Applied Physics

UNIT I
WAVE OPTICS

UNIT I WAVE OPTICS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Optics is the science that describes the properties of light and its interaction with matter. It is
categorized into three different types- Ray optics, Wave optics and Quantum optics. Ray optics or
geometrical optics considers light as rays and explains the phenomena like reflection, refraction
and dispersion. Wave optics or Physical optics considers light as wave and explains phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarization while the Quantum optics assumes light as tiny packets
of energy called Photons and is used to explain Photoelectric Effect, Davisson and Germer
experiment and Compton Effect etc. The applications of optics led to design of mirrors, lenses,
prisms, telescopes, microscopes, gratings, polarizers, spectrometers, spectrographs, photo-
multipliers tubes, CRO and CRT’s, Lasers, Optical Fibers, CDs and DVDs. Nowadays a new
branch of optics called Photonics combines electronics and optical aspects and is used in
communications, medical diagnosis, optical computing etc.

1.2. CONCEPT OF WAVEFRONT

▪ A wavelet is a point of disturbance due to the propagation of light and wavefront is the
locus ofpoints(wavelets)having the same phase of oscillations.
▪ It is also defined as a surface on which the wave disturbance is in same phase at all the
points. The direction of propagation of a wave at a point is always perpendicular to the
wavefront through that point.
▪ Depending on source, the shape of the wavefront may be circular, spherical, cylindrical
or planar. The best example of wavefront produced naturally is when one drops a small
pebble in calm pool of water.
▪ The waves spread out at the point of impact on the surface of water.
▪ Such wavefronts are circular in shape as the waves on the surface of water are two
dimensional in nature.
▪ A point source of light in homogeneous medium or a source of sound, spreads waves in
all directions uniformly and are therefore three dimensional or spherical in nature.
▪ The wavefronts will be then a family of concentric spheres.
▪ A linear source produces cylindrical wavefronts.
▪ At a distance far away from the source, both the spherical and cylindrical wavefronts can
be treated as plane wavefronts.
▪ All these types of wavefronts are shown in fig.1.1.

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Fig.1.1:(a) Circular(b)Spherical (c) Cylindrical(d) Plane wavefront

1.3 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

1.3.1 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

▪ The Superposition principle states that: When two or more waves arrive at a point in a
medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement at that point is the algebraic sum of
their individual displacements.
▪ After the superposition, the wave trains travel as if they have not interfered at all. Each
wave train retains its individual characteristics. They pass through each other without
being disturbed.
▪ To understand this, as shown in fig.1.3, consider two waves travelling in opposite
directions pass through a point in a medium.
▪ Let the separate displacement of the particle by individual wave be y 1 and y2 .
▪ If the two waves are incident with the same phase [fig.1.3(a)], then the resultant
displacement at the point,
y = y1 + y2 . ----------- (1.01)
▪ After superposition they continue to move in opposite directions.
▪ On the other hand, if these two waves are incident on the particle in opposite phase [fig.
1.3(b)] then the resultant displacement,
y = y1 ~ y 2 . ----------- (1.02)

Fig.1.3: Superposition of two waves a) in phase b) out of phase

QUE: What do you understand from Superposition principle.

1.3.2COHERENT SOURCES

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▪ Two sources of light waves are said to be coherent when they emit light waves of same
amplitude, same frequency and have constant phase difference between them.
▪ Therefore, the two sources must emit radiation of same wavelength.

1.3.3 RELATION BETWEEN PATH DIFFERENCE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

▪ If the path difference between the two waves is λ, the corresponding phase difference is
2𝜋.
▪ Suppose for a path difference 𝑥, the phase difference is δ.
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋
▪ Then the phase difference δ is given by δ = = × (path difference)
λ λ

1.4 PHENOMENON OF INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT

1.4.1. INTERFERENCE: DEFINITION

▪ The phenomenon of interference of light is based on superposition principle. Interference
is defined as the redistribution of light intensity(or energy) due to the superposition of
light waves coming from two or more coherent sources.
▪ Therefore, when two or more waves having same amplitude and same frequency,
travelling along the same direction in the region of same medium and having constant or
zero phase difference, combine together, the energies of these waves are added up and
then redistributed in such a way that some areas are dark and some are bright. This
phenomenon is called as Interference.
▪ For example, the bright colours in feathers of peacock and hummingbird are due to
interference phenomenon. The structure of feathers split and recombine visible light so
that interference occurs for certain colours.

1.4.2. CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

▪ When two waves of same wavelength and of same phase superimpose on each other,
constructive interference occurs.
▪ The resultant displacement of the particle is given by y = y1 + y 2 and the resultant
amplitude is two times the amplitude of the initial wave, while the intensity increases by 4
times (Intensity α Amplitude2 ) as shown in Fig.1.4(a), provided the amplitude of both the
waves are same.

Fig.1.4(a) :Constructive interference

Conditions for constructive interference are:
Phase difference = 0, 2π, 4π…. = 2nπ, where n=0,1,2,3,4…. ----------- (1.03)
Path difference = n λ ----------- (1.04)

Constructive interference leads to appearance of bright fringes on screen.

1.4.3 DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

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▪ When two waves of same wavelength which are out of phase superimpose on each other,
destructive interference occurs.
▪ The resultant displacement of the particle is given by y = y1 − y 2 .
▪ Thus, the resultant amplitude and hence the intensity will be almost zero as shown in
Fig.1.4(b), provided the amplitude of both the waves are nearly same.

Fig.1.4(b):Destructive interference
Conditions for destructive interference are:
Phase difference = π, 3π, 5π…. = (2n+1)π, where, n=0,1,2,3,4….. ----------- (1.05)

Path difference = (2n+1) λ/2 ----------- (1.07)

Destructive interference leads to appearance of dark fringes on screen.

