1

Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)

ISI in the detection process due to the filtering effects
of the system
Overall equivalent system transfer function

H(f)H (f)H
 creates echoes and hence time dispersion
 causes ISI at sampling time
ISI effect
i zk  sk  nk  isi
k

2
 Inter-symbol Interference (ISI): MODEL
Baseband system
model
x1 x2
zk
x  k
Tx filter Channel r(t) Rx. filter xkˆ
ht (t) hc (t) hr (t) Detector
T Equival tHm(tofd)
Hc ( f ) Hr ( f )
t
kT

en x3 T n(t
el

x1 x2
Equivalent system zk
x 
k
z(t
xkˆ
h(t) Detector
T H
t
kT

x3 T
nˆ(
filtered noise
t
H ( f )  H t ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )

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4
 Nyquist Pulses (FILTERS)
Nyquist pulses (filters):
 Pulses (filters) which result in no ISI at the
sampling time.
Nyquist filter:
 Its transfer function in frequency domain is
obtained by convolving a rectangular function
with any real even- symmetric frequency
function
Nyquist pulse:
 Its shape can be represented by a sinc(t/T)
function multiply
by another time function.
Example of Nyquist filters: Raised-Cosine filter

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 Raised Cosine Filter & Its Spectrum
| H ( f ) || HRC h(t)  hRC (t)
(f)
| r 1
1 
r
0.5 0.5 r
r 1 r
1 0.5 r


1  3 1 0 1 3  3T  2T T 0 T 2T
T 4T 1 3T
2T 2T 4T T

Baseband W sSB  (1 r) Passband W DSB (1 r)Rs

Rs 2

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 RAISED COSINE FILTER & ITS
SPECTRUM
Raised-Cosine Filter
 A Nyquist pulse (No ISI at the
sampling time)

for | f | 2W0 W
1

 | f | W  2W 0  for 2W0 W | f | W
H ( f ) cos 2

4 W W0 
 for | f | W

0
cos[2  (W  W0 )t]
h(t)  2W0
(sinc( 2W0t)) 1[4(W W 0 )t]2
W W
r
Roll-off factor
Excess bandwidth: W W0
0  r 1
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Correlative Coding – DUO
BINARY
SIGNALING

8
Impulse Response of Duobinary
Encoder

9
 Encoding Process
1) an = binary input bit; an ∈ {0,1}.
2) bn = NRZ polar output of Level converter in the
precoder
and is given by,

bn={−d,if an=0+d,if an=1

3) yn can be represented as

The duobinary encoding correlates present sample an and the

previous input sample an-1.

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 Decoding Process
The receiver consists of a duobinary decoder and a
postcoder.
b^n=yn−b^n−1
This equation indicates that the decoding process is prone
to error propagation as the estimate of present sample
relies on the estimate of previous sample.
This error propagation is avoided by using a precoder
before duobinary encoder at the transmitter and a
postcoder after the duobinary decoder.
The precoder ties the present sample and previous sample
and the postcoder does the reverse process.

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Partial Response Signalling

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 Eye
Pattern
Eye pattern:Display
on an oscilloscope which sweeps the
system response to a baseband signal at the rate 1/T (T
symbolduration)

Distortion due to ISI

Noise margin
amplitude
scale

Sensitivity
to
timing error
Timing jitter
time scale
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 Example Of Eye Pattern:
BINARY-PAM, SRRC
PULSE

Perfect channel (no noise and

no ISI)

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Eye Diagram For 4-PAM

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Additive White Gaussian Noise
(AWGN)
 Thermal noise is described by a zero-mean Gaussian random
process, n(t) that ADDS on to the signal => “additive”
 Its PSD is flat, hence, it is called white noise.
 Autocorrelation is a spike at 0: uncorrelated at any non-zero lag

[w/Hz]

Power spectral
Density
(flat => “white”)

Autocorrelation
Function
Probability density function (uncorrelated)
(gaussian)
2
16
3
 CoherantDetection of Signals in
Noise:

“likelihoods”

Assuming both symbols equally likely: uA is chosen if

Log-Likelihood => A simple distance criterion!

