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76 views30 pagesDefault Folder
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 30
\Communication (Sem. 5 / E&Tc. / MU)
4_Antroduction :
We have discussed the baseband pulse transmission
cater.
= In baseband pulse transmission, the input data is
represented in the form of a discrete PAM signal (line
codes)
= These signals are transmitted over the communication
chonnel
However in the digital passband transmission which is
discussed in this chapter, the digital input data is used
to modulate a sinusoidal carier.
= These signals are transmitted over a bandpass channel,
= The examples of bandpass channels are microwave
radio link or a satellite channel.
= There are three basic signaling schemes used in
passband data transmission
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Phase shift keying (PSK)
3. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
~ These are similar to amplitude modulation (AM), phase
modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM)
respectively.
9.1.1 Hierarchy of Digital Modulation
May 17,5 Marks)
So ensonerert digital detection
2 Bs s (Dec. 18, 5 Marks)
The digital modulation techniques are classified into
two categories as
1. Coherent techniques
2. Non-coherent techniques.
Coherent techniqui
In the coherent digital modulation techniques, we have
to use a phase synchronized locally generated carrier at
the receiver to recover the information signal.
The frequency and phase of this carier produced at the
receiver should be perfectly synchronized with that at
the transmitter.
Digital Modulation
— Coherent techniques are complex but guarantee better
performance.
2. Non-coherent technique
In the non-coherent techniques, no phase synchronized
local caries needed at the receiver.
These techniques are less complex
— But the performance is not as good as that of coherent
techniques
Cerro
9.1.2 Probability of Error(P,)
'Q.1™ Explain the following terms in digital modulation
techniques : Probability of error, Power
spectra, Bandwidth efficiency. (Dec. 17, 5 Marks)
= The most important goal of passband data transmission
systems is to design the receiver having minimum value
of average probability of error in presence of additive
white Gaussian noise (AWGN).
~The value of error probability P, of a system indicates its,
performance in presence of AWGN. The value of P,
should be as small as possible.
ieee
9.1.3 Power Spectra :
een
Explain the following terms in digital modulation
techniques: Probabilty of error, Power
spectra, Bandwidth eficiency. (Dec. 17, 5 Marks)
= The features of every method can be completely
understood if and only if we study the power spectra of
at
the modulated signal
= It is @ graph of power spectral density plotted on ¥ axis
versus frequency (on X axis).
about the bandwidth
= It gives us information
requirement and cochannel interference.
9.1.4 Bandwidth Efficiency :
Q.4° Explain the following terms. in: digital modulation.
techniques Probability error, . Power
spectra, Bandwidth efficiency. (Dec. 17, 5 Marks)
~The channel bandwidth and transmitted power are the
‘wo primary communication resources.
= Every communication systems should be spectrally
efficient.
Tech ¥ Digital Communication (Sem.§ /E&Te, / MU) Error Control Syste,
2. It helps in correction of errors and reduces the
probability of error.
3. It reduces the signal to noise ratio for a fixed
probability of error.
Disadvantages of coding :
— Some of the disadvantages of the coding are :
1. An_ increased transmission bandwidth is
required in order to transmit the encoded
signal. This is due to the additional bits
(redundancy) added by the encoder.
2. Use of coding make the system complex.
led to Codes
3.2_Definitions R
3.2.1 Code Word :
= The code word is the n bit encoded block of bits. As
already seen it contains message bits and parity or
redundant bits, as shown in Fig. 3.2.1.
fe-—n- bite —}
fe kent}
Code word
Redundant
bits
(©1700 Fig. 3.2.1 : Structure of a transmitted code word
Difference between a word and a code :
= Aword is defined as a sequence of symbols. Where
as a code is defined as a set of vectors called code
words.
3.2.2 Code Rate
Definition :
~The code rate is defined as the ratio of the n
‘of message bits (K) to the total number of bits (n
code word.
k
Code rate(f) = 5 32
3.2.3 Hamming Weight w(x):
PC ALR,
mete
etka BGG
_ | (May 06, May 07, 2 Marks)
fe, hamming distance and hamring
ontext of linear block code. As
| property and cyclic propery =!
ii (May 18, § Mars)
$ Define the following term and sive the:
__ significance : Hamming weight. (Dec. 19, 2 Marks)
Definition :
- The Hamming weight of a code word x is def
the number of non-zero elements in the code
= Hamming weight of a code vector (code word) i
distance between that code word and an ail :
code vector. (a code having all elements equal»
zero).
