experiences to make the class a more full experience”. Using her personal experiences to connect

to course material immersed her in the subject matter. Therefore, the more interested she became

in the subject material, the more focused she was on the content of the material and on her mind.

“I was focusing on my mind, which was a positive thing because I wasn’t focused on what didn’t

feel well.” Lastly, her experience with the contemplative exercises helped her feel connected to

the class as a community, along with feeling a part of the global community. “…And so

definitely those experiences helped me connect to more of a whole, and as each person is doing it

they are getting something different out of it…and I [realized] was just one of a bigger group.”

Data and Results for Participant C4

The fourth participant is a single 20-year-old White female who works as a waitress during the

school year.

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Experience of Participant C4

Meaning units

C4’s comments, below, were used to create meaning units. From the meaning units

textural themes emerged.

 It was very relatable. I found that the stuff was true to my everyday life. So I

could connect what we learned in class to an outside experience.

 And we were also allowed to voice out opinions, respectful like, but that is

engaging, so you want to be able to bounce ideas off of others in the room. So I

felt comfortable and able to express myself.

 There’s not as much judgment in the class, I was able to say things that I might

not have in front of my family, because no one knows me and I can be pretty

much whoever I want to be.

 I felt like everyone’s opinion was looked at and not judged harshly; no one was

put down or told they wrong. You never told anyone they were wrong, you were

like, That’s an interesting perspective.

 I think that since we don’t have to study for tests, relating to the material by using

my personal experience helped it stick better.

 Also, say you spend a lot of time studying for tests, for these assignments I

actually spend more time working on it and thinking about the material then I

would studying for a weekly quiz. Spending all of this time working through the

material and our understanding of it really helped.

 Material is just more relatable when I connect it to my personal life.

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  It felt like a community, and I felt connected to them because they were in my

class and we talk.

Textural themes

Connection. The first theme to emerge was connection. The following quotes illustrate

the theme of connection.

 I found that the stuff was true to my everyday life. So I could connect what we

learned in class to an outside experience.

 Relating to the material by using my personal experience helped it stick better.

 Material is just more relatable when I connect it to my personal life.

 It felt like a community, and I felt connected to them [the other student] because

they were in my class and we talk.

Personality of the instructor. The second textural theme to emerge was the personality

of the instructor.

 And we were also allowed to voice out opinions, respectful like, but that is

engaging, so you want to be able to bounce ideas off of others in the room. So I

felt comfortable and able to express myself.

 You never told anyone they were wrong, you were like, That’s an interesting

perspective.

 I really appreciated the way you taught the class. People were able to talk to each

other about the material and it was very welcoming.

Textural structural description. The main theme to emerge from Participant C4’s data

is connection. Much of the experience of this participant revolved around connection to the

course material via personal experience, and connection to the class as a community. “I could
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connect what we learned in class to an outside experience relating to the material by using my

personal experience helped it stick better. Material is just more relatable when I connect it to my

personal life. It felt like a community, and I felt connected to them [the other students] because

they were in my class and we talk. The participant also valued being able to express herself in

class, without fear of judgment or censorship from the instructor. And we were also allowed to

voice out opinions, respectful like, but that is engaging, so you want to be able to bounce ideas

off of others in the room. So I felt comfortable and able to express myself… people were able to

talk to each other about the material and it was very welcoming… you never told anyone they

were wrong, you were like, ‘That’s an interesting perspective’.”

Composite Textural Description. The composite description unifies and describes the textural

descriptions for all of the participants. The most persistent theme to appear in the interviews is

connection. Participants reported feeling connected to the subject: “Connecting what we talked

about in the class to my personal experience was meaningful to me” by relating the material to

their personal experiences “Relating to the material by using my personal experience helped it

stick better.” One participant was able to connect to the subject and her personal experience

through meaningful assignments: “It was interesting that you are looking at your own life and

analyzing your own personal experiences to make the class a more full experience.