1.4.4 METHODS FOR OBTAINING INTERFERENCE PATTERN

The methods for obtaining interference pattern are based on the method to obtain coherent
sources. The two methods are:
1. Division of Wavefront:
▪ The wavefront generated from a source of light is divided into two parts.
▪ These two divided parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and
recombine to produce interference pattern.
▪ For example: Young’s double slit, Fresnel’s Biprism and Lloyd’s mirror.
2. Division of Amplitude:
▪ The amplitude of a beam of light is divided into two parts by partial reflection
and refraction.
▪ These divided parts after travelling by different paths recombine to produce
interference pattern.
▪ For example: In Newton’s Rings, Wedge shaped film and antireflection coatings.

QUE: What are coherent sources? How are they obtained in practice?
QUE: What is meant by interference of light.
QUE: What are the necessary conditions on the path difference and phase difference
between two waves that interfere (a) constructively(b) destructively.
QUE: Explain in brief the two methods of obtaining interference pattern.

1.5 INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS:

1.5.1 INTRODUCTION

We are all very much familiar with colours on thin film of oil on the surface of water and on thin
film of a soap-bubble. These colours are due to interference phenomena taking place on their
surfaces. Two famous scientists, Newton and Hooke, observed and discoveredinterference
phenomenon due to multiple reflections from the surface of thin transparent materials. Hooke
observed such colours in thin films of mica and similar thin transparent plates.

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Newton observed the interference pattern in form of circular rings when a convex lens
was placed on a plane glass-plate. Young explained this observation based on interference
between light reflected from the top and the bottom surface of a thin film. Interference in the case
of thin films can takes place due to(l) reflected light and (2) due to transmitted light. The method
of obtaining interference pattern in thin films is by division of amplitude.
Tremendous research in taking place nowadays on optical thin films technology as it is
widely used in telecommunications, lasers, display/lighting, photovoltaic, photonic devices,
sensors, security devices, ophthalmic equipment, automotive devices, building, biological and in
biomedical applications.

1.5.2. THIN FILM: DEFINITION

▪ Thin film is defined as the film whose thickness is about the order of one wavelength of
visible light which is takes to be 5500Å.
▪ Thin film may be a thin sheet of transparent material such as glass, mica, or air film
enclosed between two transparent sheets or an air bubble.

QUE: What is a thin film? (1M) [Summer-11,13,15&18]

1.5. GEOMETRICAL PATH DIFFERENCE AND OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

▪ We know that speed of light decreases if it travels through a denser medium. It means that
light will take more time to cover the same distance through denser medium having large
refractive index.
▪ The geometrical path is the shortest distance between two points independent of the
medium.
▪ Optical path is the path traveled by light in a medium having refractive index ‘µ’.
Therefore, geometrical path is always less than the optical path by a factor µ.
▪ Optical path length is equal to the product of refractive index and geometrical path.
i.e., Optical path = R.I × Geometrical path

Difference between Optical path and Geometrical path is summarized in following table:

Sr. Optical Path Geometrical Path

no.
1 The distance traveled by light in the The actual distance between two points A
medium is known as optical path. and B in the space is known as geometrical
path.
2 Optical path is different in different G.P. remains the same in all types of
medium. medium (air, material)
3 O.P. depends on refractive index (µ) of G.P. is independent of R.I. (µ).
medium.
4 O.P. = Δ = µL G.P.L. = B – A = L
Where µ = R.I. of medium A & B are two different points in space.
L = Geometrical path

1.6. UNIFORMLY THICK PARALLEL THIN FILM (THIN PARALLEL FILM)

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• A transparent thin film of uniform thickness bounded by two parallel surfaces is known as
plane parallel thin film.
▪ Let us consider a plane parallel thin film of uniform thickness ‘t’ having refractive index
‘µ’ as shown in Fig.1.6.
▪ The film is surrounded by air on both the sides. Let a monochromatic source of
wavelength ‘λ’ illuminates the plane parallel thin film obliquely.
▪ Let ray AB represent one of the incident rays at point B, a part of incident light at B is
reflected as BC (ray 1) and partially transmitted into the film along BD.
▪ The transmitted ray BD is partially reflected into the film along DE and refracts into the
outer medium as EF (ray 2).
▪ The refracted ray emerges out along EF, is parallel to the ray BC.

Fig.1.6: Interference in parallel thin film.

▪ Geometrical path difference between ray1 and ray2 = (BD + DE) – BH

▪ Optical path difference,
Δ = μ [(BD + DE)] – BH ----------- (1.08)
▪ In fig.1.6, ∠i is the angle of incidence and ∠r the angle of refraction.
▪ The path difference between ray1 and ray 2 is ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 ----------- (1.09)
▪ But at point ‘B’ as light is being reflected from denser medium there is introduced a path
difference of λ/2 in ray 1 which does not happen with ray 2.
𝜆
▪ True path difference,∆𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2 ----------- (1.10)
∴
1.6.1. EXPRESSION FOR MAXIMA (BRIGHTNESS)
▪ If the path difference between the rays is integral multiple of wavelength ‘λ’ then we get
constructive interference or a maxima i.e.
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 − = 𝑛𝜆
2
𝜆 𝜆
𝑜𝑟 2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) (condition for maxima)… (1.11)
2

1.6.2. EXPRESSION FOR MINIMA (DARKNESS)

𝜆
▪ If the path difference between the rays is odd multiple of 2
then we get destructive
interference or a minima i.e.

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𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 − = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
𝜆
( )
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 2𝑛 + 1 + 1 2 = 𝑛𝜆 +λ
Addition and subtraction of one complete wavelength, does not make any changes in path
difference.Therefore,
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 (condition for minima)… (1.12)

▪ When monochromatic light is incident normally on uniform thin film: -

For normal incidence, r = 0, i.e., cos r = 1
▪ For condition of maxima we get,
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1) ---------- (1.13)
2

And for condition of minima, we get,

2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 ---------- (1.14)

QUE: Write an expression for path difference in thin film of constant thickness. Obtain the
conditions for dark and bright fringes of interference pattern.
(4M) [Winter-19]

1.6.3. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THIN FILM IS EXPOSED TO SUN (WHITE) LIGHT

▪ As white light consists of many wavelengths (colours) so when it is incident on thin film then all
colors get reflected from the top and bottom surface.
▪ But all of them does not satisfies the condition of brightness (maxima).
▪ Hence reflected light will have only those colours which satisfy the condition of maxima. And
the colours which satisfy the condition of minima (darkness) will remain absent.
▪ Hence thin film appears colored under sun (white) light.

