Process Instrumentation

Module-III
Dr. Lipika Parida
Module-III
Measurement of pressure and vacuum:
 Manometers
 Pressure spring
 McLeod gauge
 Pirani Gauge
 Ionization Gauge
 Thermocouple Gauge

Measurement of flow properties:

 Viscosity and specific gravity measurement
 Level measuring devices
 Pressure
Pressure is force per unit area.
 Gauge, Absolute and Atmospheric Pressure

 Pressure above atmosphere

is called positive (gauge)
pressure (psig).

 Pressure below atmospheric

pressure is negative gauge
pressure.

 Absolute pressure (psia) is

measured from a perfect
vacuum.

Note: Differential pressure has no reference, either absolute vacuum or atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure Measurement: Classification-I
• Pressure can be very easily be converted to force.
• This force can be measured or compared against unknown force or
standard calibrated force.

Pressure can be measured by :

 Balancing against a column of liquid of known density. Various
manometers
 Balancing against a known force: piston type, ring balance, bell type
gauge
 Balancing the force produced on a known area against the stress in an
elastic medium: bourdon tubes, diaphragm types, pressure gauge bellow
 Pressure Measurement: Classification-II
Another possible classification is based on the range of pressure
measurement.

• Moderate pressure measurement

• Very high pressure measurement
• High vacuum (very low pressure) measurement
 Classification of Pressure Measuring Instruments

Moderate Pressure
Measurement
Liquid Column Element Mechanical Elastic Pressure Transducer Electrical Pressure Transducer
1. Barometer Displacement Type 1. Bourdon tube 1. Resistance type
2. Various Manometer 1. Ring balance manometer 2. Diaphragm type 2. Potentiometer devices
2. Bell type manometer 3. Bellows gauges 3. Inductive type
4. Capacitive type
5. Piezoelectric type
Classification of Pressure Measuring Instruments

Very High Pressure

Measurement
Electric gauges based on change
of resistance of manganin or High Vacuum Measurement
gold chrome wire
1. McLeod gauge,
2. Thermal conductivity gauge
3. Ionization gauge
4. Knudsen
 Indicative range of instruments

Below 1 mm of Hg Between 1mm of Hg to 1000 atm High Vacuum (upto 10-9 torr) High Pressure (1000 atm above)
(Elastic pressure transducers)
• Manometers • McLeod gauge • Electrical resistance type
• Bourdon tube • Thermal conductivity gauge
• low pressure • Diaphragm gauges
gauges • Ionization gauge
• Bellows
 Barometer
• The simplest mercury barometer consists
of a long glass tube of uniform cross
section with one end sealed. It is filled
with mercury and then inverted and
placed vertically in a reservoir of mercury.

• Mercury in the tube will adjust itself until

the weight of the mercury column
balances the atmospheric force exerted
on the reservoir. The mercury in the tube
will have a vacuum above it.

• The height of the mercury indicates the

atmospheric pressure. At sea level this
height of mercury column is 76 cm or 30
in, that is 1.033 kg/cm2 or 14.7 psi.
 U-tube manometer
• It consists of U shaped glass tubes partially filled with a
liquid known as manometer liquid.

• When two sides are connected to two different pressure

sources the liquid rises higher in the lower pressure side
so that the difference in the heights of the two columns
of liquid compensates for the difference in pressure. A
scale graduated in pressure units is attached to read h.

• Source of error: difficult to read the meniscus level of

mercury
 Manometers

• Manometer can be used to measure gauge

pressure, differential pressure as well as absolute
pressure.
• gauge pressure: one end is connected to the
pressure source the other limb is open to
atmosphere
• differential pressure: both the limbs are connected
to two different pressure sources
• absolute pressure: one end is completely
evacuated and sealed and the other end is
connected to the pressure source we are
measuring.
 Manometer
Some common manometer liquids are:
Manometer liquid should
• Not wet the wall monometer •Water (evaporation loss),
• Not absorb gas •Aniline,
• Not react chemically with the fluid
•Carbon tetrachloride,
• Have low vapour pressures (else-
loss of liquid-error) •Bromoform,
• Move freely. •Mercury,
•Transformer oil.
Well-type manometer:
In well-type manometer one leg is replaced by large diameter well. Since the cross sectional area of the
well is much larger than the other leg, when pressure is applied to the well the monometer liquid in the
well lowers only slightly compared to the liquid rise in the other leg. As a result of this the pressure
difference can be indicated only by the height of the liquid column in one leg. This makes the instrument
easier to use than the U-tube manometer.