(Eee nd
3.2.4 Code Efficiency :
(Dec. 06, 2 Marks)
fe, cade efficiency, systematic 3
8 context of linear block
(May 16, 5 Marks),
Definition :
= The code efficiency is defined as the ratio of me:
bits to the number of transmitted bits per block
Code efficiency = Code rate ‘ 322
3.2.6 Hamming Distance Digi
Vase (t) = Vf 2P, [b,(t) sin 2n (t/ 4 Ty) cos a. t
+ Af BP, [bg (t) cos 2 (t/4T, I sin wt
(9.15.1)
Communication (Sem_§ / E&Tc. / MU)
Conclusion
In MSk the two quadrature carriers sin wt and cos wt
are multiplied by "smooth" waveform of Figs. 9.15.1(e)
‘and (f) and not by the abruptly changing waveforms like
OgPsK.
Due to this the side lobes generated in the MSK
spectrum are much smaller and easy to suppress to
avoid interchannel interference.
9.15.3 MSK is called as Shaped QPSK
Q.1_ Draw the block diagram of MSK transmitter. Why
MSK is called shaped QPSK. (Dec. 06, 10 Marks).
@.2 MSK is called ‘Shaped QPSK’. Justify with relevant
‘expression as waveforms. Discuss the merits and
demerits 6f MSK as compared to QPSK.
(Bee. 08, 10 Marks)
2.3 MSKis also 5 caled as “Shaped QPSK”, Justiy with
‘elevant expression and waveforms.
_{May 10, 8 Marks)
Equation (9.151) and the waveforms shown in
Fig. 9.15.1 indicate that MSK is very similar to an offset
QPSK system.
The only difference between the two is that in OQPSK
the quadrature carriers are multiplied by the abruptly
changing signals b(t) and b(t)
But in MSK, the quadrature carriers are multiplied by
smooth signals b, (t) cos 2x (t/47,) and b, (t) sin 2x
(t/4T5),
We may imagine that the cos 2x (t / 4 Ty) and
sin 2x (t /-4 T, ) signal are modifying or shaping the
(OQPSK signal to produce the MSK signal.
‘Therefore MSK is called as shaped QPSK.
After this discussion we may feel that MSK is a type of
QPSK. But it is not true
Now we shall show that MSK is not QPSK but it is
basically an FSK system.
47
Digital Modulation
9.15.4 To Prove that MSK is FSK :
COAT
10)
Q.4 MSK is called ‘Shaped QPSK’. Justify with relevant
expression a6 waveforms. Discuss the merits and
demerits of MSK as compared to QPSK.
(Dec. 08, 10 Marks)
2 MSKis also called as “Shaped QPSK”. Justify with
relevant expression and waveforms.
(May 10, 5 Marks)
= We know that,
1
sinAcosB = Z[sin(A +B) + sin (A-8))
and cosAsin8 = A{sin(A+8)~sin(A-2)
= Using these standard identities, we can simplify
Equation (9.15.1) as follows.
Vyse (t) = Af 2Py by (t) fc08 wt sin 2 (t/ 47.
+ VBP, be (t) Ksin wt x cos 2x (t/ 47.
~ E80 ona 2) oo (w-2)]
A2P, bolt)
[m(eedealo
b(t) +b, (t) (
Vat = FR [AE (22)
be(t)—be(t)]
oF ono.
2e (fe)
= subsite 2E 2 a= ax () in the stove
epraten foe
b(t) + b(t)
Wat) = [FR [PORE oie,
aE [ectocbace
+2P, [| sin (w-01t
bolt) + b(t
= tne ogc a aetna
bo (t)-b,
and C(t) = a {t)
Substituting these in Equation (9.15.3) we get,
Vuselt) = Af 2P; Cy (t) sin (a, +0)t
+f 2PE x C(t) sin (@,-9)
WH lectin 9.12.3 PSD and Bandwidth of M-ary PSK :
IMU : Dec. 10, May 11, May 17, Dec.
| Q.1 Explain 8-ary PSK w.rt. the following :
1. Modulator and demodulator )
2. Plot PSD, show bandwidth, find spectral
efficiency.