1.6.4. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN FILM IS VERY THIN

▪ When film is so thin like only a few layers of air molecules as in case of air film, then the
thickness of film is very small as compared to wavelength of incident light (i.e., t << λ).
▪ Hence, the path difference introduced will be nearly equal to λ/2.
▪ Hence the wave reflected from upper surface and bottom surface of film will interfere
destructively and the film appears dark.

1.7. WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM

▪ A wedge-shaped thin film is a thin film of varying thickness having thickness zero at
one end and uniformly increasing towards other end.
▪ Such a thin film of air can be formed by placing two glass slides resting on each other at
one edge and separated by a thin spacer at the opposite edge as shown in figure 1.7(a).
▪ The air film has zero thickness at the apex.

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▪ The air film is illuminated by monochromatic source of light of wavelength ‘λ’ (like
sodium source).
▪ The incident light ray AB is partially reflected from upper glass plate as ray BC and part
of it is transmitted as ray BD.
▪ The transmitted light is reflected back into the medium from bottom glass plate. The light
reflected from bottom surface passes out as refracted ray EF.
▪ The two reflected rays as shown in fig.1.7(b) form an interference pattern consisting of
alternate dark and bright fringes.
▪ The fringes are of equal width, straight and parallel to the edge of the wedge.

Fig.1.7: (a) Interference in wedge shaped thin film (b) Interference pattern.

▪ The optical path difference between two interfering rays, Δ is,

𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2 ----------(1.15)
where, μ is the refractive index of film material,t is the thickness of film, r is the angle
of refraction and λ is the wavelength of monochromatic light.

1.7.1. EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH (β)

▪ Let us consider a wedge-shaped film of refractive index ‘μ’ and wedge angle ‘θ’ as shown
in fig.1.8.
▪ A monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally (i.e., cos r = 1) on the
wedge.

Fig.1.8: Determination of fringe width

▪ Let nth dark fringe be formed at point A and consecutive (n+1)th dark fringe at point C.
Let film thickness at point A and C be‘t1 ’ and ‘t2 ’ respectively.
▪ Applying condition of destructive interference,

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2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
▪ At point A,
2𝜇𝑡 1 = 𝑛𝜆 ----------- (1.16)
▪ At point C,

2𝜇𝑡 2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 ----------- (1.17)

▪ On subtracting eqn. (1.16) from (1.17), we get,

2𝜇(𝑡2 − 𝑡 1) = 𝜆
𝜆
or 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 1 = ----------- (1.18)
2𝜇

▪ And in Δ ABC,
𝐵𝐶
tan𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
(𝑡 2 − 𝑡 1)
tan 𝜃 =
𝛽
▪ Here ‘’ is the fringe width i.e., distance between two consecutive dark or bright fringes.
𝑜𝑟 (𝑡 2 − 𝑡 1 ) = 𝛽 tan𝜃
𝜆
2𝜇
= 𝛽 tan𝜃 (from equation (1.18))

𝜆
= 𝛽𝜃 (∵ for small value of θ, tanθ = θ)
2𝜇

𝜆
𝛽= 2𝜇𝜃
----------- (1.19)

Since all the parameters on right side are constant in above equation, hence fringes are
equidistant.
QUE: Derive an expression for fringe width or β in interference pattern obtained in a Wedge
-shaped thin film. (4M) [Summer-11]
QUE: Obtain an expression for fringe width or β in interference pattern obtained in a
Wedge-shaped thin film. (3M) [Summer-13&15]
QUE: Obtain an expression for fringe width in interference pattern of Wedge-shaped film.
Explain why the fringe at the apex of the wedge is always dark. (4M) [Winter-16]
QUE: Deduce an expression for fringe width and wedge angle in case of Wedge- shaped thin
film. (4M) [Winter -13&17]

1.7.2. DETERMINATION OF WEDGE ANGLE (𝜃)

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Fig 1.9: Determination of wedge angle

▪ Let us consider a wedge-shaped film with very small wedge angle ‘θ’ as shown in fig.1.9.
Also assume that nth dark fringe be formed at point ‘A’ and (m+n) th at point ‘B’.
▪ Hence, at point A, dark fringe is given by,

2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑡1
but, tan𝜃 =
𝑥1
⟹ 𝑡 1 = 𝑥 1 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥 1 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥 1𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 ------------ (1.20)

▪ Similarly, at B,

2𝜇𝑡 2 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆
𝑡2
but tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2
⟹ 𝑡 2 = 𝑥 2 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥 2 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥 2𝜃 = (𝑚 + 𝑛) 𝜆 ------------ (1.21)

▪ Subtracting eqn. (1.20) from eqn. (1.21), we get,

2𝜇(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1 )𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝜃= 2𝜇(𝑥2−𝑥1)
------------- (1.22)

▪ For μ = 1,

𝑛𝜆
𝜃= ------------ (1.23)
2(𝑥2−𝑥1)

Thus, we can calculate wedge angle 𝜃 using above equation.

QUE: Derive the expression for wedge angle in case of wedge- shaped thin film.
(3M) [Summer-18]

1.7.3. SALIENT FEATURES OF INTERFERENCE PATTERN OF WEDGE-SHAPED

THIN FILM

1] Fringe at the apex is dark –

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▪ At the apex, the two glass slides are in contact with each other. Therefore, the thickness of
the air film at the contact edge is negligible (t 0). The optical path difference then
becomes,

𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 −
2
𝜆
∆= 0 − (𝑎𝑠 𝑡 = 0)
2
𝜆
∴ ∆= −
2
𝜆
▪ For path difference of , the interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase with each
2
other.
▪ It implies that the two waves interfere destructively. Therefore, fringes at the apex are
dark.