They also reported feeling connected to the classroom as a community: “It felt like we

had a small community in the classroom. It wasn’t like people were there just for the grade and

wanted to leave once the class was over. We would stand and talk and make friends, so yeah it

was very connected. It felt like we all allowed ourselves to be vulnerable and after the

mindfulness exercise was done we all talked about our personal experience going through that

[the exercise], and that brought us more together.” Participants also reported experiencing feeling

68
connected to the instructor: “There was a lot of connection happening among the students and

you…I felt connected to the subject, the students and you.” One participant described her

experience in the classroom as feeling engaged: It [the class] was very engaging and

interactive…I think I enjoyed it [the class] much more because you were present and we were all

engaged.” Lastly, another participant reported feeling globally connected after completing

compassion oriented mindfulness exercises: “So definitely those experiences helped me connect

to more of a whole, and as each person is doing it they are getting something different out of

it…and [that] I was just one of a bigger group.”

Another consistent theme to appear in the interviews is the personality of the instructor.

Participant’s reported being able to “Be myself versus trying to fit in a box” and “because you

were relaxed, I was relaxed” along with, “You are a lot calmer than other teachers I have had and

it helps a lot when I am trying to learn… I really appreciated the way you taught the class…

people were able to talk to each other about the material and it was very welcoming.”

Additionally, participants reported feeling comfortable expressing themselves in class: “And we

were also allowed to voice out opinions, respectful like, but that is engaging, so you want to be

able to bounce ideas off of others in the room. So I felt comfortable and able to express

myself…you never told anyone they were wrong, you were like, ‘That’s an interesting

perspective’.”

The theme of stress relief was unique to one participant’s description of experience: “I

would say [my experience] was more relaxing than anything else. I decided to become more

relaxed [by joining a yoga class]. My next class is normally really hard, but I would be more

relaxed in class and the class…and I wouldn’t be as stressed. They [the exercises] helped me a

lot because they showed me that I have to reduce my stress level and try to be a little more

69
relaxed.” Being able to relax in class supported this participant’s academic success, and

highlighted the need for her to find ways outside of class to practice stress management.

Composite Structural Description of the Interviews

This section is a description of the composite fundamental structures that explain the

experience of contemplative pedagogy. Connection, in terms of connection to the material, to

the subject, and to the instructor were the most prevalent textural experiences described, in which

context and relationships were highly valued by the participants. Participants described being

able to relate to the material using their own personal experiences, along with feeling part of a

community in the classroom, and feeling connected to the instructor, as providing the context

and relationships they needed to be engaged, express themselves freely, and make the material

meaningful. Context and relationships were the most important structures to emerge from the

data.

Personality of the instructor was the second important theme to emerge from the data.

Participants described the relaxed attitude and respectful manner of the instructor as a foundation

for providing a relaxed and comfortable environment in which it was safe to be present in the

moment, and to explore their ideas without fear of judgment. Additionally, the personality of the

instructor made the class enjoyable and participants felt engaged in the class.

Composite Textural and Structural Synthesis of the Interviews

This section is an integration of the textural and structural descriptions and provides a

discussion of the essence of contemplative pedagogy. Context and relationships were the most

prevalent structures to emerge from the participants’ experience, and the most prevalent theme to

emerge was connection. In the experience of the participants, connection raised the level of

participation, fostered a sense of community in the classroom and globally, and made the

70
material more meaningful. One participant noted, “I felt connected to the subject, the students

and you.” Another participant stated, “Material is just more relatable when I connect it to my

personal life.” Along with, “I found that the stuff was true to my everyday life. So I could

connect what we learned in class to an outside experience.” And feeling connected and engaged

made one participant enjoyed this class more, “I studied harder in this class than most of my

other classes because I like it more.”

The second theme to emerge was the personality of the instructor and the second

structure to emerge from the interviews was the instructor as the foundation of the class.

Participants’ valued a respectful and relaxed environment which allowed them to feel

comfortable expressing themselves in the classroom. One participant stated, “Because you were

relaxed, I was relaxed.” While another said, I think I enjoyed it [the class] much more because

you were present” Feeling comfortable to express opinions was particularly important for one

participant, “And we were also allowed to voice out opinions, respectful like, but that is

engaging, so you want to be able to bounce ideas off of others in the room. So I felt comfortable

and able to express myself.” Along with not being judged: “You never told anyone they were

wrong, you were like, and ‘That’s an interesting perspective’. “I really appreciated the way you

taught the class… people were able to talk to each other about the material and it was very

welcoming.”

