Matter in Our Surroundings

What is Matter?
Air, water, stones, sand, clouds, pencils, books – Everything is made up of matter. Matter
is everything in this universe that occupies space and has mass.

Constituents of Matter
According to the early Indian philosophers, every living and non-living thing is made of
five basic elements called the Panchtatva – Air, Water, Earth, Sky, and Fire. Therefore,
matter is a composition of these five constituents.

Physical Nature of Matter

Is matter continuous or particulate?

Matter is particulate in nature. This means that matter consists of particles as you can see
in the microscopic image of a cube above.

For Example, If we put a drop of red colour in water the colour of the water turns red. This
happens because the particles of red colour mix with the particles of water.

What is the size of these particles?

 ● The size of the particles of matter is very small.
● They can be broken into further particles as well. For Example, On dilution of a
colourful solution, as shown in the figure below, we can still see the colour.
This means there are millions of particles present in the colour which just
divide themselves on dilution.
● Which of these is matter – happiness, air, sandwich, thoughts, juice, and
eraser? Air, sandwich, juice, and eraser as they have mass, occupy space and
can be broken into further particles.

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

Particles of matter have three characteristics:

1. Particles of matter have spaces between them

2. Particles of matter are moving all the time
3. Particles of matter attract each other

Particles of Matter have spaces between them

Have you ever wondered what causes salt to get dissolved in water?

Salt gets dissolved in water because its particles have spaces between them. The
particles of the salt get in between the spaces between the particles of water and a
mixture is formed.

● We cannot see these particles through naked eyes.

Particles of Matter are continuously moving

Particles are continuously moving

● Particles of matter are in motion all the time. Hence, they possess kinetic
energy.
● Kinetic Energy – Energy due to motion
● The particles of a matter intermix on their own with other particles of a matter.
For Example, Salt in water, Various gases in the air, Ink in water.
● Diffusion – The process of mixing two different types of particles together is
called diffusion. Diffusion becomes faster on heating.​

● The kinetic energy of particles also increases on heating.

Particles of Matter attract each other

● The particles of matter are always held together because of a force of attraction
between them.
 ● The amount of this force between the particles varies in different forms of
matter, as shown in the figure below:
● Solids have the highest force of attraction. That is why we cannot move our
hands through a solid object. The particles are so tightly bound.
● Similarly, particles of gases have the least force of attraction in them. We can
move our hands easily in the air, can’t we? This is because the particles of air
are loosely bound.
● We can arrange the force of attraction between different types of matter (solids,
liquids, and gases) in increasing order as:
● We can also move our hands through water or liquid matter but not as freely as
we can in the air. This means that they are also loosely bound to some extent.
Gas < Liquid < Solids

States of Matter

Now we know that particles of matter have a force of attraction between them. Based on
this criterion, we can say that matter is present in three different states: solid state, liquid
state, and gaseous state.

The Solid State

● Solids are the objects that have these three properties:
● They have a specific shape.
● They have distinct boundaries.
● They have a volume.
● There is less kinetic energy among the particles in solids. They are generally
arranged in order. Thus they possess a fixed shape. They cannot be
compressed.
● The force of attraction is the maximum among the particles of solids. There is
not much space between the particles. Therefore, they cannot be compressed.
● Which of these are solids: Rubber band, Sponge, Salt?
 ● All of them are solids. All of these follow the properties of solids. A
rubber band and sponge change their shape only when we apply
force on them. It might appear to you as if salt is taking the shape of
the container in which you put it but actually each grain has its own
definite shape.

The Liquid State

● Liquids have the following properties:
● Liquids have a fixed volume
● Liquids do not have a fixed shape.
● The force of attraction in liquid particles is less than in solids. Therefore, there
is a space between the particles of liquids and they can flow easily. They cannot
be compressed. That is why they are also called fluids.
● Particles of liquids arrange each other and are not fixed. You might have seen
that liquids take the shape of the container in which we put them. This is
because the particles of liquids have high kinetic energy, they always keep on
moving.
● Can other matter diffuse into liquids?
● Yes, other matter can diffuse into liquids whether it is solids, liquids,
or gases. This is so because there is a space between the particles of
liquid so particles of other matter can slip into those spaces.
● Diffusing solids into liquids: Mixing sugar in tea
● Diffusing liquids into liquids: Mixing ink in water
● Diffusing gases into liquids: The presence of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in water

The Gaseous State

● Gases have the following properties:
● They do not have a fixed volume.
● They do not have a fixed shape.
● The particles of gases have the least or almost no force of attraction between
them. Therefore, the particles have a large number of spaces between them and
they can freely move in any direction.
● Also, they can be easily compressed and put into a small container, unlike
solids and liquids.
● Since there is a lot of space between the particles, different gases can diffuse
into each other easily.
● The kinetic energy between the particles is the maximum in the case of gases.
Therefore, the particles move around freely at high speed and there is no fixed
shape of gases.