2] Straight and parallel fringes –

▪ Each dark or bright fringe is form by the interference of rays reflected from the point of
same thickness.
▪ As the loci of points having same thickness are in straight line and parallel to the edge of
the wedge, hence fringes are straight and parallel.

3] Equidistance fringes –

▪ The fringe width β is given by,

𝜆
𝛽≈
2𝜃
where ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the incident light and ‘θ’ is the angle of the
wedge.
▪ Since λ and θ are constant, therefore β is also constant for a given wedge angle. Hence the
fringes are equidistant from each other.

4] Localized fringes –

▪ The fringes are very close to the top surface of the wedge and can be seen with a
microscope. Hence fringes are localized.
5]Fringes are of equal thickness –
▪ As each maxima (bright fringe) or minima (dark fringe) are a locus of points where film
has constant thickness, the fringes are called fringes of equal thickness.

1.7.4. APPLICATIONS OF WEDGE-SHAPED FILM

1] Determination of the thickness of the spacer:

(Spacer will be thin wire, thin sheet, etc.)

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Fig 1.10: Determination of thickness of spacer

▪ From equation (1.23), the wedge angle can be calculated as

𝑛𝜆
𝜃=
2𝜇(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1 )
𝑡
But tan 𝜃 =
𝑙
▪ For small values of 𝜃, tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃,
𝑡
∴𝜃=
𝑙
𝑡 𝑛𝜆
∴ =
𝑙 2𝜇(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1 )
𝒍𝒏𝝀
or 𝒕 = ------------ (1.24)
𝟐𝝁(𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏)
Where, t is the thickness of thin wire or spacer.

2] Testing of optically flat surface:

The flatness of the surface can be inspected easily by keeping an optical flat surface at an angle on
the surface under inspection and illuminating it with a monochromatic light (Fig.1.11).

Fig.1.11: Testing of surface finish (a) optically flat (b) concave (c) convex surface

The light will produce one of the following interpretations: -

▪ An air wedge will produce straight equidistant fringes if surface is flat.
▪ If the fringes are curved towards the contact edge, then surface is concave.
▪ If the fringes are curved away from the contact edge, then surface is convex.
▪ The curved fringes indicate that the surface is not having smooth surface finish.
▪ The surface under test is then polished and above process is repeated again and again till
straight and parallel fringes are obtained.

QUE: Derive an expression for fringe width in interference pattern obtained in wedge- shaped thin
film. How is this phenomenon used for testing the optically flat surface? (5M) [Summer-14]

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1.8. NEWTON’S RINGS

The phenomenon of Newton's rings, named after Isaac Newton, is another example of interference
in thin films.

Fig.1.12:(a) Experimental set up of Newton’s rings (b)Ray diagram (c) Fringe pattern

▪ The experimental set-up consists of a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature with
its curved surface touching the top surface of a plane glass plate as shown in fig.1.12(a).
▪ This arrangement forms a wedge shape air film with zero thickness at the point of contact
between lens and glass plate.
▪ The thickness of the wedge- shaped air film goes on increasing as we move away from
the point of contact on either side.
▪ When such a system is illuminated by monochromatic light at normal incidence, a part of
light is reflected from top surface of the air film as ray 1.
▪ The remaining part passes through the air film(fig.1.12(b)) and reflects as ray 2 after
striking the plane glass plate.
▪ Ray 1 and ray 2 interfere to produce an interference pattern in form of concentric circular
rings called Newton’s rings as shown in fig1.12 (c)with center as point of contact.
▪ The optical path difference between interfering ray 1 and ray 2, Δ is,
𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2
where, μ is the refractive index of film,t is the thickness of film, r is the angle of
refraction and λ is the wavelength of monochromatic light.

1.8.1 EXPRESSION FOR THE RADIUS OR DIAMETER OF RINGS

▪ The condition of constructive and destructive interference of rays is given by,

𝜆
For bright rings, 2𝑡 = (2n + 1) 2
---------- (1.25)
For dark rings,2 t = n λ ---------- (1.26)

▪ For nth dark ring the radius is given as

𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛λR ---------- (1.27)
∴ 𝑟𝑛 ∝ √𝑛

▪ And diameter as 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√𝑛λR ---------- (1.28)

∴ 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √𝑛

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where R is the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens.

Equations (1.27) and (1.28) show that radius and diameter of dark rings is proportional to
square root of natural numbers.
▪ For the bright ring, radius is given by
(2𝑛+1)
𝑟𝑛 = √ 2
𝜆𝑅 ---------- (1.29)

(2𝑛 + 1)
∴ 𝑟𝑛 ∝ √
2
(2𝑛+1)
also 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√ 2
𝜆𝑅 ------------ (1.30)

(2𝑛 + 1)
∴ 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √
2
Equations (1.29) and (1.30) show that radius and diameter of bright rings is proportional to
square root of odd numbers.

1.8.2. EXPRESSION FOR RADIUS OF CURVATURE ‘R’ OF PLANO CONVEX LENS

The radius of nth dark ring is given as

𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝜆𝑅
∴ Diameter𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = √4𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 ----------- (1.31)
▪ th
Similarly, Diameter of (n+p) dark ring, is obtained as
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 = 4(𝑛 + 𝑝)𝜆𝑅 ----------- (1.32)

▪ Subtracting equation (1.31)from equation (1.32),

2
→ 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 − 𝐷𝑛 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅 ----------- (1.33)
2
Dn+p 2−Dn
∴𝜆= 4pR
----------- (1.34)

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2−𝐷𝑛
and 𝑅 = ----------- (1.35)
4𝑝𝜆

Where, ‘p’ is an integer, ‘λ’ is wavelength of light and ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of Plano-
convex lens.

