Linear Algebra

Lecture 01

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti

IIT Dharwad

January 2, 2020

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Outline

• n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn

• Operations on Vectors and their properties
• Operations on Matrices and their properties

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 What is Linear Algebra ?

• Wikipedia: Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning

linear equations, linear functions and their representations through
matrices and vector spaces
• Moreover: Linear algebra is classically related to the study of:
• Systems of linear equations and their solutions
• Matrices
• Determinants
• ...
• For a more specific decription, at least as far as this course is
concerned, see the official syllabus

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Why study Linear Algebra ?

Short Answer: Because it is interesting!

Also because:
• Linear equations are the simplest possible of equations
• One of the most important basic areas in Mathematics, having an
impact comparable to that of Calculus
• Applications to Physics, Engineering, Probability & Statistics,
Economics and Biology
• Useful for systematic and algorithmic solutions, and this makes them
implementable on computers
• Many geometric topics are studied making use of concepts from
Linear Algebra

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 What are vectors ?
High school: A physical quantity having direction as well as magnitude
Examples: displacement, velocity, force
Non-Examples: mass, speed
So, the following vectors are equal

Figure: Equal vectors

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

WE FIX THE ORIGIN
• Notation: N := {1, 2, 3, . . .}, R-the set of all real numbers
• n-dimensional Euclidean space or the n-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate space: Rn - the set of all ordered n-tuples (x1 , . . . , xn )
where xi ∈ R for all i
• Vectors: Any element of Rn for n > 1
• Elements of R may be referred to as scalars
• We write x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn if n > 1
• Addition: For x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn we define

x + y := (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) ∈ Rn

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

Geometric Interpretition of Vector Addition

Figure: Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

v+w

v
w w

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

Even though it is difficult to visualize the vectors in Rn for n > 3, but
these are also important
• Scalar Multiplication: For α ∈ R and x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn we
define
α · x = (αx1 , . . . , αxn ) ∈ Rn .
• Geometrically:

2v

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Properties of Vector Addition

• Usual laws of addition hold

• Notation: 0 = (0, . . . , 0), 1 = (1, . . . , 1) and −x = (−x1 , . . . , −xn )
• Properties: For all α, β ∈ R and x, y ∈ Rn
• α · (β · x) = (αβ) · x
• α · (x + y) = α · x + α · y
• 1·x=x

Exercise: Prove these properties

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Matrices

• Matrix: A rectangular arrangement of real numbers in rows and

columns
• Let m = number of rows and n = number of columns of a matrix A
• Order of A: m × n
a11 ··· a1j ··· a1n
 
 .. .. .. 
 . . . 
··· ···
 
 ai1
A :=  aij ain  = [aij ] = (aij ),
 . .. .. 
 .. . . 
am1 ··· amj ··· amn
where aij ∈ R is called the (i, j)th entry of A for i = 1, . . . , m and
j = 1, . . . , n.
• The set of all m × n matrices is denoted by Mm,n (R) or simply Mm,n

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

Remark: If A := [aij ] and B := [bij ] are in Mm,n , then
A = B ⇐⇒ aij = bij for all i = 1, . . . , m and j = 1, . . . , n.
Example (1) Your
 Timetable!

0 1 1
(2) The matrix has order 2 × 3
1 0 1

• Submatrix: Let 1 ≤ r ≤ m and 1 ≤ s ≤ n. Then an r × s submatrix

of A is a matrix obtained by taking r rows and s columns of A
• Square Matrix of size n: A matrix with the number of rows =the
number of columns= n
• Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij ] with aij = aji for all
i, j.
• Skew-symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij ] with aij = −aji
for all i, j.
• Diagonal matrix: A square matrix A = [aij ] with aij = 0 for all i 6= j.
• Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix A = [aij ] is called with all diagonal
entries equal

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 • identity matrix I : scalar matrix with all diagonal entries equal to 1
• zero matrix O: scalar matrix with all diagonal entries equal to 0
• Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix [aij ] with aij = 0 if i > j
for all i, j
• Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix [aij ] with aij = 0 if i < j
for all i, j
• Note: (1) A square matrix A is upper triangular as well as lower
triangular if and only if A is a diagonal matrix
(2) A is skew-symmetric ⇒ aii = 0
 