The difference in the characteristics of states of matter

 Solid Liquid Gas

Definite shape Indefinite shape Indefinite shape

Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume

Maximum force of attraction fewer forces of attraction Negligible force of

between particles between particles compare attraction between
to solid particles

Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed

Kinetic energy of particles is Kinetic energy of particles is Kinetic energy of

minimum more than solid particles is maximum

Particles cannot move rather Particles can slide over one Particles can move
they vibrate only at their fixed another freely
position

Highest density Density is lower than solid Lowest density

Cannot flow Flow Flow

Can Matter Change its State?

Water exists in three states:

● Ice – solid
● Water – liquid
● Water Vapour – Gas
This is an indication that matter can change its states.

Effect of Change of Temperature

What happens to matter when we heat it?

1. Solids:
● As we heat solids, the kinetic energy between the particles of solids increases
which decreases the force of attraction between them.
● They start vibrating and changing their positions. Slowly, due to heat the
particles become free and a solid converts into liquid.
● Melting Point – The temperature at which solid melts to become a liquid at
atmospheric pressure. For Example, the melting point of ice is 273.16 Kelvin.
● Fusion – The process of melting a solid into liquid is called Fusion.

● In the melting process, once a solid reaches its melting point, its temperature
does not increase further. So where does all the heat go? The heat present in
the solid at the time of melting is used by the particles to diminish the force of
attraction between each other. The heat energy is therefore considered hidden.
● Latent Heat – The heat energy which is used to break the force of attraction
between the particles of matter is known as latent heat. Since the heat is hidden
therefore it is called Latent Heat.
● Latent Heat of Fusion – The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of a
solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the
Latent Heat of Fusion.
● Atmospheric Pressure – Pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.

2. Liquids:
● Just like in solids, the kinetic energy of particles of liquid increases, the force of
attraction among them decreases and they start moving freely.
 ● As we keep on supplying the heat, a point comes when the particles overcome
the forces of attraction completely.
● This is when a liquid starts changing into gas.

● Boiling Point - The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the

atmospheric pressure is known as its Boiling Point. For Example, The boiling
point of water is 373 Kelvin.
● Latent Heat of Vaporisation – the amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg
of a liquid into a gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point is known as
Latent Heat of Vaporisation.

What happens when we decrease the temperature?

1. Gases:
● The kinetic energy between the particles decreases and they turn into a liquid
state.
● Condensation / Liquefaction – The process of converting gas into a liquid by
cooling down its temperature. For Example, The formation of clouds is due to
the condensation of water vapour from Earth.

2. Liquids:
● The kinetic energy between the particles decreases and they turn into a
solid-state. For Example, The formation of ice.
● Sublimation – change of state of gas directly into solid and vice-versa is known
as sublimation. For Example, Camphor is a solid that directly evaporates into
the air without changing to a liquid state.
Therefore, by increasing or decreasing the temperature we can change the states of
matter into one another. Here is a diagram that sums this up.

Effect of change of Pressure

● By applying pressure, we can bring the particles of matter close to each other
thereby, increasing the force of attraction among the particles.
● When we compress and decrease the temperature of a gas, the gas changes
into a liquid.
● Dry Ice – Carbon dioxide in solid form is known as Dry Ice. It can directly turn
into a gas by decreasing the pressure to 1 atmosphere.

Evaporation
 ● We already know that –
● Particles of matter are never at rest
● Particles of matter possess different amounts of kinetic energy
● The particles of liquids have more kinetic energy. Therefore, they are able to
overcome the forces of attraction and convert into vapour without any external
forces.
● Evaporation – The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any given
temperature below its boiling point is called Evaporation. Evaporation is
different from boiling, as shown in the figure below.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

 Condition Rate of Reason
Evaporation

Increase in Surface Increases Particles have more space and thus can
Area evaporate easily

Increase in Increases Kinetic energy among the particles increases

temperature

Increase in Decreases Water content in air increases and so

humidity evaporation decreases

Increase in wind Increases Water vapours are blown away by winds

speed allowing more evaporation

How evaporation causes cooling?

The process of evaporation uses the energy of the liquid particles. Therefore, the particles
absorb energy from the surroundings in order to compensate for the energy that is being
lost in the process of evaporation. This results in the cooling of the surrounding area.

● For Example:
 ● Our palms feel cool when we put some acetone (nail paint remover)
on it
● People sprinkle water on their roofs or ground on sunny days to cool
the area
● We are able to sip hot tea faster in a saucer than in a cup

Why do people wear cotton clothes in summer?

We sweat more in summer. As the sweat evaporates it takes energy from our body surface
and keeps our body cool. Cotton can absorb the sweat easily and exposes it to the
atmosphere causing evaporation to take place easily. This, in turn, keeps us cool on
summer days.

Why do water droplets appear in the surroundings of glass with ice-cold water?