1.8.3. SILENT FEATURES OF NEWTON’S RINGS

1. Central Spot is dark in reflected light.

▪ At the point of contact of the lens and glass plate, the thickness of air film is negligibly
small compared to wavelength of light.
∴t ≅ 0
𝜆
∴path difference ∆ ≅ 2
𝜆
▪ For path difference of 2, the two interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase with
each other.
▪ Therefore, the two interfering waves satisfy the condition of destructive interference and
produce a dark spot at centre.

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2. Fringes are not equally spaced, or Rings get closer away from the center
▪ Diameter of a dark rings is directly proportional to square root of natural numbers, while
the diameter of the bright rings is proportional to square root of odd numbers.
▪ Therefore, as the order of rings (n) increases, the diameter does not increase in the same
proportion.
▪ Therefore, the rings get closer and closer with increasing radii as we move away from the
centre.
▪ Also, the wedge angle is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases as we move
away from the point of contact on either side.
λ
▪ So, according to the relation β = 2µθ, when wedge angle ′θ′ increases, fringe width ‘β’
decreases and hence fringes get closer and closer with increasing radii.

3. Fringes are circular.

▪ When a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on the plane glass plate, a
wedge-shaped thin air film of varying thickness is formed in between these two surfaces.
▪ The locus of points where the air film has the same thickness fall on circle with center as
the point of contact.
▪ The thickness of film is same at all points on any circle having zero as the center. The
fringes are therefore circular.

4. Plano-convex lens should have Large Radius of curvature:

▪ The radius and diameter of dark rings is directly proportional to square root of radius of
curvature of plano-convex lens.
rn α √R
Dn α √R
▪ Greater the radius of curvature of the lens, larger would be the diameter of the ring.
Hence, the error in the measurement of diameter is minimized.
▪ Secondly if ‘R’ is large, the angle enclosing the air film ′𝜃′ will become smaller and
λ
hence according to relation β = 2µθ ,the fringe width ‘β’ will become larger.
▪ Thus, there will be more accuracy in measurement of diameter of rings.
5. Newton’s rings with white light:
▪ If a white light is used instead of monochromatic light few colored rings are obtained
surrounding the black center and beyond it a uniform illumination is obtained.
▪ The diameter of Newton’s rings depends on wavelength (D α λ).
▪ Therefore, the smallest ring will be observed for violet color and the largest for red color.
▪ The other colors occupy the middle positions.

QUE: Draw a neat diagram of experimental set up for the Newton’s rings formation. Why
are the rings circular? Why the rings are not evenly spaced? (4M)[Summer-16]
QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) The rings are not equally spaced?
ii) The central fringe is dark? (3M) [Summer-11]
QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Plano convex lens should have larger radius
ii) Rings get closer away from center
iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.
(4M) [Summer-15]
QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Rings get closer away from center
ii) Fringes are circular
iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light. (3M) [Summer-19]

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QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Plano convex lens should have larger radius of
curvature ii) Rings gets closer away from center. (3M) [Summer-13]
QUE: Why in Newton’s ring experiment the central spot is dark? (4M) [Winter-13]
QUE: In Newton’s Ring experiment, explain why i) Plano-convex lens should have larger
radius ii) Rings get closer away from the center iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light
iv) Fringes are circular. (4M) [Summer-18]

1.8.4. APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S RINGS EXPERIMENT

1. To find the wavelength of light used.

2. To find the radius of curvature of a plano- convex lens.
3. To find the refractive index of liquid.
4. To test the surface of lens.

QUE: State any two applications of Newton’s ring experiment. (1M) [Summer-11]

1]DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MONOCHROMATIC SOURCE

Wavelength ‘λ’ of monochromatic light can be determined by measuring the diameters of the dark
rings and using the formula,
𝟐
𝑫 𝒏+𝒑 𝟐 − 𝑫 𝒏
𝝀=
𝟒𝒑𝑹
Thus wavelength of monochromatic source can be calculated experimently by using a plano
covex lens of known radius of curvature R.

2]DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A GIVEN PLANO CONVEX

LENS
If the wavelength of the monochromatic source is known, the radius of curvature of a given plano-
convex lens can be calculated by using the formula,
𝟐
𝑫 𝒏+𝒑 𝟐 − 𝑫 𝒏
𝑹=
𝟒𝒑𝝀
3]TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF LIQUID:

Fig.1.14: Experimental set-up for measurement of Refractive index of liquid

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 Applied Physics

▪ In Newton’s ring arrangement, a thin film of air is enclosed between Plano convex lens
and a glass plate.
▪ The thickness of the film at the point of contact is zero and gradually increases as we
move outward.
▪ When the film is illuminated with monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ normally, dark
and bright circular concentric fringes (rings) are obtained.
▪ The condition of constructive and destructive interference of rays is given by,
𝜆
For bright rings, 2𝑡 = (2n + 1)
2
For dark rings,2 t = n λ
▪ The diameter of (n+p) th and nth dark rings are measured with air film between the plano-
convex lens and the plane glass plate.
▪ In case of air film (μ =1), diameter of nth dark ring is given as
( 𝐷𝑛 )𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 2√𝑛λR
or (𝐷𝑛 2 )𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4𝑛 λ R ---------- (1.36)
▪ th
For (n+p) dark ring,
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 )𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4(𝑛 + 𝑝)𝜆𝑅 ---------- (1.37)
Subtracting eqn. (1.36) from (1.37), we get,
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 )𝑎𝑖𝑟 − (𝐷𝑛 2 )𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4𝑝𝜆 ---------- (1.38)
▪ The liquid whose refractive index µL is to be calculated is filled between the plano-
convex lens and glass plate as shown in fig.1.14.
▪ In this case the condition of interference is given by,
2𝜇𝐿 𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 ----------- (1.39)
where 𝜇 𝐿 is the refractive index of taken liquid.
▪ For normal incidence cos r = 1
𝑛𝜆
∴ 2𝑡 = ----------- (1.40)
𝜇𝐿
▪ Thus, the diameter of nth dark ring is given by,
4𝑛𝜆𝑅
(𝐷𝑛 2 )𝐿 = ----------- (1.41)
𝜇𝐿
▪ th
Similarly, diameter of (n+p) dark ring is given by,
4(𝑛+𝑝)𝜆𝑅
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 )𝐿 = ----------- (1.42)
𝜇𝐿
▪ Subtracting eqn. (1.41) from (1.42), we get,
4𝑝𝜆𝑅
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 )𝐿 − (𝐷𝑛 2 )𝐿 = ---------- (1.43)
𝜇𝐿