Inclined monometer:
The inclined monometer or draft gauge is a variation on the well-type manometer in which one leg of the
tube is inclined to increase measurement sensitivity. Inclined manometers can measure low pressures. The
low pressure arm is inclined so that the fluid has a longer distance to travel then in a vertical tube for the
same pressure change. This gives a magnified scale and thus increases sensitivity of the manometer.

Float type manometer:

This is another variation of well-type manometer. This can also be used as a recording type manometer. the
span of the measurement can be changed by changing the diameter of the leg. A large float can be placed
to generate enough force so that the pointer and scale movement is possible.
 Elastic Pressure Transducers
• The elastic pressure transducers are the mechanical elements that
are used for converting one form of energy into the other form of
energy that can be measured easily.

• There are number of mechanical transducers, some of the

commonly used ones are described below:

1) Bourdon tube pressure transducers

2) Diaphragm pressure transducers
3) Bellows pressure transducers
Bourdon tube pressure transducers
 Bourdon tube pressure transducers

• The C shaped bourdon tube has a hollow, elliptical cross section. It is closed at one end and
the fluid pressure is applied at the other end.

• When pressure is applied, it’s cross section becomes more circular, causing the tube to
straighten out until the force of the fluid pressure is balanced by elastic resistance of the tube
material.

• Since the open end of the tube is fixed, changes in pressure move the closed end and the
displacement of the tip of the bourdon tube is a measure of the amount of pressure that is
being applied inside the bourdon tube.

• A pointer is attached to the closed end of the tube through a linkage arm and a gear and
pinion assembly, which rotates the pointer around the graduated scale.
 Bourdon tube pressure transducers

 Used for measuring high as well as low pressures.

Advantages:
• Low cost
• Simple construction
• Availability in a wide variety of ranges, including very high ranges
• Adaptability to transducer designs for electronic instruments
• High accuracy
 Diaphragm pressure transducers
• Diaphragm is a flexible disk usually with
concentric corrugations. A diaphragm
converts pressure to deflection.
• Diaphragm is usually designed so that
the deflection versus pressure
relationship is linear or nearly linear
over a specified pressure range.
• Diaphragm pressure gauge is based on
the deflection of a flexible membrane,
that separates regions of different
pressures.
• The deformation of a thin diaphragm is
dependent on the difference in pressure
between it is two faces. The amount of
deflection is repeatable for known
pressures.
 Diaphragm pressure transducers

Diaphragm can be of 2 types, metallic diaphragm and non-metallic diaphragm.

• A metal diaphragm pressure gauge uses a thin flexible diaphragm of materials like
brass, phosphor, bronze, beryllium, copper, monel, hastelloy, nickel span c,titanium,
tantalum, stainless steel etc.

• The force of the pressure against the effective area of the diaphragm causes the
deflection of the diaphragm. The motion of the diaphragm is a measure of pressure,
and the motion of diaphragm operates an indicating or recording type instruments.

• Non-metallic diaphragm does not have so good elastic properties. So, non-metallic
diaphragms are generally spring loaded to add elasticity to it.
 Bellows pressure gauge

• A bellows element is a one piece

expansible collapsible and axially flexible
member. Bellows are essentially thin
walled cylindrical shells with deep
convolutions and are sealed at one end.
The bellow will undergo axial
displacement when pressure is applied at
the open end.

• Bellows are made of materials with good

elastic property such as brass, phosphor,
bronze, beryllium, copper etc. Stainless
steel although not highly elastic is also
sometimes used for it is anti-corrosive
property. Carbon steel is easily corroded
and difficult to machine, so avoided.
 Low Pressure Measurement: McLeod gauge
Working Principle: A known volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller volume (with
high pressure), and using the resulting volume and pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated.

• The gas used must obey Boyle’s law given by;

P1V1=P2V2
• Where,
• P1 = pressure of gas at initial condition (applied pressure).
• P2 = pressure of gas at final condition.
• V1 = volume of gas at initial condition.
• V2 = volume of gas at final condition.
• Initial condition == before compression.
• Final condition == after compression.

