Bit and Baud

Bit rate : the number of data elements transmitted per second

Baud rate : the number of symbol elements transmitted per second

r is the number of data elements carried by each symbol element

• N = bit rate and S = baud rate
•N=Sxr 11/12/2020 40
 A signal carries 4 bits per symbol element. If the baud rate of the system is
1000 symbols per second, find the bit rate.

r=4
S = 1000
N = S x r = 4000 bps

A system has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud.
How many data elements are carried by each signal element ?

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M-ary Modulation Technique:

• In designing any communication system, the efficient bandwidth

utilization is an important goal along with the provision of reliable
performance assuring a very low probability of error.
• In binary digital modulation scheme, each bit is transmitted individually .
• A more efficient bandwidth utilization can be achieved if the signaling
elements contain more than one bit.

• Let us combine N bits together to form a symbol NTb wide.

• With such arrangements, M = 2N different symbols can be generated.
• Using these symbols as the modulating signals we may configure M-ary
modulation techniques.

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Advantage of M-ary Technique:
 As the symbol duration increases with combination of the bits , transmitting
bandwidth is reduced.
• Let us consider the most efficient binary modulation scheme PSK. The
bandwidth of PSK is 2/Ts = 2/ Tb = 2fb where symbol duration Ts = bit
duration Tb (1/fb ).
• Now if we combine N bits together, then the symbol duration Ts = NTb
• Thus the new bandwidth requirement = 2/T = 2/N Tb = 2fb / N
Therefore, overall transmission bandwidth is reduced by a factor N
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M-PSK:
In M-PSK, each symbol is represented by sinusoids which differ in phase by
2π/M .

The general M-ary PSK correspond to M-discreate values of phase terms can
be given as
Si(t) = A cos( 2πfct + Φi) 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts
Where Φi = (2i +1) π/M with i = 0 ,1, 2, 3 …(M-1)

• For binary system, M=2 , N =1 , i = 0 , 1

thus Φ0 = π/2 , Φ1 = 3π/2
• For quaternary system M = 4, N= 2 , i = 0,1 , 2 , 3.
thus Φ0 = π/4 , Φ1 = 3π/4 , Φ3 = 5π/4 , Φ4 = 7π/4

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 4-PSK / Quaternary –PSK / Quadrature – PSK (Q-PSK)
In this technique, 2 bits of the input data stream is combined to form the
symbol.
In QPSK system, the four possible symbols may be represented in the gray
encoded form by transmitting a sinusoidal carrier with one of 4 possible
values.

Symbol Sinusoid
10 S(t) = A cos( 2πfct+ π/4 )
00 S(t) = A cos( 2πfct + 3π/4)
01 S(t) = A cos( 2πfct + 5π/4)
11 S(t) = A cos( 2πfct + 7π/4)

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 Cos Φ

2Tb QPSK Waveform 2Tb

As the symbol duration is 2Tb the minimum bandwidth of QPSK = 2/ 2Tb = fb

which is just half of that of PSK
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 Generation of QPSK Signal
The QPSK signal can be further expressed as
Si(t) = A cos( 2πfct + Φi) = A Cos Φi Cos 2πfct – A SinΦi Sin 2πfct

In this form, the QPSK wave s(t) may be considered to be composed of an

in-phase component equal to A Cos Φi and a quadrature component equal to
A SinΦi
• On the basis of the above
representation a typical
arrangement for QPSK signal
generation is shown in Fig..
• It consists of a serial to
parallel converter, a pair of
product modulators, two
carrier sources in phase
quadrature and a summer.
• Data is in polar format.
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• The serial to parallel converter represents each successive pair of bits
(dibits) of the incoming binary data stream b(t) as two separate bits with
one bit applied to the in-phase channel bI(t) of the transmitter and the
other bit applied to the quadrature channel bQ(t).
• bI(t) consists of the odd bits ( 1st, 3rd , 5th etc) and bQ(t) consists of the
even bits ( 2nd , 4th , 6th etc).
• Stream bI(t) in the in-phase
channel fed to one input of the
product modulator. The carrier
signal A Cos2πfct is applied to
the other input.
• Stream bQ(t) in the quadrature
channel is fed to another product
modulator input in the channel,
other input of which is fed with a
quadrature carrier signal A Sin2πfct
derived from the original carrier through a 90° phase shifter.
• The output of the two multipliers are then added to get the desired QPSK
signal. 11/12/2020 48
QPSK signal can also be represented as
S(t) = √Ps bI(t) Cos 2πfct – √Ps bQ(t) Sin 2πfct
bI(t) & bQ(t) will be 1 for logic 1 & -1 for logic 0

Symbol bI(t) bQ(t) QPSK signal Quadrant

b(t)
10 1 (1) 0 (-1) √Ps Cos 2πfct + √Ps Sin 2πfct I
00 0 (-1) 0 (-1) -√Ps Cos 2πfct + √Ps Sin 2πfct II
01 0 (-1) 1 (1) -√Ps Cos 2πfct - √Ps Sin 2πfct III
11 1 (1) 1 (1) √Ps Cos 2πfct - √Ps Sin 2πfct IV

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Coherent Detection of QPSK:
The QPSK signal can be detected by using a pair of correlators (multiplier
followed by integrator) in parallel.
 The correlator in the upper
path computes the cosine
of the carrier phase whereas
the correlator in the lower
path computes the sine of
the carrier phase.
 The sign of the two
correlator outputs are
compared with the tap of a
pair of decision devices and
a unique resolution is made.
 The parallel-to-serial
converter receiver the made by the in-phase and quadrature channels of the receiver
and then reconstructs the binary data stream.