▪ Dividing equation (1.38) by equation (1.43) we get,

(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2) 𝑎𝑖𝑟 −(𝐷𝑛 2)𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜇𝐿 = (𝐷𝑛 +𝑝2 )𝐿−(𝐷𝑛 2)𝐿
------------ (1.44)

Since the refractive index of liquid is greater than the refractive index of air, the diameter of the
rings decreases and hence rings contract.

QUE: How can Newton’s ring expt. be used to determine refractive index of liquid?
(4M) [Winter-14]

4]TESTING THE LENS SURFACES

▪ This experiment is used for testing the optical components of telescopes and other
instruments.
▪ The lens surface is tested by keeping it on a master. If the lens is grounded perfectly,
circular fringe pattern can be obtained as shown in Fig.1.15 (a).
▪ If not, distorted patterns can be observed as shown in Fig. 1.15 (b) and (c).
▪ Variations in the fringe pattern indicate how the lens must be grounded and polished to
remove the imperfections. Thus, the fringes map the lack of fitness between lens and
master.

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 Applied Physics

Fig.3.14: Testing the lens surface using Newton’s rings (a) circular ring pattern indicating the
perfectness of the surface (b) and (c) distorted patterns indicating irregularities.

1.9. ANTIREFLECTION COATING

In optical instruments like compound microscopes, camera lenses, telescopes etc., a combination
of lenses are used. When light enters such instruments, almost 96% of light is transmitted and 4%
is lost in single reflection at air-glass interface. The loss goes on increasing for multiple
reflections. For achromatic objective lens used in telescopes comprising of 4 lenses, almost 30%
of light is reflected and rest is transmitted. When intensity of light is low such losses are not
desirable. Therefore, there is a need of reducing losses of intensity of light due to reflections from
an optical surface. To overcome this problem, a transparent film of proper thickness and material
is coated on the glass surface. This film is called antireflection coating. It was discovered by
German scientist Alexander Smakula in 1935.
Antireflection coatings have tremendous impact on optics, and even today, they still
exceed all the other types of coatings, in sheer volume of production. In some applications
antireflection coatings are required for the reduction of surface reflections. In other not only
reflection is reduced but also transmittance is increased considerably. As it is a known fact that
radiations incident upon the surface of an optical material is divided into reflected, transmitted,
absorbed and scattered radiations. The fraction of available energy that is distributed amongst
these is determined by the indices of refraction. Antireflection coatings can range from a single
layer having virtually zero reflectance at just one wavelength, to a multilayer system of many
layers having virtually zero reflectance over a wide spectral range.
Definition- A thin transparent film coated on a surface to suppress reflections from it is called an
antireflection film (AR coating).

1.9.1. PRINCIPLE OF AR COATING (AMPLITUDE AND PHASE CONDITION)

For coating to act as Antireflection coating it must satisfy two important conditions-
1. Amplitude condition – Waves must have equal amplitude.
2. Phase condition – Waves reflected from top and bottom must be exactly 180 o out of
phase.
These two conditions ensure that the reflected waves cancel each other completely.

1.9.2. AMPLITUDE CONDITION

▪ The amplitude condition requires that the amplitudes of the reflected rays from top and
bottom surface of AR coating should be equal.
▪ For this the refractive index of the coating material must be nearly equal to the square
root of the refractive index of the substrate material (glass).

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 Applied Physics

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 = √𝜇 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 --------- (1.45)

∴ 𝜇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 < 𝜇 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
1.9.3. PHASE CONDITION AND EXPRESSION FOR MINIMUM THICKNESS OF THE
FILM

Fig.1.16: Anti reflection coating

▪ Consider a thin film coated on a glass surface as shown in fig.1.16. The phase condition
requires that the waves reflected from top and bottom (Ray1 and Ray 2) must be exactly
180o out of phase.
▪ After reflection both the rays undergo a phase change of 180 0 . It means that their optical
𝜆
path difference changes by .
2
▪ Therefore, the equation for optical difference becomes,
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟 − − ------------ (1.46)
2 2
where ′𝜇𝑓 ′ is the refractive index of coated film
or Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟
▪ For normal incidence, cos r =1
∴ Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡
𝜆
▪ But for destructive interference, Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
2

𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
▪ For minimum thickness of the film i.e.,𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 and n = 0,
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2
𝜆
or 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ---------- (1.47)
4 𝜇𝑓

Therefore, the optical thickness of the film (𝜇𝑓 𝑡) should be equal to one- quarter
wavelength.

QUE: What do you understand by antireflection coating? Deduce an expression for

minimum thickness of antireflection coating. (3M) [Winter-16] [Summer-19]
QUE: What is antireflection coating? Obtain the condition for minimum thickness of such a
coating. (3M) [Summer16] (4M) [Winter-18]

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QUE: What is antireflection coating? Obtain the condition of refractive index of coating
material for zero reflectivity. (3M) [Winter-15]
QUE: What is antireflection coating? Obtain an expression for minimum optical thickness of
the film to act as an antireflection coating. (4M) [Winter-17]
QUE: Explain antireflection coating. Obtain the condition for minimum thickness of such a
coating. (3M) [Winter-19]

1.10 APPLICATIONS OF ANTI-REFLECTION COATINGS

Thin film materials should have high transparency, homogeneity, high packing density, good
adhesion, low stress, hardness with ability to survive in different environmental, insolubility in
ordinary solvents and deposition conditions.
Multilayer Coating structures based on those materials have wide band of applications in
electronics and optoelectronics. The various types of coating used are:

1] Single layer AR coating-

▪ In case of glass surface having refractive index equal to 1.5, the single layer AR coating
which can be chosen should have refractive index 𝜇𝑓 = √𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = √1.5 = 1.22.
▪ The materials whose refractive index is nearer to this value are magnesium fluoride
MgF2 (µ= 1.38) and Cryolite 3NaF.AlF 3 (µ= 1.36).
▪ Such single layer AR coatings are effective only at one particular wavelength.
▪ Such coatings cannot totally reduce reflection at that specific wavelength.
▪ Single layer coatings find use in case of lasers, photodiodes and solar cells.