• Measures very low pressures, down to 10-6 torr

A reference column with
reference capillary tube.
The reference capillary tube has
a point called zero reference
point.
This reference column is
connected to a bulb and
measuring capillary and the place
of connection of the bulb with
reference column is called as cut
off point. (It is called the cut off
point, since if the mercury level is
raised above this point, it will cut
off the entry of the applied
pressure to the bulb and
measuring capillary.
Below the reference column and
the bulb, there is a mercury
reservoir operated by a piston.
 Low Pressure Measurement: McLeod gauge
• The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the mcleod gauge as shown
in diagram.
• The mercury level in the gauge is raised by operating the piston to fill the volume as shown by the dark shade in
the diagram.
Condition – 1
• When this is the case the applied pressure fills the bulb and the capillary.
• Now again the piston is operated so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. When the mercury level
reaches the cutoff point, a known volume of gas (v1) is trapped in the bulb and measuring capillary tube.
Condition – 2
• The mercury level is further raised by operating the piston so the trapped gas in the bulb and measuring
capillary tube are compressed. This is done until the mercury level reaches the “zero reference point” marked
on the reference capillary
• In this condition, the volume of the gas in the measuring capillary tube is read directly by a scale besides it. That
is, the difference in height ‘h’ of the measuring capillary and the reference capillary becomes a measure of the
volume (v2) and pressure (p2) of the trapped gas.
• Now as V1, V2 and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated using Boyle’s Law given by;
P1V1=P2V2
 Low Pressure Measurement: McLeod gauge
• Let the volume of the bulb from the cutoff point upto the beginning of the measuring capillary tube = V
• Let area of cross section of the measuring capillary tube = a
• Let height of measuring capillary tube = hc.
• Initial Volume of gas entrapped in the bulb plus measuring capillary tube = V1 = V+ ahc.

• When the mercury has been forced upwards to reach the zero reference point in the reference capillary, the final
volume of the gas = V2 = ah.

• After compression= P1+h

• We have, P1V1=P2V2(Boyle’s Law)

• Therefore, P1V1= (P1+h)ah
• P1V1 = P1ah + ah2
• P1V1-P1ah = ah2
• P1 = ah2/(V1-ah)
• Since ah is very small when compared to V1, it can be neglected.
• Therefore, P1 = ah2/V1
• Thus the applied pressure is calculated using the McLeod Gauge.
 Low Pressure Measurement: McLeod gauge

Advantages: Limitations:

•The gas whose pressure is to be measured

• It is independent of the gas composition.
should obey the Boyle’s law
• It serves as a reference standard to •Moisture traps must be provided to avoid
calibrate other low pressure gauges. any considerable vapor into the gauge.

• A linear relationship exists between the •It measure only on a sampling basis.
applied pressure and h
•It cannot give a continuous output.
• There is no need to apply corrections to
the McLeod Gauge readings.
 Thermal conductivity gauge : Thermocouple
Gauge and Pirani Gauge
• Both works on the same principle of detecting thermal conductivity
of the gas by a change in temperature.

• In the thermocouple gauge, the temperature is sensed by a

thermocouple.

• In Pirani gauge, the temperature is sensed by the change in

resistance of the heated wire.
Thermocouple Gauge
 Thermocouple Gauge
• The T/C gauge contains two elements: a heater (filament) and a
thermocouple junction which contacts the filament.

• With the filament current held constant, as the pressure within the tube is
decreased the filament will become hotter because of the improved
thermal insulation provided by the increasingly rarefied gas.

• This temperature is sensed by the thermocouple junction.

• Measurement is accomplished by reading the thermocouple junction

voltage on a sensitive meter which has previously been calibrated against a
manometer.
 Pirani Gauge
Working Principle:
• A conducting wire gets heated when electric current flows through it.

• The rate at which heat is dissipated from this wire depends on the
conductivity of the surrounding media.

• The conductivity of the surrounding media in turn depends on the density of

the surrounding media (that is, lower pressure of the surrounding media,
lower will be its density).

• If the density of the surrounding media is low, its conductivity also will be low
causing the wire to become hotter for a given current flow, and vice versa.
 Pirani Gauge
The main parts of the
arrangement are:
• A pirani gauge chamber which
encloses a platinum filament.
• A compensating cell to minimize
variation caused due to
ambient temperature changes.
• The pirani gauge chamber and
the compensating cell is housed
on a wheat stone bridge circuit
as shown in diagram.
 Pirani Gauge
OPERATION
• A constant current is passed through the filament in the pirani gauge chamber. Due to this current, the filament
gets heated and assumes a resistance which is measured using the bridge.

• Now the pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is connected to the pirani gauge chamber. Due to the applied
pressure the density of the surrounding of the pirani gauge filament changes.

• Due to this change in density of the surrounding of the filament its conductivity changes causing the temperature of
the filament to change.

• When the temperature of the filament changes, the resistance of the filament also changes.
• Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined using the bridge.
• This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament becomes a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.

