. MEMORIES & ITS MEANING.

Memory refers to the electronic components that are used to store data and program instructions
temporarily or permanently. This data can be accessed quickly by the computer's central processing unit
(CPU) for processing.

There are several types of computer memory, including random access memory (RAM), read-only
memory (ROM), cache memory, virtual memory, and flash memory.

2. WHAT ARE ROMS?, PROMS?, EPROMS?, & EEPROMS?

ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a type of computer memory that is used to store data or
program instructions that can only be read and cannot be modified.

Unlike RAM, which is volatile memory and loses its data when the power is turned off, ROM retains its
data even when there is no power supply. This makes ROM useful for storing firmware, operating
systems, and other critical software that needs to be loaded into the computer's memory during the
boot process.

PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is a type of computer memory that can be
programmed by the user only once, after which the data or instructions stored in it cannot be changed.

A PROM chip consists of a grid of memory cells that can be programmed using a device called a
programmer. To program a PROM, a programmer applies a voltage to the appropriate pins on the chip,
which causes the memory cells to be permanently set to a particular value (either 0 or 1). Once a PROM
has been programmed, its contents cannot be altered or erased, making it a non-volatile memory.

PROMs are used in various applications, such as in embedded systems, where a specific set of data or
instructions needs to be permanently stored. They are also used in video game consoles, where game
cartridges contain a PROM chip that stores the game's data and instructions. However, the limitation of
PROMs is that they can only be programmed once, which makes them less flexible than other types of
memory such as EEPROM and flash memory.

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is a type of computer memory that can
be programmed and erased multiple times using ultraviolet (UV) light.

An EPROM chip is like a PROM, but it has a small window on the top of the chip that exposes the
memory cells to UV light. To program an EPROM, the memory cells are electrically charged to store the
desired data or instructions. To erase an EPROM, the chip is exposed to UV light for a specified period,
which resets all the memory cells to their initial uncharged state.

EPROMs were widely used in the 1980s and 1990s for storing firmware, operating systems, and other
critical software that needed to be updated periodically. However, EPROMs had some limitations such as
the requirement of exposing them to UV light to erase the memory, making them less convenient and
less reliable for frequent use.
EPROMs were eventually replaced by Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM),
which allows the memory cells to be erased and reprogrammed electronically, making it much more
convenient to use. Today, EEPROMs are also being replaced by flash memory, which is faster, cheaper,
and has higher storage capacity.

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is a type of computer
memory that can be programmed and erased electronically, making it much more convenient to use
than other types of memory such as PROM and EPROM.

EEPROM chips contain memory cells that can be individually programmed and erased by applying an
electric charge. This allows data or instructions to be written, erased, and re-written multiple times.
EEPROMs are non-volatile memory, which means they retain their data even when the power supply is
turned off.

EEPROMs are commonly used in various applications such as storing BIOS settings, firmware, and other
critical software that needs to be updated periodically. They are also used in electronic devices such as
mobile phones, digital cameras, and smart cards, where small amounts of non-volatile memory are
required.

One of the advantages of EEPROMs is that they can be updated without requiring the chip to be
physically removed from the circuit board. This makes them ideal for use in devices that need to be
updated or reprogrammed frequently.

However, one of the limitations of EEPROMs is that they have a finite number of write cycles. This means
that they can only be reprogrammed a limited number of times before they start to degrade, and
eventually fail.

3. BUILD/CREATE A DIODE ROM & BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN/DISCUSS HOW "DIODE ROM" WORKS & ITS
OUTPUT WORD?

A diode ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of memory circuit that can be used to store digital data
permanently. It consists of a network of diodes that are connected in a specific pattern to create a set of
unique binary codes that represent a particular output word.
To build a simple diode ROM, you will need:

A power supply (e.g., a battery)

A set of diodes

Resistors

LEDs (optional)

The basic principle behind a diode ROM is that each diode can be thought of as a switch that is either
open or closed, depending on the applied voltage. By arranging a set of diodes in a specific pattern, we
can create a circuit that produces a specific output word for a given set of input bits.