According to Moustakas (1994), the essence of a phenomenon is achieved by integrating

the textural and structural essences. The essence of the experience of contemplative pedagogy for

these participants appears to be related, in part, to context and relationships. Prevalent themes

referred to the participants’ feeling connected to the content of the course, feeling a part of a

community in the classroom and globally, and connected to the instructor. Additionally, the

71
instructor as the foundation of the class is an important part of the essence of contemplative

pedagogy. Participants valued the instructor’s ability to be calm and relaxed, and to create a safe

environment for participants to feel comfortable exploring their ideas and opinions.

Summary

The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to contribute to the limited knowledge on

contemplative pedagogy in higher education. The study attempted to determine if integrating

contemplative pedagogy practices in a community college classroom would affect scores on the

KIMS mindfulness survey, and end of semester GPA’s. The study used a sequential explanatory

design. Quantitative data was collected first, and analyzed in order to inform the qualitative

portion of the study.

The quantitative portion of the study showed an upward trend, but no significant

difference in final course cumulative scores, and no significant difference in acquisition of

mindfulness skills, as measured by the KIMS Mindfulness Survey. The results of the qualitative

interviews revealed the following themes: 1) Participants in the contemplative group felt

connected to the content in the course, the classroom, the instructor, and the global community;

2) The instructor is an important foundation of the class, by creating a relaxed, safe environment

for students.

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 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative

pedagogy in higher education and so the results of this study are relevant for higher education

instructors, administrators, and counselors who may be interested in research or integrating

contemplative pedagogy in to the classroom or curriculum. The purpose of this chapter is to

provide a summary of the quantitative and qualitative research presented in Chapter 4. This

chapter contains a discussion of the conclusions that were made and relationship to research and

theories summarized in Chapter 2. This chapter is organized in the following sequence: a)

summary of the results, b) discussion of the results, c) discussion of the conclusion, d)

limitations, e) recommendations for further research; and f) conclusions.

Summary of the Results

Rationale for the Present Study

Contemplative pedagogy is an emerging field that challenges the paradigm of “professor

as authority” and instead supports the idea that students learn from themselves and their

experiences (Burggraf & Grossenbacher, 2007; Miller, 1994). An underlying assumption of

contemplative pedagogy is that students bring knowledge to the classroom, and this knowledge

can be drawn out through reflective approaches that will enhance learning. In contemplative

education, contemplative practices are integrated into a traditional classroom in order to facilitate

first-person learning. The contemplative exercises used in the classroom vary widely, and can

include such practices as: mindfulness practices, service learning, journaling, reflective writing,

and deep listening. The foundation of all of these practices is learning the skill of mindfulness. In

this study, mindfulness is defined as the capacity to concentrate in the here and now (Hill, 2006),

with constant observation of present experience (Deikman, 1996).

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 The benefits of mindfulness have been well-documented, particularly in mental health

and psychological functioning (Birnie, Garland & Carlson, 2010; Carmody & Baer, 2008;

Gilbert & Christopher, 2009; Robins, Keng, Ekbland & Brantley, 2012). Mindfulness has also

been shown to improve emotional intelligence (Chu, 2010; Corcoran, Farb, Anderson & Segal,

2010;Moore, Brody & Dierberger, 2009), and foster empathy (Anderson & Morgan, 2005;

Shapiro & Izett, 2008; Morgan & Morgan, 2005). But despite the emerging popularity of using

mindfulness practices in the higher education classroom, there have been very little empirical

studies conducted. Shapiro et al. (2008) conducted a meta-analysis of studies related to the use of

meditation in education, and found that mindfulness skills are related to education and learning:

1) mindfulness can help develop attention and information processing; 2) mindfulness may

increase resiliency to stress, and 3) mindfulness may improve academic achievement. This study

seeks to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative pedagogy in higher education.

Methodology

This mixed- methods sequential explanatory study consisted of two phases: 1)

quantitative data collection and analysis; and 2) qualitative data collection and analysis.

Quantitative data was collected to answer the following questions: Is there a difference between

groups (contemplative and traditional) in final course cumulative scores? And, is there a

difference between groups in the acquisition of mindfulness skills? Quantitative data was

collected via end-of-semester G.P.A.s, and results of the KIMS Inventory. The qualitative

portion of the study relied on Moustakas’ transcendental phenomenological methods to answer

the question: What is a student’s lived experiences of contemplative practices in the classroom?

The study consisted of 151 participants, the majority being between 18-20 years old and

White. Within the pretest group, n=70 participants were in the contemplative group, and n=81

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participants were in the traditional group. Within the posttest group, n = 70 were students in the

contemplative group and n = 81 were in the traditional group. Four participants in the

contemplative group volunteered for the qualitative interviews.