There are water vapours present in the air. When they come in contact with the walls of
the glass that has ice-cold water in it they condense. As a result, their state changes from
the gaseous state to liquid state thus forming tiny water droplets on the walls of the glass.

The Five States of Matter

● By far we have discussed the three states of matter – Solid, Liquid, Gas.
● But, scientists have discovered that there are two more states of matter –
● Plasma
● Bose-Einstein Condensate
Plasma
● It is a state of matter in which the particles are super excited and super
energetic. They are in the form of ionised gases.
● For Example – Fluorescent tubes and neon light bulbs consist of plasma
● The neon bulbs contain neon gas and there is another gas such as helium in
the fluorescent tube. As electricity is passed in the tube or the bulb, these
gases get ionised and this creates the plasma inside them that glows.
● In fact, the Sun and the stars glow because plasma is present in them. Here are
some examples of Plasma:

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

● It is the fifth state of matter discovered by Albert Einstein based on the studies
conducted by an Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose.
● BEC is formed by condensing gases of extremely low densities to much lower
temperatures.

Important Measurement Units

SI Unit of Mass Kg (Kilogram)

SI unit of Volume m3 (cubic metres)

Common unit of Volume L (Litres)

SI unit of temperature Kelvin

0O C = 273.16 K or 273 K (approximately)

Kelvin = Celsius + 273

Si unit of Pressure Pa (Pascal)

For measuring the pressure exerted by Atmosphere (atm)

Gas
1 atm = 1.01 X 105 Pa

Normal Atmospheric Pressure = 1 atm (at sea

level)

Class 10 Revision Notes for Chapter 1 Matter in Our

Surroundings FAQs

Science Chapter 2 Is Matter Around Us Pure

What is a substance?
● Anything that cannot be broken into further particles by applying any physical
processes is called a Substance.

● Matter can be classified into two types of substances – Pure substances and
Mixtures
What is a pure substance?
A substance that consists of only one type of particle is called a Pure Substance. For
Example, Diamond, Salt, Sulphur, Tin.

What is a mixture?
● When we combine different substances into each other a mixture is formed. For
Example, Lemonade is a mixture of three substances, Lemon Juice, Sugar and
Water.

● Which of these is a mixture or a pure substance?

Water, Copper, Chocolate cake, Hydrogen, Soil, Air

Mixture – Chocolate cake, Soil, Air

Pure substance – Water, Copper, Hydrogen

Types of Mixtures
There are two categories of mixtures: Homogeneous Mixtures and Heterogeneous
Mixtures
Homogenous Mixtures
● When we add sugar, water and lemon juice together they all uniformly mix with
each other. Now it is not possible to separate these substances from the
mixture. Such mixtures in which the components mix with each other uniformly
are called Homogeneous Mixtures.

● The ratio of compositions of homogeneous mixtures can be different. For

Example, one may add two spoons of sugar in lemonade while someone else
may add only one spoon of sugar in their lemonade. Still, lemonade is a
homogeneous mixture.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
● The components in a heterogeneous mixture do not completely dissolve in
each other and we can separate them by physical means. In other words, the
composition of such mixtures is not uniform.

● For Example, If we mix sand in water the sand settles down in water after some
time and we can separate it by filtration.

Here are a few differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures –

Homogenous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures

They have a uniform composition They have a non-uniform composition

throughout

We cannot separate the components We can separate the components through

of the mixture through physical physical processes
processes

Components cannot be seen through Components can easily be seen through naked
naked eyes eyes

The mixture is in single-phase The substances can be of two different phases

throughout and we may see separate layers of the
substances

Example: A mixture of water and milk Example: A mixture of oil in water

What is a solution?
A solution is nothing but a uniform mixture of two or more substances. Homogenous
Mixtures are solutions.

Solution of -

● Liquid into a liquid: Water and Ink

● Solid into solid: Alloys

● Gas into gas: Air

● Solid into a liquid: Sugar and Water

● Solid into gas: Hydrogen and Metals

● Liquid into gas: Carbon Dioxide and Water

What is an alloy?
An alloy is a mixture of different metals or nonmetals and metals that cannot be separated
from each other using physical methods. For Example

Brass – Copper with up to 50% zinc

Bronze – Copper with up to 12% tin

Solution consists of two types of substances, a solute and a solvent.

Solution = Solute + Solvent

Solvent – The substance in which another substance is mixed is called the Solvent. For
Example, Water is a solvent in which we can mix different substances such as salt or
sugar.

Solute – The substance that is added to the solvent to form a solution is called a Solute.
For Example, Salt, when mixed in water, acts as a solute for the mixture.

Properties of a Solution:
● A solution is a homogeneous mixture.

● We cannot see the particles of a solution through naked eyes as they are as
small as 1 nanometer in diameter.

● The path of light is not visible through the solution. The particles of a solution
do not scatter light through them as they are extremely small.

● We cannot separate the particles of a solution by methods of filtration.

What is a stable solution?