3. Final Eucledian Distance. :
- (Dec. 10, 10 Marks)
-Q.2. Explain the working of M-ary PSK Transmitter and
Receiver. Plot the spectrum and calculate the
bandwidth. (May 11, May % ” “_
3 Write short notes on :
Power spectral sat and “bandwidth of 16- Ary
PSK : (Dec. 18, 5 Marks)
. 18, New Syll. : May 22
wy TechKnowledge
Publications ital Communication (Sem.§ / E&Tc. / MU)
PSD of Mary PS!
= Inthe preceding section 9.11.10 we have obtained the
‘expression for power spectral density of the baseband
QPSK signal as :
sin (nf TJ]?
Srrese) = aan oT,
= However QPSK is a special case of M-ary PSK with
M=4,
= Therefore we can use the above expression to write the
‘expression for PSD of the baseband M-ary PSK system.
— The only modification required is, that we have to
substitute T, = NT, in the above equation.
sin (xf NTy)]?
aan (9.125)
= Using Equation (9.12.5) we can plot the PSD of the
baseband M-ary PSK signal as shown in Fig. 9.12.2(0.
—
(€396) Fig. 9.12.2(c) : PSD of baseband M-ary PSK signal
Bandwidth of M-ary PSK :
= From the plot of PSD in Fig. 9.12.2(¢).
ew = >
But T, =
BW =
1
But,
Bw = (9126)
= We know that the bandwidth of a BPSK system is 2 f,
The above expression tells us that with increase in
number of bits per message, the bandwidth reduces,
9.33
Digital Mod
9.12.4 M-ary PSK Transmitter
m
or r
10, May 11, May 17, New Syl
Ue
11 Explain 8-ary PSK wart. the following
4, Modulator and demodulator
2, Plot PSD, show bandwidth, find
efficiency,
3, Final Eucledian Distance.(Dec.10, 10
Q.2 Explain the working of M-ary PSK Transmit
Receiver. Plot the spectrum and calcul
bandwidth, (May 11, May 17, 10
crn
Block diagram :
The block diagram of an M-ary PSK system is ND
in fig. 9123
(€397) Fig. 9.12.3
: M-ary PSK transmitter
Operation :
~ The bit stream b ( t) is applied to a serial to ASD
converter.
This block can store the N bits of a symbol.
— These N bits per symbol appear serially, in the fora
sequence one after the other
~The N bits per symbol are first assembled by thea
to parallel converter block.
~ Then all these bits are presented simultaneously
— Thus the N-bit message appears in the parallel im
the output ofthe sera to parallel converter.
~The output of the serial to parallel converter
unchanged for a duration of NT, of a symbol. Thi
duration 's used by the converter to assemble Qgamp
group of N bits.
~ After every NT, seconds, the converter output chem
to anew N bit symbol.
= The N bit output of the converter is then applign @
DIA converter
vom 9.12.5 Mary PSK Re
"Receiver. Plot the spectrum and calculate the
Digital Communication (Sem_5 / E&Tc. / MU)
‘The N bit digital input, is converted into an analog
output Vs
The N bit digital input can have 2" = M number of
possible combinations.
Therefore the D/A converter output V, will have M
umber of distinct values, corresponding to the M
symbols.
Finally, this analog voltage is applied to a sinusoidal
signal generator, which produces a constant amplitude
sinusoidal output voltage, the phase ¢, of which is
proportional to the D/A converter output Va,
Thus at the output of the transmitter, we get a fixed
de sinusoidal waveform, the phase of which has
8 one to one correspondence to the N bit symbols.
The phase will change only once per symbol time
T=NT.
Thus the M-ary PSK is generated,
Dec. 10, May 11, May 17, New Syll.: May 2:
Modulator and demodulator
Plot PSD, show bandwidth, find spectral
‘efficiency.