Findings

To answer the question: “Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in final course cumulative scores?” the final cumulative scores were compared

between the two groups and an independent samples t test was used to analyze the data. The

results showed that the traditional group of students had a lower mean percentage final course

cumulative score of 77.14% than did the contemplative group of students, who had a mean

percentage final course cumulative score of 83.11%. However, results from the independent

samples t test showed a trend toward significance. Although not significant at the p < .05, results

showed that the contemplative group of students had a higher mean percentage final course

cumulative which supports earlier findings (Colbert, 2013; Hall, 1999).

To answer the question: “Is there a difference between groups (contemplative and

traditional) in the acquisition of mindfulness skills?” the researcher compared the mindfulness

skills between the two groups, controlling for the mindfulness skills at the beginning of the class

by using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Results from the ANCOVA showed that the

contemplative and traditional groups did not significantly differ on KIMS posttest scores, F(2,

148) = .308, p = .736, with the traditional group mean score being M = 127.25 (SD = 14.29) and

the contemplative group mean score being M = 126.11 (SD = 14.22).

The findings in the qualitative portion of the study confirmed some existing literature

regarding student’s connecting to the material in the class through content and context based

learning (Grace, 2011; Gunnlaugson, 2009). The qualitative interviews revealed that the essence

75
of the experience of contemplative pedagogy is related, in part, to context and relationships.

Prevalent themes referred to the participants’ feeling connected to the content of the course,

feeling a part of a community in the classroom and globally, and connected to the instructor.

Additionally, the instructor as the foundation of the class is an important part of the essence of

contemplative pedagogy. Participants valued the instructor’s ability to be calm and relaxed, and

to create a safe environment for participants to feel comfortable exploring their ideas and

opinions, supporting existing literature on the ability and benefits of using contemplative

practices to quiet the mind (Craig, 2011; The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society,

2000-2009) and reduce stress (Jain, 2007; Shapiro, Brown & Astin, 2008).

Discussion of the Results

The results of this study indicate that integrating contemplative practices in the classroom

do not improve mindfulness skills, as measured by the KIMS survey, but do produce a non-

significant upward trend in end-of-semester GPA scores. Additionally, qualitative interviews

indicate that students benefit from connecting to material through course content and context

based learning, as discussed by Grace (2011), and Gunnlaugson (2009) as well as learning in a

relaxed environment, that is created and modeled by the instructor. Although mindfulness scores

on the KIMS did not change from pretest to posttest, the study revealed that a synthesis of

content and context-based learning within an academic community that is relaxed, and supports

students to take risks, may have implications in the upward trend in end-of-semester GPA scores.

All studies contain methodological limitations, and the researcher has observed several

limitations in this study. The following observations were made: 1) Gender was not included in

the demographics of the population; 2) The majority of students were White and between 18-20

years of age; 3) Participation was initially small, so data was collected over multiple semesters in

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order to meet the requirements for a statistically adequate sample size; 4) Courses were taught by

different instructors; and 5) The participants who were willing to come in for qualitative

interview were students in the researcher’s classes. No participants from other instructors’

classes were willing to be interviewed.

Conclusions of the Study

The findings provided some confirmation of existing literature. Participants expressed an

appreciation for assignments and exercises that encouraged them to connect their own

experiences into the course content, which provided a personal context to better remember the

information. Participants also expressed support for exercises that encouraged them to relax, and

connect with other classmates as a community. Finally, participants agreed that the instructor’s

relaxed attitude provided a safe environment in which to take risks. The lived experiences of the

participants fully support the findings in the literature review regarding the benefits of

contemplative pedagogy as described in Chapter 2.

The study did not however, confirm that integrating mindfulness practices into a

community college classroom will improve mindfulness skills, as was supported by earlier

studies (e.g., Tang, 2007 and Shapiro, Brown & Astin, 2008). The study also did not confirm

statistically that contemplative practices will affect academic achievement which was supported

by Tang’s (2007) research. Statistically, the results of the study indicate that it is still unclear

how mindfulness affects community college students. However, participants in the qualitative

interviews were able to describe clearly the benefits of integrating contemplative practices in the

classroom, but the research was not able to significantly quantify their experiences.