A stable solution is a solution in which particles do not settle down if we leave the
solution undisturbed for some time. This is because the particles of a stable solution are
homogeneously spread.

Different Types of Solutions

 ● Dilute – A solution in which the concentration of the solute is much less than
that of the solvent. For Example, If we mix 1gm of salt in 500 ml of water, the
salt solution thus obtained will be diluted. If we keep on adding the solute in a
solution there comes a point when no more solute dissolves in the solution.
This is called the Saturation Point of a Solution.

● Unsaturated Solution – A solution, in which we can add more solute as it has

not achieved its saturation level yet, is called an Unsaturated Solution. A dilute
solution can be called an Unsaturated Solution.

● Concentrated Solution – A solution with a large amount of solute is called a

Concentrated Solution.

● Saturated Solution – A solution in which no more solute can be added since it

has already dissolved the maximum amount of solute it can is called a
Saturated Solution.

What is concentration?
Concentration refers to the amount of a substance per defined space or can be defined as
the ratio of solute in a solution to either solvent or total solution.

To calculate the concentration consider the formulae below:

 ● Percent by Mass = (Mass of solute / Mass of solution) X 100

● Percent by Volume = (Volume of solute / volume of solution) X 100

● Molarity (M) = number of moles of solute / Volume of Solution in litres

Where, Moles of solute = Given mass/molar mass

● Molality (m) = Moles of solute / weight of solvent in kg

● Normality (N) = Number of mole equivalents/ volume of solution in litres

= Mass of solute / (equivalent mass * volume of solution in Litres)

● ppm (Parts Per Million) = ( Mass of Solute / Mass of Solvent ) * 106

● Mole FractionSOLUTE = Moles of Solute / Total Moles of Solution

● Mole FractionSOLVENT = Moles of Solvent / Total Moles of Solution

● Mole FractionSOLUTE + Mole FractionSOLVENT = 1

What is a suspension?
A suspension is formed when two or more substances are mixed in a non-uniform
manner. Heterogeneous mixtures are suspensions. The solute does not mix with the
solvent and can be viewed through naked eyes.

Properties of Suspensions:
● A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.

● We can see the particles of suspensions through naked eyes.

● We can see the path of light through the particles of a suspension.

● The particles of suspension tend to settle down when left undisturbed. Then,
they can be separated using filtration.

What are colloids or colloidal solutions?

A colloidal solution or a colloid is a uniform solution of two or more substances. The
particles are relatively very small and the solution appears as a homogeneous mixture but
it is not.

Properties of colloids:
● Colloids are heterogeneous in nature.
 ● The particles of a colloid cannot be seen through naked eyes.

● The particles scatter a beam of light passed through a colloid and produce the
Tyndall effect.

● Colloids are stable in nature. The particles of colloids do not settle down if left
uninterrupted.

● We cannot separate the particles of a colloid through filtration. We use a

method called Centrifugation to separate the particles of a colloid.

What is the Tyndall Effect?

When a beam of light is passed through a colloid the particles of the colloid scatter the
beam of light and we can see the path of light in the solution. For Example, when a ray of
light enters a dark room it is scattered by the dust particles present in the air and we can
see the path of light clearly.

Classification of Colloids
Dispersed Phase – The dispersed particles or the solute-like components in a colloid
Dispersing Medium – The substance in which these solute-like particles are added

Based on the state of the dispersing medium colloids are classified as:

Types of Colloids
Example Dispersing Medium Dispersed Substance Colloid Type

Fog, Aerosol sprays Gas Liquid Aerosol

Smoke, Airborne Gas Liquid Aerosol

bacteria

Whipped cream, Liquid Gas Foam

Soapsuds

Milk, Mayonnaise Liquid Liquid Emulsion

Paints, Clays, Gelatin Liquid Solid Sol

Marshmallow, Styrofoam Solid Gas Solid foam

Butter, cheese Solid Liquid Solid emulsion

Ruby glass Solid Solid Solid sol

How to separate components of a mixture?

We can separate the heterogeneous mixtures into their constituents by means of physical
methods like

● Filtration
 ● Hand-picking

● Sieving

The components of a mixture can be separated from each other using several other
techniques like

● Evaporation

● Centrifugation

● Sublimation

● Chromatography

● Distillation

1. Evaporation – For separating a mixture of a non-volatile and a volatile substance

● Applications:

● Separating coloured component from the ink

● Salt from water

● Sugar from Water

● Method:

● Mix some ink into water and heat it. After some time the water will
evaporate leaving behind the coloured substance.

2. Centrifugation – Separating dense particles from lighter particles

● Applications:
 ● Separating milk from cream

● Separating butter from cream

● Squeezing out water from wet clothes

● Method:

● Milk is put in a centrifuging machine or milk churner and the cream

thus separates from milk.