“3. Final Eucledian Distance. *
Bae (Dee. 10, 10 Marks)
12. Explain the working of M-ary PSK Transmitter and
___bandwidth (May 11, May 17, 10 Marks)
(Block diagram :
The block diagram of M-ary PSK receiver is as shown in
Fig. 9.12.4. This is same as the non-offset QPSK receiver.
9.34
Digital Modulation
Operation :
‘The M-ary receiver operates on the principle of
synchronous demodulation which we had discussed for
BPSK and QPSK.
The cartier recovery system will require a device which
can raise the received signal to M” power.
‘This signal is then applied to a bandpass filter, which
has been designed to have the center frequency to be
equal to Mf.
‘At the filter output we get a sinusoidal signal at
frequency Mf, that is M” harmonic of the carrier
frequency f,
This frequency is then divided by M to obtain the carrier
at frequency f.
The two carriers produced at the filter output are
cos agt and sin o.t
These recovered carriers are then applied to two
multipliers (balanced modulators)
The other input of each multiplier block is connected to
the received M-ary PSK signal
‘The outputs of the balanced modulators are applied to
the integrators.
Since the M-ary PSK system is a non-offset or non-
staggered type of system, the integrators will extend
their integration over the same time interval.
These integrators wll work alongwith a bit synchronizer,
which has not been shown in Fig. 9.124.
The outputs of the integrators are proportional to T, p.
and T, ps tespectively and they (outputs) change at the
symbol rate,
‘These outputs are then applied to an A to D converter
Which yields the N bit transmitted signal
This signal is converted into b(t) by using a parallel to
serial converter.
Now the operating systems with N = 4 bits and
M = 2° = 16 are common
= The bandwidth of such a system will be given by,
2h 2h ty
at) e081 . eae e anh
(€ 864) Fig. 9.12.4 ; M-ary PSK receiver
Tedhtaoaledge igital Communication (Sem. 5 /E8Te. / MU 725 Baseband Transmission
———————
G.2 Witte short note on : Eye pattern
— _ The transmission bandwidth B, is defined as follows :
= 2B,-f,=B(L+a) (7.8.15)
= The normalized frequency response of raised cosine
function is obtained if we multiply P () with 28, and
it is plotted in Fig. 7.8.2(a), for different values of a.
— The corresponding time domain signal p (t) is shown
in Fig. 7.8.2(b).
(b) Time response
(€-302) Fig. 7.8.2 : Responses for different roll-off factors
Observations :
— Some of the important observations from Fig. 7.8.2
are as follows:
1. For a = 0S and 1 the characteristics of P( f )
changes gradually with respect to frequency.
Therefore it is easier to realize this
characteristics practically.
2. The time response has the shape of a sinc
function and all the sinc function pass through
zero at t = #Ty #2 Ty
3. The amplitude of side lobes increases with
reduction in the value of a.
4. With a = 0, the bandwidth requirement is
maximum equal to 2 By
79 _EyeDiagram:
ee vite ‘note on : Eye pattern and its application
(Dee. 12, 12 Marks, May 14, 10 Marks)
< (May 13, 5 Marks)
as Ps se0 mean by an eye diagram 7 What is its.
a "purpose 7 Mention the four parameters observad,
“from the eye pattern, Explain with the help of
sutabio iustretion. (May 15, 10 Marks)
“Wit short note on Inter symbol Interference (Ist
hd eye diagram, (May 17, 10 Marks)
juss the problem of inter symbol interference
$ ae ‘the measures to be taken to reduce
om Howe siiy St using eye pattem 7
(ee. 48, May 19, 10 Marks)
Definition :
Eye pattern is a pattern displayed on the screen of a
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).
The shape of this pattern is very similar to the shape
of human eye.
Therefore itis called as eye pattern.
Use of eye diagram :
The eye diagram is a common measurement tool to»
determine the fidelity of the received signal.
Its also used to assess the data-handling ability of a
digital transmission system.
Eye diagrams are used to evaluate the performance
of optical fiber data links.