Here's how to create a simple 2-bit diode ROM that produces a 2-bit output:

1. Connect the anodes of two diodes to the positive terminal of the power supply.
2. Connect the cathodes of the two diodes to two separate output terminals, labeled as "Output 0"
and "Output 1", respectively.
3. Connect a resistor between the cathodes of the two diodes and the negative terminal of the
power supply.
4. Repeat this process for all possible combinations of the two input bits (00, 01, 10, 11),
connecting the diodes to the output terminals that correspond to the desired output for each
input combination.
5. Test the circuit by applying the appropriate input bits and checking the output.

For example, if we want the circuit to output "01" for input bit combination "01", we would connect the
cathode of a diode to "Output 1" and connect the anode to the positive terminal of the power supply,
and do the opposite for the other output.

The diode ROM works by allowing current to flow through specific diodes, depending on the input bit
combination. This current flow creates a voltage drop across the resistor, which is used to generate the
output voltage. The output word is determined by the pattern of diodes that are connected to the
output terminals.

In summary, a diode ROM is a simple and inexpensive way to create a permanent memory circuit. By
connecting diodes in a specific pattern, we can create a set of unique binary codes that represent a
particular output word for a given set of input bits. While diode ROMs are not as flexible or efficient as
other types of memory circuits, they can be useful in applications where a small amount of permanent
memory is required.

4. WHAT IS "ON-CHIP DECODING"?

On-chip decoding refers to the process of decoding or interpreting digital signals directly within an
integrated circuit (IC), such as a microprocessor, rather than requiring an external decoder. In other
words, on-chip decoding means that the decoding circuitry is integrated onto the same chip as the
device that generates the digital signals.
On-chip decoding is commonly used in microprocessors to interpret instructions stored in memory.
When an instruction is fetched from memory, it is sent to the decoding circuitry within the
microprocessor, which interprets the instruction and sends the appropriate signals to the various
functional units within the microprocessor to carry out the instruction.

On-chip decoding offers several advantages over external decoding. It reduces the number of external
components required, which saves space on the circuit board and reduces the cost of manufacturing. It
also reduces the power consumption of the device, as there is no need to drive signals off-chip to an
external decoder.

Overall, on-chip decoding is an important design feature in modern microprocessors and other
integrated circuits, as it enables faster and more efficient processing of digital signals, while reducing the
cost and complexity of the system.

5.DEFINE RAM & TYPES OF RAM.

RAM stands for Random Access Memory, which is a type of computer memory that is used for
temporary storage of data and program instructions that are currently in use. RAM provides fast access
to data and is an essential component of a computer's performance.

There are several types of RAM:

- DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers today. It
stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor, which needs to be refreshed periodically to
maintain the data. DRAM is relatively slow compared to other types of memory, but it is
inexpensive and has a high capacity.
- SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM. It stores each bit of data in
a flip-flop circuit, which does not need to be refreshed. SRAM is often used for cache memory in
microprocessors and other high-speed devices that require rapid access to data.
- SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM): SDRAM is a type of DRAM that is synchronized with the
clock speed of the microprocessor. It is faster than conventional DRAM and is commonly used in
desktop computers and servers.
- DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM): DDR SDRAM is a type of SDRAM
that can transfer data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock cycle, effectively doubling
the data transfer rate. DDR SDRAM is commonly used in desktop computers, laptops, and
servers.
- GDDR SDRAM (Graphics Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM): GDDR SDRAM is a type
of DDR SDRAM that is specifically designed for graphics processing units (GPUs). It has a high
bandwidth and is used in graphics cards and other high-performance computing applications.
- HBM (High Bandwidth Memory): HBM is a type of RAM that is designed for use in high-
performance graphics cards and other high-speed computing applications. It has a high
bandwidth and is designed to reduce power consumption and heat generation.