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Drawback in QPSK:
• In QPSK the carrier phase changes only once every 2Tb seconds.
• when only one of the two quadrature components, in-phase (I) or in
quadrature (Q), changes its sign, a phase shift of 90° occurs (e.g.: 01 to 11).
• A change in both components generate a phase shift of 180°(e.g.: 01 to 10)..
• These phase jump in the ideal case is instantaneous but in the real case
produce a shifting in a nonzero time and cause the envelope to approach zero.
• This amplitude variation causes further difficulties when passed through
power amplifiers (PA) before transmission.
• Due to the nonlinearity of the PA, these amplitude variations give rise to
unwanted spectral components outside the main lobes. This causes ISI.

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 OQPSK (Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)
 Q channel signal “offset” from I channel signal
 Delayed in time by ½ Ts =Tb
 Eliminates 180° phase transitions
 No transitions thru origin !!
 Envelope fluctuations less than QPSK & much less than BPSK
 Non-linear power amplifiers can be used to achieve better utilization of
battery power in mobile unit

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• For OQPSK, symbol transition across the origin (phase changes of 180o) is
prohibited (Compare this to QPSK)

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 Constellation diagram
 Used to represents possible symbols that may be selected by a given
modulation scheme as points in 2-D plane
 X-axis is related to in-phase carrier: cos(ωct)
• The projection of the point on the X-axis defines the peak amplitude of
the in-phase component
 Y-axis is related to quadrature carrier: sin(ωct)
• The projection of the point on the Y-axis defines the peak amplitude of
the quadrature component
 The length of line that connects the point to the origin is the peak amplitude
of the signal element (combination of X & Y components)
 The angle the line makes with the X-axis is the phase of the signal element

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 Minimum Shift Keying
• It is found that binary data consisting of sharp transitions between "one" and
"zero" states and vice versa potentially creates signals that have sidebands
extending out a long way from the carrier, and this creates problems for many
radio communications systems, as any sidebands outside the allowed
bandwidth cause interference to adjacent channels and any radio
communications links that may be using them.
• MSK, minimum shift keying has the feature that there are no phase
discontinuities and this significantly reduces the bandwidth needed over other
forms of phase and frequency shift keying.

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we start with a typical data bit stream
b(t). This bit stream is divided into an
odd bo(t) and an even bit be(t) stream ,
as in the manner of OQPSK.
Each bit in both streams is held for two
bit intervals 2Tb = Ts the symbol time.
The even bit stream is delayed by the
bit period Tb .
Two other waveforms sin 2π(t/4Tb)
and cos 2π(t/4Tb) is chosen in such a
way that their phases and waveforms
with respect to bo(t) & be(t) passes
through zero precisely at the end of the
symbol time.
We generate the product be(t) sin
2π(t/4Tb) and bo(t) cos 2π(t/4Tb) &
consider them as baseband signals.
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MSK Modulator

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Thus MSK signal can be given as

We may rewrite the equation to make it apparent that MSK is FSK System as
follows:

where

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MSK signal can be given as

Now, if bo(t) = be(t) , then CL = 0 and CH = ± 1

, if bo(t) = - be(t) , then CL = ± 1 and CH = 0

The above feature insists that apparently this system is a FSK system where
same & different combination of the bits are represented by two different
carrier frequencies fH & fL .

The frequency difference fH - fL = fb /2 , is the minimum deviation between

the carrier signals such that the carrier signals are orthogonal to each other
over the bit duration. For this reason, this modulation scheme is known as
Minimum Shift Keying.
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The waveform of
MSK exhibits phase
continuity, that is, there
are no abrupt phase
changes as in QPSK.
As a result we avoid
the inter symbol
interference caused by
nonlinear amplifiers.

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 Differences between QPSK & MSK

 In the MSK system, the baseband signal which is used to multiply the
quadrature carriers is a `smooth 'signal rather than a rectangular signal like
QPSK. While the spectrum of MSK has a main center lobe which is 1.5
times as wide as the main lobe of QPSK, the side lobes in MSK are relatively
much smaller in comparison to the main lobe, making filtering much easier.

 The waveforms of MSK exhibit a

phase continuity. This means that there
are no abrupt changes in phase of
MSK like QPSK. Due to this the inter
symbol interference caused by the non-
linear amplifiers is avoided completely.

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 GMSK
 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered
Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of frequency modulation that is
used in radio communications systems.
 GMSK is probably most widely associated wit the 2G GSM mobile
communications system where it proved to be an effective form of
modulation. It was one of the reasons that GSM cellphones had a long
battery life in view of the high efficiency that could be obtained from the
RF power amplifiers.
GMSK basics
 Continuous phase digital frequency modulation
 Gaussian Frequency Shaping Filter
 GMSK = MSK + Gaussian filter DATA GMSK
Gaussian MSK
 Characterized by the value of BT filter Modulator
• T = bit duration
• B = 3dB Bandwidth of the shaping filter
 BT = 0.3 for GSM Bandwidth Time
 BT = 0.5 for DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication

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GMSK PROPERTIES
 Improved spectral
efficiency.
 Reduced main lobe over
MSK
 Constant envelope over
entire B.W
 Good BER performance

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APPLICATION
Most widely used in the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM).
Used for CDPD (cellular digital packet data)overlay network.
Used for GPRS system

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• QAM works on the basis of altering two characteristics of the carrier :
amplitude and phase
• Two carriers, one in-phase and another quadrature with two different levels
are used.
• Uses more phase shifts than amplitude shifts to reduce noise susceptibility

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