3. Using a Separating funnel – To separate two immiscible liquids

● Applications:

● Oil from water

● Iron and iron ore

● Method:

● The immiscible liquids are allowed to settle in the funnel. They soon
form separate layers due to varying densities. The first liquid is
allowed to flow out of the funnel and as soon as it is completely
poured out, the stopcock is closed thereby separating the two liquids
from each other.
4. Sublimation – To separate a sublimable component from a non-sublimable
component

● Applications:

● Ammonium chloride/camphor/naphthalene and salt

● Method:

● Heat the mixture in an inverted funnel so that the sublimable

component sublimes in the air and settles over the walls of the funnel
and the non-sublimable component, on the other hand, is left behind.

5. Chromatography – To separate solutes that can dissolve in the same solvent

 ● Applications:

● Separating colour components of a dye

● Drugs from blood

● Method:

● Take a filter paper or a blotting paper and place a drop of ink at the
rear end. Dip the end in water. Since the ink is a mixture of two or
more colours, the component of ink which is soluble in water mixes
into it and then separates quickly from the other components that are
less soluble in water.

6. Distillation – To separate miscible liquids (the boiling points of the liquids must be
sufficiently different)

● Applications:

● Acetone and water

● Method:

● The mixture is heated in a distillation apparatus. The one substance

with a lower boiling point evaporates first, condenses and gets
separated from the one with a higher boiling point.

● Simple Distillation – when the miscible liquids have a satisfactory

difference in their boiling points
 ● Fractional Distillation – when the difference between the boiling
points of the liquids is less than 25 K

Separating different Gases from the Air

Method – Fractional Distillation

● Compress and cool the air by increasing the temperature and decreasing the
pressure. The air turns to liquid air.

● Liquid air is warmed up slowly in a fractional distillation apparatus

● The several components of air get separated and are collected at various
heights on the basis of their boiling points

Purifying Solids
Method used – Crystallisation

In the crystallisation method, we can obtain a pure solid in the form of crystals from its
solution

● Applications:
 ● Salt from seawater

● Purification of copper sulphate

● Method:

● The impurities of a substance are filtered out.

● Water is evaporated to obtain a saturated solution.

● The solution is covered with filter paper and left as it is.

● After some time, the crystals of pure solid are formed.

● Is evaporation better than crystallisation?

Simple evaporation is not better than crystallisation because

1. Some solid substances decompose because of excess heat. For Example, Sugar
gets charred on extra heating.
2. If after filtration some impurities remain in the solution they can contaminate the
solid and therefore we would not obtain a pure substance.

Physical Change and Chemical Change

Physical Property of a Substance:

Properties of a substance such as rigidity, colour, fluidity, boiling point, melting point,
density and hardness which we can observe are called Physical Properties.

Physical Change:

When the physical properties of a substance change it is known as a Physical Change.

When we convert a substance from one state to another, such as a solid into a liquid or
vice-versa, it is also a physical change as only the physical nature of the substance
changes without affecting its chemical nature.

For Example, Change of ice into water. The chemical properties of water remain the same.

Chemical Property of a Substance:

The chemical nature of a substance is known as its Chemical Property such as its odour
or its chemical composition.

Chemical Change:

When the chemical properties or chemical composition of a substance gets altered it is

called a chemical change. It is also called a Chemical Reaction.
For Example, Burning paper

Types of Pure Substances

Pure substances are classified as elements and compounds

Elements
An element is the simplest form of matter. Elements cannot be broken down into further
elements by chemical reactions. Elements are further characterised as Metals, Nonmetals
and Metalloids

Metals – Silver, Mercury, Copper, Gold

1. Metals are lustrous (shiny)

2. Metals conduct heat and electricity
3. Metals have a silver-grey or gold-yellow colour
4. We can hammer metals and form thin sheets (Malleability)
5. We can convert metals into wires (Ductility)
6. Metals always produce a ringing sound if they are hit (Sonorous)

Non-Metals – Carbon, Iodine, Chlorine, Oxygen, Hydrogen

1. Non-Metals do not conduct heat and electricity

2. Non-Metals are not sonorous, lustrous or ductile
3. Non-Metals have varied colours

Metalloids – Silicon, Germanium

They show some properties of metals and some of the non-metals.

Quick Facts –

1. There are 100 elements known to us

2. 92 elements out of them occur naturally
3. Rest, 8 are man-made elements
 4. Most of the elements are solid in nature
5. At room temperature, 11 elements exist in the gaseous state
6. At room temperature, 2 elements exist in the liquid state – bromine and mercury
7. At a temperature slightly higher than room temperature, 2 elements exist in the
liquid state – calcium and gallium

Compounds
It is a substance that consists of two or more substances. These substances are
combined chemically with each other in fixed proportions. The properties of a compound
are different from that of its constituents. For Example, Ammonium Sulphate, Sulphur
Chloride, Water.

Mixtures vs. Compounds

Mixtures Compounds

Properties of a mixture Reflect the Different properties from that of the

properties of the materials it contains. elements that make up the compounds.

No uniform composition Definite composition. Definite ratio/formula

Can be separated by physical means. Cannot be separated by physical means.