Note: higher pressure – higher density – higher conductivity – reduced filament temperature – less resistance of
filament & vise versa
 Ionization Gauge
Consists of

• A heated filament (cathod) to furnish

electrons
• A grid
• An anode plate

• These elements are enclosed in

envelop which communicates with the
vacuum system under test.
• The gas is ionized with a beam of
electrons and the current is measured
between two electrodes in the gas.

• The current is proportional to the

number of ions per unit volume, which
also proportional to the gas pressure.
 Ionization Gauge
• The grid is maintained at positive potential while anode plate is maintained at negative potential.

• The cathode is positive ion collector and anode is an electron collector.

• When electrons are emitted by the heated cathode, high positive charge on grid accelerates the stream electrons
away from the cathode.

• Because of their speed and relative wide spacing between the turns of the grid, most of the electrons continue
moving past the grid.

• These electrons collides with gas molecules, thereby causing ionization of the gas atoms.
• Since the anode plate is maintained at a negative potential, the positive ions in the space between grid and anode
migrates towards anode and current Ip is produced in the plate circuit.
• The electrons and negative ions are collected by the grid and current Ig is produced in the grid circuit.
• The rate of ion production is proportional to the number of electron available to ionize the gas the and the
amount of gas present.

• P= (1/S)(Ip/ Ig) Where, S is sensitivity.

 Measurement of flow properties:

Viscosity and specific gravity measurement

Level measuring devices
 Viscosity measurement

Viscosity measurements based on three different principles:

1. Flow through a capillary tube (Capillarity of viscometer, Ostwald viscometer)

2. Drag experienced by a falling ball through a fluid (Falling ball viscometer)

3. Drag experienced by one of the concentric cylinders carrying fluid between

them when the other cylinder is rotating (Rotating concentrating cylinder
viscometer)
 Capillary tube viscometer

• Capillary viscometer is based on laminar flow

through a circular pipe, it has a circular tube
attached horizontally to a vessel filled with a liquid
whose viscosity has to be measured.

• A constant head is maintained by the arrangement

shown in the figure. By measuring the volumetric
flow rate under constant pressure, we can calculate
the viscosity of the liquid.

• Commonly used in refineries to measure viscosity of

petroleum products. This is also used as secondary
standard for calibration of other instruments.

• Once you have this information about the

volumetric flow rate, the length of the capillary
tube, the diameter of the capillary tube, as well as
the pressure constant head, you can compute
viscosity using again Poiseuille equation.
 Ostwald Viscometer

• The viscosity of a Newtonian liquid can be

measured by measuring the liquid to pass
between 2 marks as it flows by gravity
through the vertical capillary tube.
• From the time the liquid takes to flow through
this capillary, we can compute the viscosity.
 Saybolt Viscometer

The say bolt measures the time t for a given

amount of fluid (efflux = 60 cm3) to flow
through a capillary orifice of diameter 1.76
millimeter and length 12.25 millimeter, this
time is known as say bolt seconds and, it is
converted to kinetic viscosity,

cSt for t<100s

cSt for t>100s

Redwood Viscometer: same principle,

volume of effux is 50 cm3
Falling Ball Viscometers
Falling Ball Viscometers
 Rotational viscometers: Concentric cylinder type
• As the outer cylinder rotates the viscous
drag due to the liquid between the cylinders
produces a torque on the inner cylinder
and, it rotates until an equilibrium position
is reached, when the force due to the
torsion where is just balanced by the
viscous force transmitted through the
liquid.

• The torque experienced by the inner

cylinder is proportional to the pointer
movement on the graduated scale.
 Specific Gravity Measurement
Specific Gravity: Which is mass of certain volume of sample
divided by mass of same volume of water.

Specific Gravity Bottles:

 The term specific gravity or relative density is used to
define the density of a liquid as compared to the
density of the water at a specified temperature.
 A flask made to hold and known volume of liquid at a
specified temperature is very 20 C.
 The bottle is weighted filled with the liquid whose
specific gravity is to be found and weighted again.
 The difference in weights is divided by the weight of an
equal volume of water to give the specific gravity of the
liquid.
 Assignment-1
Level measuring devices
 Liquid level measurement: Classification
Direct Indirect
1. Dipsticks 1. Hydrostatic pressure type
2. Hook type 2. Bubbler or purge type
3. Sight glass 3. Capacitance type
4. Float type level measuring gage 4. Ultrasonic type
5. Displacer type level measuring 5. Radiation type
gage