1 2 3
Examples: (1) The matrix 2 4 5 is symmetric
3 5 6
 
0 1 2
(2) −1 0 3 is skew-symmetric
−2 −3 0

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Examples

 
2 0 0
(3) The matrix 0 3 0 is diagonal,
0 0 4
 
2 0 0
(4) 0 2 0 is a scalar matrix.
0 0 2
 
2 1 −1
(5) The matrix 0 3 1  is upper triangular
0 0 4
 
2 0 0
(6)  1 3 0 is lower triangular.
−1 1 4

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Row and Column Vectors

• row vector a of length n is a matrix of order 1 × n. We write

 
a = a1 ··· ak ··· an

• column vector b of length n is a matrix

  with n rows and only one
b1
 .. 
.
 
bk 
column. So, it has the form b =  
 .. 
.
bn

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Operations on Matrices

Let A := [aij ] and B := [bij ] be matrices of order m × n and α ∈ R.

Sum of matrices: A + B := [aij + bij ]
Example: Suppose a shopkeeper sells 50 (resp. 45) kg of rice, 30 (resp.
15) kg of sugar and 5 (resp. 6) kg of dal on Monday (resp. Tuesday). He
has two cashiers X and Y. The data given by the cahiers can be put in
the matrix form as:
Item/Cashier X Y Item/Cashier X Y
Rice 30 20 Rice 20 25
A= ,B= ,
Sugar 20 10 Sugar 5 10
Dal 3 2 Dal 2 4
Item/Cashier X Y
Rice 50 45
Then A + B =
Sugar 25 20
Dal 5 6

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Further Definitions and Properties

• Scalar Multiplication: α · A := [αaij ]

• Properties: For all A, B, C ∈ Mm,n and α ∈ R
• A+B =B +A
• (A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) which we write as A + B + C
• α · (A + B) = α · A + α · B
• (α + β) · A = α · A + β · A and ,
• α · (βA) = (αβ) · A which we write as αβA
• We write (−1)A as −A, and A + (−B) as A − B.
• Exercise: Prove these properties
• The transpose of an m × n matrix A := [aij ] is the n × m matrix
At := [aji ] (in which the rows and the columns of A are
interchanged).
• Note: A square matrix A is symmetric (resp. Skew-symmetric)
⇐⇒ At = A (resp. At = −A).

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Properties Continued

• (At )t = A, (A + B)t = At + B t and (α · A)t = α · At .

• Also, note that the transpose of a row vector is a column vector, and
vice versa
 
b1
 .. 
.
  n×1
bk  ∈ R , as
We shall often write a column vector b :=  
 .. 
.
bn
 t
b1 · · · bk · · · bn in order to save space.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Examples

   
2 −11 1 0 2
Let A := and B := .
0 13 −1 4 1
   
3 1 1 10 5 −5
Then A + B := and 5A = .
−1 7 2 0 15 5
   
The row vectors of A are 2 1 −1 and 0 3 1 .
     
2 1 −1
The column vectors of A are and and .
0 3 1
 
2 0
Also, At =  1 3.
−1 1

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

 Matrix Multiplication
 
Let n ∈ N, a := a1 · · · an ∈ M1,n be a row vector and
 
b1
 .. 
b :=  .  ∈ Mn,1 be a column vector.
bn
Step 1: Define the product of a row vector a with a column vector b as:
 
b1
  . 
ab = a1 · · · an  ..  := a1 b1 + · · · + an bn ∈ R.
bn

(This is like the scalar product of x and y in Rn .)

Step 2: Let m ∈ N and A ∈ Mm,n and let R1 , R2 , . . . , Rm be the rows of
A. Then we define
   
R1 R1 b
Ab =  ... b :=  ...  ∈ Mm,1 .
   

Rm Rm b

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01

Step 3: Finally, let p ∈ N and B ∈ Mn,p . Then B = [b1 · · · bp ], where
b1 , . . . , bp are the columns of B. Noting that Ab1 , . . . , Abp belong to
Mm,1, we define

AB = A[b1 · · · bp ] := [Ab1 · · · Abp ] ∈ Mm,p .

Thus
   
a1 a1 b1 ··· a1 bp
 ..   .. ..  ∈ M .
AB =  .  [b1 · · · bp ] =  . .  m,p
am am b1 ··· am bp

More precisely, if m, n, p ∈ N, A := [aij ] ∈ Mm,n and B := [bij ] ∈ Mn,p ,

then AB ∈ Mm,p , and for i = 1, . . . , m; j = 1 . . . , p,
n
X
AB = [cij ], where cij := ai bj = aik bkj .
k=1

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 01