Eye patter is used for studying the inter symbol
interference (IS) and its effects
communication systems.
on various
In this section we will discuss the method to
generate an eye diagram and interpretation of
various signal fidelity parameters with it
How to obtain the eye pattern :
The eye pattern is obtained on the C.RO. by applying
the received signal to vertical deflection plates
(Y-plates) of the C.R.O. and a sawtooth wave at the
transmission symbol rate i.e. (1 / T,) to the horizontal
deflection plates (X-plates) as shown in Fig. 79.110)
RF Teckinowledse Obtaining eye pattern on a CRO
~The received digital signal and the corresponding
‘oscilloscope display are as shown in Figs. 7..1(2) and
(respectively.
- The: resulting oscilloscope display shown in
Fig. 7.9.1(¢ is called’as the “eye pattern’, due to its
resemblance to the human eye.
~The region inside the eye pattern is called as the eye
‘opening.
~ The eye pattern provides very important information
about the performance of the system.
~ Information obtained from eye pattern :
= We can obtain a lot of system-performance
information from the eye-patter display.
Now refer the simplified eye pattern shown in
Fig. 79.2 for its interpretation.
Bost samping time
Maximum |
Dictorton at
Te revalover wich Fe
+ Yve can be sampled (Ty)
{0-1290) Fig. 7.9.2: Simplified eye diagram showing the key
performance parameters
area eT oak ietiiataiget e mteced de
Noise margin (percent) =
3
to amplitude distortion in the data signal.
jegree of amplitude distortion is given by the
vertical distance between the top of the eye opening
‘and the maximum signal level.
‘Noise margin measurement :
‘The noise margin of an optical system is defined by
the height of eye opening at a specified sampling
time,
Hence the noise margin can be measured from the
eye diagram as follows:
ve
Yy % 200 percent
‘Timing jitter measurement :
The slope of the eye-pattem sides indicates the
sensitivity ofthe system to timing errors.
The probability of timing errors increases as the
slope of eye pattern sides decreases (becomes more
horizontal).
Timing jitter in an optical fiber system arises due to
the noise introduced by the receiver and pulse
distortion in the optical fiber.
7392)
Each jitter can produce uncertainties in clock timing.
Therefore excessive jitter can introduce bit errors in
detection of optical signals
Due to this timing uncertainty a receiver loses
synchronization with the incoming bit stream and
therefore interprets logic 1 and 0 pulses incorrectly.
‘As shown in Fig. 7.9.2, for the signal sampled in the
middle of the time interval, then the amount of
distortion AT at the threshold level indicates the
amount of ter.
‘TechKnowledgs Digital Communication (Sem_5 / E&Tc. / MU)
= Timing jitter can be measured from the eye diagram
as follows
Timing jitter (percent) = os 100 percent —..7.9.2)
Rise time measurement :
= The rise time is defined as the time interval between
the instant at which the rising edge of the signal
reaches 10 percent of its final amplitude to the
instant at which it reaches 90 percent of its final
amplitude.
= However, while measuring optical signals, the
10 percent and 90 percent points are often obscured
due to noise and jitter effects.
~ Therefore, the signal values corresponding to the
20-percent and 80-percent points are normally
measured.
= Then we can convert the rise time calculated from
the 20 and 80 percent points to the rise time with
10 and 90 percent points with the help of following
approximate relationship.
Thos = 125% Troe
— We can use a similar approach to determine the fall
time.
— The symmetry of eye diagram is disturbed due to any
nonlinear effects in the channel _ transfer
characteristics
- All the eye openings will be identical and
symmetrical for the output of a purely linear system,
if a purely random data stream is passed through it.
= When the effect of ISI is severe, the eye is completely
closed and it is impossible to avoid errors due to the
combined effect of ISI and noise in the system.
7.10_Equalization
CULES PAE ERED
Ca
1), Wie short noes on: 1S! and Equalizers.
(ey, Mar)
| Q. 2. Write short note on ; Equalizers.
# (Dec. 11, May 12,10
‘What isthe necessity of equalzer ina transmission |
system? :
“ (@ec. 12, May 13, Dec. 13, May 14, 5 Marks), Mt
lodels
ome across
Fig. 2.3.1.
noryless
DMS)
sures |
vformation
> transmit the
e to some
e of different
adcasting the
or music) or
es are analog
2s are called
's:
computer or a
or optical disk
gnal such as @
ete output are
tion source is in
9101111 ...