2] Multilayer AR coating –
▪ To overcome limitations of single layer AR coatings, multilayer coatings are used.
▪ Most widely used is three layer coating where outer and inner layer are ‘λ/4’ thick
(made using and Cesium fluoride with µ = 1.63) whereas middle layer is ‘λ/2’ thick
(made using Zirconium oxide with µ= 2.10) to suppress reflection of most of the
prominent colours of visible spectrum.
▪ It is also termed as quarter and half-quarter coating.
▪ Other materials used nowadays as film layers are Al2 O3 , ZrO2 , Si, SiO, CdTe, BaF 2 ,
ZnSe, Y2 O3 andSiO2 , LaF3 and YF2 .
▪ Multi-layer coatings are used in solar cells, cameras lens, bar-code scanners, optical
fibres, microscopes, telescopes, CCTV cameras and various optoelectronic devices.

Fig.1.17: Single and Multi-layer coatings

3] Dielectric Mirror –

▪ If refractive index of the material of the film is higher than the glass, then reflection
from the surface increases and the layer starts behaving as mirrors.

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 Applied Physics

▪ Dielectric mirror is a mirror which consists of multiple thin layers of different

transparent optical materials.
▪ Since the coating material is electrically non-conducting, hence it is known as
dielectric mirror.
▪ Common materials are MgF2 (μ =1.37), SiO2 (μ =1.45), ZnS (μ =2.32) and
TiO2 (μ =2.4).
▪ Using multiple layers, we can achieve almost 100% reflectivity.
▪ These mirrors have High broadband reflectivity, Excellent infrared transmittance,
Large operating temperature range, Low absorption losses and Temperature-resistant
glass substrate.
▪ They can be used for highly reflecting laser mirrors or partially transmissive output
couplers, for dichroic mirrors (used for colour separation in TV cameras), for anti-
reflection coatings, for various kinds of optical filters (e.g., for attenuation of certain
wavelength regions), beam splitters, heat reflectors.

Fig.1.18: Dielectric mirror

4] Interference Filter –
▪ A multilayer quarter (λ/4) coating can be used to select particular wavelength to pass
through it and produce highly monochromatic beam and act as interference filter.
▪ For example, ZnS or titanium oxide (µ = 2.8) is deposited as first layer which is λ/4
thick on a glass surface. Over this second layer ofMgF 2 or Cryolite is used. Third
layer and fourth layer of titanium oxide and MgF 2 respectively are deposited.
▪ Such filter can restrict the transmitted wavelengths to a very narrow range of
bandwidth of about 11Å.
▪ These filters operate by transmitting a selected wavelength region with high
efficiency while rejecting, through reflection and destructive interference, all other
wavelengths.
▪ They are commonly used in astronomy to make the breathtaking images of nebulae
and other objects, in spectrometers, in telescopes, in photometers and in microscopes.

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1.11. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT: INTRODUCTION

Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it sound waves, light
waves, water waves or matter waves. Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the
dimensions of most of the obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday
observations. Also, the finite resolution of our eye or of optical instruments such as telescopes or
microscopes is limited due to the phenomenon of diffraction.
The first scientist who recorded accurate observations on the diffraction phenomenon was
an Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi, in 1660.He coined the word "diffraction" from the
Latin word ‘diffringere’, meaning ‘to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into
different directions. Diffraction is defined as the bending of light around the corners of an
obstacle or encroachment of light within the geometrical shadow of the obstacle or
aperture.Huygens’ Principle explains diffraction in a very simplified manner. According to this
principle when a wavefront is partially obstructed, only the wavelets from the exposed parts
superpose and the resulting wavefront has a different shape. This allows for the bending round the
edges. In case of light waves, beautiful fringe patterns comprising maximum and minimum
intensity are formed due to diffraction.
Some examples of diffraction phenomenon in real life are formation of rainbow after rain,
CD and DVD’s reflecting rainbow colours, Sun appears red during sunset, bending of light at the
corners of the door as shown in figure 1.20. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can
cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon.

Fig.1.20: Some examples of diffraction phenomenon in real life

▪ The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of light and the size of the
opening as shown in fig.1.21.
▪ If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength (Fig.1.21 a), the bending
will be almost unnoticeable.
▪ However, if the two are closer in size or equal (fig.1.21 b), the amount of
bending is considerable.
▪ An obstacle or opening will diffract shorter wavelength slightly and longer
wavelengths more as shown in fig.1.21 (c).

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Fig.1.21: a) and b) As slit opening decreases, diffraction increases. c) With shorter wavelength and
no change in size of opening, diffraction decreases.

Diffraction produces dark or bright fringes known as diffraction bands or fringes.