Atoms and Molecules

The idea of divisibility by Indian philosophers

● Maharishi Kanad – He postulated that if we keep on dividing the matter (called
‘padarth’) we will get smaller and smaller particles. And soon we will achieve the
smallest of particles (called as ‘parmanu’) which may not divide further.
● Pakudha Katyayama – He postulated that there are various forms of matter because
the particles of matter exist together in combinations.
The idea of divisibility by Greek philosophers
● Democritus and Leucippus – They suggested that when we keep on dividing the
matter there comes a time when no more division of particles can take place. Such
particles are called atoms which means being invisible.
But all these ideas were not backed up by many experimental pieces of evidence until Antoine L.
Lavoisier provided two laws of chemical combination.

Laws of Chemical Combination

1. Law of conservation of mass – mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction

2. Law of constant proportion/Law of definite proportion – the elements are always present in
definite proportions by mass in a chemical substance

For example, Hydrogen and oxygen are present in water in a ratio of 1:8. So if we decompose 9g
of water we will obtain 1g of hydrogen and 8g of oxygen.

The Atomic Theory

John Dalton proposed an atomic theory that acted as an explanation of the above two laws. As
per the theory, all matter whether it is an element, a compound or a mixture consists of tiny
invisible particles called ‘atoms’.

The postulates of the atomic theory by John Dalton

1. The matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms that cannot be divided.

2. Atoms are never formed or destroyed during a chemical reaction.

3. Atoms of an element exhibit the same nature. They have the same size, mass, and character.

4. Atoms of different elements exhibit variant nature. They do not have the same characteristics.

5. Atoms form compounds by combining them in a ratio of whole numbers.

6. A compound contains a constant number and kinds of atoms

Atoms
We can call atoms as the building blocks of matter. Just like bricks are the building blocks of a
building.

What is the size of an atom?

Atoms are extremely small. Their size is measured in nanometers, where 1nm = 1/109 m.
 Atomic radius is measured in nanometers

1/109 = 1nm

1m = 109 nm

Relative Sizes

Radii (in m) Example

10-10 Atom of hydrogen

10-9 Molecule of water

10-8 Molecule of haemoglobin

10-4 Grain of Sand

10-2 Ant

10-1 Watermelon

Symbols for Atoms

Here are some examples of the symbols that are used to represent different atoms
The symbols for representing an atom are generated from the first two letters of the element’s
name. The first letter is always in uppercase (capital letter) while the second letter is written in
lowercase. Here are some examples –

The Atomic Mass

● Dalton’s Atomic Theory suggested that each element has a distinguishing atomic
mass. With this theory, the law of constant proportions could be explained easily.
● But it is indeed difficult to evaluate the mass of an atom since the size of an atom is
relatively small.
● Therefore scientists started evaluating the mass of an atom by comparing it with the
mass of a standard atom.
● Earlier 1/16 of the mass of an oxygen atom was used as a standard for calculating the
mass of other elements. Now, carbon - 12 is considered a standard atom for
calculating the mass.
● Its atomic mass is 12u (12 atomic mass units). Thus we can say that one atomic mass
unit is the mass of 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Here is a list of atomic masses
of a few elements.
 Element Atomic Mass

Hydrogen 1µ

Carbon 12 µ

Nitrogen 14 µ

Oxygen 16 µ

Sodium 23 µ

Magnesium 24 µ

Sulphur 32 µ

Chlorine 35.5 µ

Calcium 40 µ

Can atoms exist independently?

Atoms cannot survive independently. So, atoms join together and form molecules or ions.

Molecule
● A molecule is a collection of various atoms that combine chemically with each other.
● These atoms are bound together by certain forces of attraction.
● Atoms of the same elements or different elements can bind together to form
molecules.
● Therefore, a molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist
independently and shows all the properties of that substance.
Molecules of Elements
 ● The molecules of an element are formed by combinations of similar types of atoms.
For example, Helium (He) is made up of only one atom while oxygen is made up of
two atoms.
● Atomicity – the number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity.
For example, helium is monatomic and oxygen is diatomic.
● Monoatomic – when an element comprises a single atom. Example – all metals
● Diatomic – when an element comprises two atoms. Example – all gases
● Triatomic – when an element comprises of three atoms
● Tetra-atomic – when an element comprises of four atoms
● Poly-atomic – when an element comprises of more than two atoms
Here a few examples of atomicity of elements –