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 Effect of Noise In Signal Space
The cloud falls off exponentially (gaussian).
Vector viewpoint can be used in signal space, with a random noise
vector w

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 Correlator Receiver
The matched filter output at the sampling time, can be
realized as the correlator output.
 Matched filtering, i.e. convolution with s *(T-) siimplifies
integration
to w/ si *(), i.e. correlation or inner product!
z(T )  hopt (T ) 
r(T )
T
 0 r(  ) si *
( )d    r (t), s (t)

Recall: correlation operation is the projection of the received
signal onto the signal space!

Key idea: Reject the noise (N) outside this space as

irrelevant:
=> maximize S/N
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 A Correlation Receiver
S1 (t) integrat
or
Tb


0
 S1 (t)  n(t)
V (t)  or
-
  Threshold
 2 S (t)  +
n(t)  device (A\D)

Samp
el
Tb every
 Tb
second
s
0

S2 (t) integrat
or 20
Probability Of Error

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 Signal Constellation Diagram

A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated

by a digital modulation scheme such as quadrature amplitude
modulation or phase-shift keying.

It displays the signal as a two-dimensional xy-plane scatter

diagram in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants.

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23
PASSBAND TRANSMISSION MODEL

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BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING
(PSK)
Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
BPSK
modulated
signal
s1 s0 s0 s1 where
s0 =-Acos(ct) and s1 =Acos(ct)
Major drawback – rapid amplitude
change between symbols due to phase
discontinuity, which requires infinite bandwidth.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) demonstrates
better performance than ASK and BFSK
BPSK can be expanded to a M-ary 25
scheme,
BPSK TRANSMITTER

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BINARY TO
BIPOLAR
CONVERSION

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COHERENT BPSK RECEIVER

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BPSK WAVEFORM

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30
 QPSK
⚫ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) can be
interpreted as two independent BPSK systems (one
on the I-channel and one on Q-channel), and thus
the same performance but twice the bandwidth
(spectrum) efficiency.
⚫ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying has twice the
bandwidth efficiency of BPSK since 2 bits are
transmitted in a single modulation symbol
⚫ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) has twice the
bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, since 2 bits are
transmitted in a single modulation symbol.

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Symbol and corresponding phase shifts in
QPSK

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 QPSK
QPSK → Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

 Four different phase states in one symbol

period
 Two
Phase: π/2 π 3π/2
bits of0information → possible
in each symbol
phase
values
NSymbol: 00 01 e 1 10 so an error between two
ote that we hoopoints
adjacent bi nary
in the constellation only results in a single
bit errorc s 1 representations

 For example, decoding a phase to be π instead of π/2 will

result in a "11"
when it should have been "01", only one bit in error.

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34
 Now we aveh two basis functions
 Es = 2 Eb since 2 bits are transmitted per
 symbol e component from sI(t).
I = in-phas
 Q = quadrature component that
is sQ(t).

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 QPSK Transmitter

AN OFFSET QPSK TRANSMITTER

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QPSK Waveforms

37
QPSK Receiver

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 Types of QPSK

Q Q Q

I I I

Conventional QPSK Offset QPSK /4

QPSK
⚫ Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (i.e. 1800 phase transition). Highly
amplifiers
linear
⚫ In Offset QPSK, the phase transitions are limited to 900, the transitions on the I
required.
channels
and Q are
⚫ In /4 QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions
staggered.
zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest envelope
through
variations.
⚫ All QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers
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 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
BFSK
modulated
signal
f1 f0

f0

f1

where f0 =Acos(c-)t and f1 =Acos(c+)t

Example: The ITU-T V.21 modem standard uses FSK 40
Generation & Detection of FSK

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 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1 0
ASK
modulated
signal
Acos(t) Acos(t)

Pulse shaping can be employed to remove spectral spreading

ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected
by noise,
fading, and interference

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Error Probabilities of
PSK,QPSK,BFSK

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 Power Spectral Density (PSD)
In practical, pulse shaping should be considered for a precise
bandwidth measurement and considered in the spectral
efficiency calculations.
 Power spectral density (PSD) describes the distribution of signal
power in the frequency domain. If the baseband equivalent of the
transmitted signal sequence is given as


gt  ak pt  kTs ak : Baseband modulation
 k
  symbol
Ts : Signal pt  : Pulse
then the PSD of g(t) is interval shape
given as

1
 g f P  f  a  f
2
wher P  f   Fpt
Ts e 
   a  f   Ra ne j
2fnTs 1 n
 *
R n 2 E  ak
a kn

a 44
 M-ARY Phase Shift Keying
(MPSK)
In M-ary PSK, the carrier phase takes on one of the M
possible values, namely i = 2 * (i - 1) / M
where i = 1, 2, 3, …..M.
The modulated waveform can be expressed as

where Es is energy per symbol = (log2 M) Eb

Ts is symbol period = (log2 M) Tb.