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 Limitations

The purpose of this study was to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative

pedagogy in higher education. This study investigated whether the integration of contemplative

pedagogy into a community college classroom will increase mindfulness skills and affect

academic performance. The study also sought to examine the lived experience of four students

who experienced contemplative pedagogy. Although the hypotheses that there will be a

difference between groups in final cumulative scores and acquisition of mindfulness scores were

not confirmed, the study did meet its primary goal of contributing to the literature on

contemplative pedagogy in higher education.

The researcher considers that there are several limitations in this study that may have

impacted the results. First, the use of multiple instructors, as well as a broad and varied definition

of contemplative practices may have affected the results on the mindfulness survey and end-of-

semester G.P.A.s. The instructors who participated in the study were able to practices from the

Tree of Contemplative Practices (The Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society, 2000-2013)

that was created by the Center for the Contemplative Mind in Society. Using the Tree as a guide,

meant that in this study, one instructor used service learning in her classes, and another didn’t.

Additionally, one instructor used a Loving-Kindness meditation regularly throughout the

semester, while the other instructor used the same meditation only once or twice. The lack of

consistency in the integration of contemplative practices across instructors may have affected the

reliability of the study.

Second, data was collected over multiple semesters, which could provide an additional

effect on the reliability of the study. Students who register for classes during the traditional

academic year, may be qualitatively different from students who register for summer courses.

78
Additionally, the choice of contemplative practices that are integrated into a course maybe be

affected by semester: an instructor may have less time to integrate practices like service learning

in an accelerated summer course for instance.

Finally, the majority of the students in this study were White and between the ages of 18-

20, which does not reflect the diversity in race and ethnicity, as well as the diversity in college

preparedness that is present in a community college classroom. Gender was also excluded from

the study, preventing the researcher from analyzing results based on this particular demographic.

Recommendations

The purpose of this study was to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative

pedagogy in higher education. Although the main quantitative hypotheses were not confirmed,

qualitative interviews support the use of contemplative practices in the classroom. Further

research is recommended to quantify the experiences described by the participants in the

qualitative portion of the study. The researcher has identified the following recommendations:

1. The creation of operational definitions of contemplative practices that are narrow in

scope to increase reliability and validity in subsequent studies.

2. Subsequent quasi-experimental research that focuses on measuring the effects of

pedagogy that focuses on facilitating first person investigations of material in conjunction

with content based learning. .

3. Experimental studies use other instruments to measure acquisition of mindfulness

skills (i.e. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, designed as a follow up to the

KIMS survey).

4. Structured integration of contemplative practices in the classroom that are consistent

across instructors and semesters.

79
 Conclusion

Integrating contemplative practices into a community college classroom provides

students the opportunity to integrate their own experiences into their learning, and subsequently

change their relationship to the material they are studying, ideally increasing retention of

material, that they now have a personal context to remember it (Barbezat & Pingree, 2012).

There is not any research to support theories of contemplative practices in the classroom, and the

purpose of this study is to contribute to the limited knowledge on contemplative pedagogy in

higher education. Quantitative results of this study did not support the hypothesis that integrating

contemplative practices in the classroom will improve mindfulness skills, and there was only a

non-significant upward trend in end-of-semester GPA scores between the contemplative and

traditional groups. However, qualitative interviews indicate that students benefit from connecting

to material through the use of personal experience, as well as learning in a relaxed environment,

that is created and modeled by the instructor. Results of the study revealed that a synthesis of

content and context-based learning within an academic community that is relaxed, and supports

students to take risks, may have implications in the upward trend in end-of-semester GPA scores

Implications for future research include the use of subsequent quasi-experiments that rely on

operational definitions of contemplative practices that are narrowly defined and more structured

implementation of the interventions across instructor and semester to improve reliability and

validity.

80
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 APPENDIX. Semi-Structured Interview

Demographics

Participant_____________

1. Male/Female:

2. Age:

3. Marital/Relationship status:

4. Race/ethnicity:

5. Religion:

Interview Guide

1. How would you describe your experience in the classroom?

2. Describe moments in the class where you experienced being fully present.

3. Describe moments in class when you were not fully present.

4. Describe you experience of your body awareness in the classroom.

5. How would you describe your self-judgments?

6. How did being present or not being present affect your overall success in the class?

7. Did the classroom experience have any effect on your life outside of the classroom?

8. How did your experience in the class affect your end-of-semester grade for this class?

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