Atomicity of some Elements

Name Atomicity Formula

Argon Monoatomic Ar

Helium Monoatomic He

Oxygen Diatomic O2

Hydrogen Diatomic H2

Nitrogen Diatomic N2

Chlorine Diatomic Cl2

Phosphorous Tetra – atomic P4

Sulphur Poly – atomic S8

Molecules of Compounds
Molecules of compounds constitute atoms of different elements that combine together in a fixed
proportion. For example, water comprises two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Ions
● Compounds contain metals as well as non-metals. These elements include charged
species which are known as ions.
● Thus, an ion is a particle that has a positive or negative charge.
● Anion – negatively charged ion
● Cation – positively charged ion
● There can be a single charged atom in an ion or there may be a group of charged
atoms in an ion that have a net charge on the compound.
● When a group of atoms carries a charge in a compound it is called a polyatomic ion.
Chemical Formula
We use a chemical formula to represent the composition of a compound in the form of symbols.
To write a chemical formula you must know two things –

1. Symbols of elements

2. Valency

Valency – it is also known as the combining capacity of an element. In other words, valency
explains how atoms of one element will mix with atoms of another element. For example, the
hydrogen ion is represented as H+ which means that its valency is 1. Similarly, the oxygen ion is
represented as O2- which means that its valency is 2. Here is a list of valencies of various
elements.
Rules of writing a Chemical Formula
● Valencies of on the ions must balance.
● In a case where both metal and non-metal substances are present in a compound,
the name of the metal is always written first in the chemical formula. For example,
Sodium Chloride is written as NaCl
● In the case of polyatomic ions, the ion is written in brackets before writing the number
of ions associated with it. In the case of a single ion, there is no need to mention the
ion in brackets
Writing the Formulae of Simple Compounds

Binary compounds – compounds that consist of two different elements

How to write a Formula of a Compound

● Write the symbols of the corresponding elements of the compound as explained
above
● Write the valencies of the elements of the compound
● Crossover the valencies of the elements
Here are a few examples of writing the chemical formula
Molecular Mass and the Mole Concept
Molecular Mass – summation of all the atomic masses in a molecule

Molecular mass is expressed in atomic mass units (amu).

For example, the molecular mass of HNO3 can be calculated as:

Atomic mass of H =1u

Atomic mass of N =14u

Atomic mass of O =16u

Molecular mass of HNO3 = 1 + 14 + (16*3) = 63u

Formula Unit Mass

The sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound is called its formula unit
mass. The formula unit mass is used in the case of substances that constitute ions. For
example, the formula unit mass of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) can be calculated as: (1*23) +
(1*35.5) = 58.5u
Mole Concept
How do we interpret a chemical equation?
● Suppose a chemical equation is: 2C + O2 = 2CO2
● We say that two molecules of carbon combine with one molecule of oxygen to form
two molecules of carbon dioxide.
● We can also say that 24u of Carbon molecules combine with 32u of oxygen molecules
to form 56u of carbon dioxide molecules.
● Therefore, we can characterise the quantity of a substance by its mass or by its
number of molecules.
● A chemical equation directly indicates the number of molecules participating in the
reaction. Thus, it is convenient for us to refer to the number of substances in a
chemical reaction as numbers of molecules or atoms.

Mole
● Mole is a numerical quantity that has a mass equal to the atomic or molecular mass of
species (atoms, molecules, ions or particles).
● 1 mole of any substance = 6.022 X 1023 number of particles (atoms, ions or
molecules)
● This is called the Avogadro number or Avogadro Constant which is represented as N0
● The mass of 1 mole of a substance is the same as that of its atomic mass or
molecular mass expressed in grams.
● The gram atomic mass of a substance – the atomic mass of a substance when
expressed in grams is known as its gram atomic mass.
● The gram molecular mass of a substance – the molecular mass of a substance when
expressed in grams is known as its gram molecular mass.
 ● For example, the atomic mass of Sulphur is 32u. The gram atomic mass of Sulphur is
32g.
● Also, 32u of Sulphur has 1 atom of Sulphur. 32g of Sulphur has 1-mole atoms, that is,
6.022 X 1023 atoms of Sulphur.
● Similarly, we can say that the gram molecular mass of Carbon Dioxide is 56g.
● But we know that in the case of the chemical equation mole is the measuring unit.
● Therefore, 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 number = Relative mass in grams
● Wilhelm Ostwald introduced the word ‘mole’ which means a heap or a pile. Therefore,
we consider a substance as a heap of atoms or molecules.
Consider these formulae –

A quick review of how mole, Avogadro number and Mass are related to each other –
CBSE Class 9 Revision Notes for Atoms and Molecules
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● Structure of Atom
Quick Revision
● Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
 ● Different kinds of matter exist because there are different kinds of atoms present in
them.
Charged Particles in Matter
● Whenever we rub two objects together, they become electrically charged. This is
because atoms contain charged particles in them. Therefore, atoms can be divided
further into particles i.e proton, electron and neutron.
Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford, in his famous gold foil experiment.

Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson, in his cathode ray tube experiment.

Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick.

● Atoms consist of protons and electrons in a balanced proportion.