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The above equation in the Quadrature form
is

By choosing orthogonal basis

signals

defined over the interval 0  t 

Ts
46
M-ary signal set can be expressed as

 Since there are only two basis signals, the constellation

of M-ary PSK is two dimensional.

 The M-ary message points are equally spaced on a

circle of radius Es, centered at the origin.

 The constellation diagram of an 8-ary PSK signal set is

shown in fig.

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M-ARY PSK
Transmitter

48
Coherent M-ARY PSK Receiver

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 M-ARY Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation
It’s a Hybrid modulation (QAM)
As we allow the amplitude to also vary with the phase, a
new modulation scheme called quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM) is obtained.
The constellation diagram of 16-ary QAM consists of a
square lattice of signal points.
Combines amplitude and phase modulation
One symbol is used to represent n bits using one symbol
BER increases with n,

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 The general form of an M-ary QAM signal can
be
defined as

where
Emin is the energy of the signal with the lowest
amplitude and
ai and bi are a pair of independent integers chosen
according to the location of the particular signal
point.

 In M-ary QAM energy per symbol and also distance

between possible symbol states is not a constant.

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 M-PSK AND M-QAM
M-PSK (Circular Constellations) M-QAM (Square Constellations)
bn bn
4-PSK
16-QAM
16-PSK
4-PSK

an an

Tradeoffs
– Higher-order modulations (M large) are more spectrally
efficient but less power efficient (i.e. BER higher).
– M-QAM is more spectrally efficient than M-PSK
but also more sensitive to system nonlinearities.

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Non-coherent Detection

53
Non-coherent DPSK Receiver

DPSK
Receiver

Dpsk receiver
using
correlator 54
Non-coherent BFSK Receiver

55
Comparisons Between Modulation Techniques

56
Introduction : Types of Errors

57
Single bit errors are the least likely type of errors in serial data
transmission because the noise must have a very short duration which
is very rare. However this kind of errors can happen in parallel
transmission.
Example:
 If data is sent at 1Mbps then each bit lasts only 1/1,000,000 sec. or 1 μs.
 For a single-bit error to occur, the noise must have a duration of only 1
μs, which is very rare.

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Burst Error

59
60
 The term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit have
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Burst errors does not necessarily mean that the errors occur in
consecutive bits, the length of the burst is measured from the first
corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. Some bits in between may not
have been corrupted.

61
normally longer than the duration of a bit.
 Burst error is most likely to happen in serial transmission since the duration of
noise is
 The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise.
Example:

If data is sent at rate = 1Kbps then a noise

of 1/100 sec can affect 10 bits.
(1/100*1000)

If same data is sent at rate = 1Mbps then

a noise of 1/100 sec can affect 10,000
bits.(1/100*106)
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 Error Detection
Error detection means to decide whether the received data is correct or not
without having a copy of the original message.

Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits
for detecting
errors at the destination.

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 Error Correction
It can be handled in two
ways:
1) receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.
2) The receiver can use an error-correcting code, which
automatically corrects certain errors.

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Single-bit Error Correction
To correct an error, the receiver reverses
the value of the altered bit. To do so, it
must know which bit is in error.
Number of redundancy bits needed
Let data bits = m
Redundancy bits = r
Total message sent = m+r
The value of r must satisfy the following
relation:
2r ≥ m+r+1

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Error Correction

66
 Repetetion
• Retransmission is a very simple concept. Whenever one party
sends something to the other party, it retains a copy of the data
it sent until the recipient has acknowledged that it received it. In
a variety of circumstances the sender automatically retransmits
the data using the retained copy.

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