) produced by a
WUC
Stationary sources :
If the output of a discrete source is statistically
dependent on its past of future outputs, then it is
called as the discrete stationary source.
- The example of a discrete source is the source
generating the English text.
Average Information or Entropy :
Q.1 Define ‘amount of information’. Discuss the
different properties of Information. Also define
Entropy? " (Miay 08, 10 Marks)
(Q.2 Define entropy and information rate of discrete
fF memoryless source. (Dec. 10, 4 Marks),
Q3_ Define : 1. Information rate 2, Entropy 3. Shannon
ant Shannon Hartley |
ay 11, 10 Marks) |
as
Definition of entropy :
The “Entropy” is defined as the average information
per message. It is denoted by H and its units are
bits/message.
_ The entropy must be as high as possible in order to
‘ensure maximum transfer of information.
_ We will prove that the entropy depends only on the
probabilities of the symbols that are being produced
by the source.
2.4.1. Expression for Entropy :
@.4 Derive the condition for maximum entropy of @
source. How does entropy vary with probability ?
(May 10, May 13, Dec. 13, 5 Marks)
Q.2 Derive an expression for entropy.
a (May 12, 2Marks)
1.3. Derive the expression for entropy. When is entropy
maximum ? (Dec. 16, § Marks)
endent from all Digital Communication (Sem. 5 /E&Tc. /M 26 Information Theory and Sou
= Follow the steps given below to obtain the crow) = Prt tog2 (2/ Pi]
‘expression for entropy. Similarly the total information conveyed by
Steps to be followed : number of m, messages is given as
re Tycroa) = Pal loan / Pe 2
= Similar expression can be written for the remay
messages.
3. As we already know, the total information
than one mutually independent message s
equal to the sum of the information conte
individual messages. ie.
Vrouy “= Tecratay + Bacto Bacto +
Substitute the values Of Ty ¢routy le reat) “86. fom rs
Equations (2.4.1) and (2.42), to get,
Tyrots) = Pa blog, (1/ px] + Pz blog, (1/9;
+ ps blog, 1/ ps] + 244
Trout) = LEP, log, (1/ p:) + Pr 10g (1/p,
+ ps logy (/ Ps) #-]
4, The "Entropy" is defined as the average informato:
per message interval. It is represented by the s,
= Suppose that a transmitter is transmitting M different | “4 Therefore from Equation (24.5), we can w
and independent messages m,, my m, .. Let their | that,
probabilities of occurence be Py Py Py '
cro
respectively. -_
= Suppose that during a long period of transmission a pelogy(1/ Px) * Py log, (1/ p,) #
sequence of L messages is generated. a
1. Then if L is very large we can expect that in the L | ». Entropy: H= E pylog,(3/p,) aa
message sequence,
p, L messages of m, are transmitted
=1
p, L messages of m, are transmitted
the entropy of a sources
‘probabilities of the symbols that s¢
p, L messages of m, are transmitted
P,, L messages of m, are transmitted, ?
is entropy
fa ifrraton source he #
2. The information conveyed by the message m, is | | ‘entropy m (Dec. 15, 4 Marks)
given as, ',2 Derive the expression for entropy. When is en"! |
1, = log, [1/pJ nein (ee. 16, Suen |
- Consider a discrete memory less source (DMS
However there are p, L number of messages of m,
Pi 2 é mathematically defined by the following equat
Therefore the information conveyed by p, L number
of messages will be S = (50 Sy5y Di
Communication
5 /E8Tc. / MU) 2
- let the probabilities of these messages be p,, py
-Pe-1 Fespectively.
ket
ZRe.
‘i ” (24.9)
~ Then the entropy of the source is bound as follows
O<
— Hence regardless of what happens subsequently, this
path will have a smaller "Hamming Distance” from
Y than the other paths arriving at by.
= There this path is more likely to represent the actual
transmitted sequence.
~ Therefore we discard the-large metric paths arriving
at nodes a, c, and d,, leaving the total 2“ = 4
Convolutional
a)
surviving paths marked with () sign
Table 6.4.1.
= The paths marked by a (x) in Table 642)
Fig, P. 6.4,1(e) are large metric paths and hent
discarded and the paths with smaller metric
are declared as survivor at that node.
= Note that there is one survivor for cach