● Protons exist in the interiors of the atom and electrons exist in the exteriors of the
atom. Therefore, electrons can be removed from an atom.
Failure of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The postulates of the atomic theory by John Dalton

● The matter is made up of tiny particles called Atoms that cannot be divided.
● Atoms are never formed or destroyed during a chemical reaction.
● Atoms of an element exhibit same nature. They have the same size, mass, and
character.
● Atoms of different elements exhibit variant nature. They do not have same
characteristics.
● Atoms form compounds by combining in a ratio of whole numbers.
● A compound contains a constant number and kinds of atoms
Dalton suggested that atoms can neither be created nor destroyed and are indivisible. But the
discovery of electrons and protons in atoms lead to failure of this aspect of Dalton’s theory.

Thomson’s Model of an Atom

According to J.J. Thomson, the structure of an atom can be compared to Christmas pudding
where electrons are present inside a positive sphere.
An atom is composed of a positively charged sphere in which electrons are embedded.

Atom is neutral as the positive and negative charged are equal in proportion.

Rutherford’s Model of an Atom

Rutherford’s Experiment

● He experimented with thin gold foil by passing alpha rays through it.
● He expected that the gold atoms will deflect the Alpha particles.
 Observations Inferences

Alpha particles which had high speed moved

Atom contains a lot of empty space
straight through the gold foil

Positive charges in the atom are not

Some particles got diverted a by slide angles
occupying much of its space

The positive charges are concentrated over a

Only one out of 12000 particles bounced back
particular area of the atom.

Thus, Rutherford gave the nuclear model of an atom based on his experiment which suggests
that -

● Atoms contain a lot of unoccupied space

● There is a heavily positively charged substance present in the center of the atom
which is called the nucleus
● The nucleus contains an equal amount of positive and negative charge.
The Nucleus of an Atom
● The nucleus id located at the center of the atom.
● All the mass of the atom is because of the nucleus.
● The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular parts which are called Orbits
● If we compare the size of the atom and nucleus, the nucleus is much smaller than the
atom.
Drawbacks of the Nuclear Model of an Atom
The Nuclear Model of the Atom failed to explain how an atom remains stable despite having
positive and negative charges present in it. Maxwell has suggested a theory according to which if
any charged particle moves in a circular motion it radiates energy. So, if electrons start moving in
a circular motion around the nucleus they would also radiate some energy which would decrease
at the speed of the electrons. As a result, they would fall into the nucleus because of its high
positive charge.

What are nucleons? – Protons and Neutrons are collectively called as Nucleons.

Bohr's Model of an Atom

Bohr suggested that –

● Electrons spin around the nucleus in an individualized separate path or unattached

orbit.
● The electrons do not emit any energy while moving Indies special orbits.
● These orbits are also called as Energy Levels.
● They are represented using letters or numbers as shown in the figure below –
The Neutrons
J. Chadwick discovered that there is another sub-atomic particle present in the atom. This
particle carries no charge and is known as a Neutron. Therefore, we can conclude that atom
consists of three types of particles -

Electrons which carry a negative charge

Protons which carry a positive charge

Neutrons they are neutral

The distribution of electrons in different shells or orbits

● If Orbit number = n
● Then number of electrons present in an Orbit = 2n2
● So, for n =1
● Maximum electrons present in shell – K = 2 * (1)2 = 2
● The outermost shell can contain at most 8 electrons.
● The shells in an atom are filled in sequence.
● Thus, until the inner shells of an atom are filled completely the outer shells cannot
contain any electrons.
Valency
● Valence Electrons – Electrons existing in the outermost orbit of an atom are called
Valence Electrons.
 ● The atoms which have completely filled the outermost shell are not very active
chemically.
● The valency of an atom or the combining capacity of an atom is given by the number
of elements present in the outermost shell.
● For Example, Helium contains two electrons in its outermost shell which means its
valency is two. In other words, it can share two electrons to form a chemical bond with
another element.
● What happens when the outermost shell contains a number of electrons that
are close to its maximum capacity?
Valency in such cases is generated by subtracting the number of electrons present in the
outermost orbit from octet (8). For example, oxygen contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell. Its
valency is calculated as: 8 – 6 = 2. This means oxygen needs two electrons to form a bond with
another element.

Atomic Number of an Element

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons in an atom

Mass Number of an Element

Mass Number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

Isotopes
● The atoms of an element can exist in several forms having similar atomic numbers but
varying mass numbers.
● Isotopes are pure substances.
● Isotopes have a similar chemical nature.
● Isotopes have distinct physical characteristics.
Where can we use Isotopes?
1. The fuel of Nuclear Reactor – Isotope of Uranium

2. Treatment of Cancer – Isotope of Cobalt

3. Treatment of Goiter – Isotope of Iodine

Example: Consider two atomic species namely U and V. Are they isotopes?

U V

Protons 5 5

Neutrons 5 6

Mass Number 5 + 5 = 10 5 + 6 = 11

Atomic Number 5 5

From the above example, we can infer that U and V are isotopes because their atomic number is
the same.
Isobars
The atoms of several elements can have a similar mass number but distinct atomic masses.
Such elements are called Isobars.