1.12. TYPES OF DIFFRACTION

Diffraction phenomena can be divided into two types: 1. Fresnel diffraction 2. Fraunhofer
diffraction.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

FRESNEL DIFFRACTION FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

1. The source and the screen are both at finite 1. The source and the screen are both at infinite
distances from the obstacle. distances from the obstacle.
2. Lenses are not used to make the rays parallel 2. Lenses are used to make the rays parallel or
or convergent. convergent.
3. The incident wavefronts are either spherical 3. The incident wavefronts are planar.
or cylindrical

1.13. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
1. Interference phenomenon is due to 1. Diffraction phenomenon is due to
superposition of light waves from two superposition of secondary wavelets originating
separated wavefronts. from different points of the exposed parts of the
same wavefront.
2. In the interference pattern, the contrast 2. In the diffraction pattern, the contrast
between maxima and minima is good. between maxima and minima is poor.
3. The interference fringes are equally spaced. 3. The interference fringes are not equally
spaced.
4. In the interference pattern, regions of 4. In the diffraction pattern, regions of
minimum intensity are perfectly dark and all minimum intensity are not perfectly dark and
bright fringes are of equal intensity. only the first maxima have maximum intensity
and the intensity decreases as the order of
maxima increases.

QUE: Define diffraction.

QUE: Explain the difference between interference and diffraction.
QUE: Explain the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

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 Applied Physics

1.14. DIFFRACTION GRATING:

▪ Diffraction Gratings are optical components used to separate light into its component
wavelengths.
▪ They are used in spectroscopy, or for adapting into spectrophotometers or
monochromators.
▪ Diffraction Gratings consist of a series of closely packed grooves that have been engraved
or etched into the Grating’s surface.
▪ Diffraction Gratings can be either be transmissive or reflective (Fig.1.22).
▪ As light transmits through or reflects off a Grating, the grooves diffract the light into its
component wavelengths.

Fig.1.22: Types of Diffraction Grating (a) Transmission (b) Reflection

▪ The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque
rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. Thus, it consists of many equally spaced
parallel transparent spaces called slits.
▪ Grating element and grating equation:
▪ Grating element: The rulings on the grating act as obstacles having a definite width
‘b’ and the transparent space between the rulings act as slit of width ‘a’. The combined
width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element d = a + b.
▪ Grating Equation: If light is incident normally on a transmission grating of wavelength
λ, the direction of principal maxima is given by,
d sin θ = nλ ---------- (1.48)
▪ Here ‘d’ is the distance between two consecutive slits and n =1, 2, 3----, is the order of
principal maxima. Equation (1.48) is called grating equation and gives the position of
principal maxima.

1.15. RESOLVING POWER OF THE DIFFRACTION GRATING:

The diffraction grating is most useful for measuring wavelengths accurately. Like the prism, the
diffraction grating can be used to disperse a spectrum into its wavelength components. Of the two
devices, the grating is the more precise if one wants to distinguish two closely spaced wavelengths
spectrum i.e., to separate the lines of nearly equal wavelengths and therefore it has resolving
capability.
Resolving power of the grating is defined as the ability of a grating to form separate diffraction
maxima of two wavelengths which are very close to each other.

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For two nearly equal wavelengths λ 1 and λ 2 , between which a diffraction grating can just
barely distinguished, the resolving power ‘R’ of the grating is defined as
λ λ
R= λ2− λ1
= 𝑑λ ---------- (1.52)
λ1+ λ2
where λ = 2
is the mean value of the two wavelengthsλ 1 and λ 2
and the smallest difference dλ= λ2 − λ1
Resolving power of grating is also taken as
λ
R.P. = 𝑑λ = nN ---------- (1.53)

where ‘n’ is the order of spectrum and ‘N’ is the total number of lines on the
grating surface ‘N’.

QUE: What is a diffraction grating? Define grating element.

QUE: Define resolving power and write the expression for resolving power of the diffraction
grating.

1.23. LIST OF FORMULAE

• Effective optical path difference between two reflected rays in a thin film:
𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 −
2
𝜆
• 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) where n= 0, 1, 2--- (bright ring/condition for maxima)
2
• 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆, where n= 0, 1, 2, -- (dark ring/ condition for minima)

using above formulae, thickness of thin film ‘t’ can be found out.

WEDGE SHAPE THIN FILM

λ
• Fringe width 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃

λ
• Wedge angle 𝜃 = 2𝜇𝛽

NEWTON’S RINGS

• Diameter of dark rings 𝐷𝑛 = 2√𝑛𝜆𝑅

∴ 𝐷𝑛2= 4n λ R
𝐷𝑛2
• Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens 𝑅 =
4𝑛λ
D2n+p −D2n
• Wavelength of incident light λ = 4pR
• Refractive index of film used as antireflection coating is 𝜇𝑓 = √ 𝜇𝑔


• Minimum thickness of the film t min =
4 f

DIFFRACTION GRATING

• The condition for obtaining maxima (a + b) sin θ = n λ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ---

where (a+b) is grating element and ‘n’ is order of maxima.

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 Applied Physics

1
• No.of lines per unit width of grating N = (a+b)

RESOLVING POWER OF THE DIFFRACTION GRATING

λ λ
• The resolving power of the grating, R.P. = = = nN
λ2− λ1 dλ
λ1+ λ2
where λ = is the mean value of the two wavelengths λ1 and λ 2
2
and the smallest difference dλ= λ2 − λ1
N = Total number of lines on grating

1.24. SOLVED NUMERICALS.

1. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 and of thickness 1.5 × 10-4 m is illuminated by white
light incident at an angle of 45 0 .The light reflected by it is examined by a spectrometer in
which a dark band is found corresponding to a wavelength of 5 ×10-5 m. Calculate the order
of interference of the dark band.
Ans: Given: µ=1.33
t = 1.5×10-4 m
∠i = 450
λ = 5×10-5 m
n =?
Solution:
sin 𝑖
To find ∠r, we use Snell’s law, 𝜇 =
sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖
or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 =
𝜇
sin 450
= 1.33 = 0.5316
or r = sin−1(0.5316)
= 32.12°
Condition to obtain dark fringe is 2𝜇𝑡cos r = n λ

2𝜇𝑡cos r
∴𝑛= λ

2×1.33×1.5×10−4cos 32.12°
= 5×10−5

= 6.8 ≈ 6
4.A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890A 0 is incident on a glass plate of refractive
index 1.5 such that the angle of refraction is 60 0 .Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate,
which will appear dark by reflection.
Ans: Given: λ = 5890A0
µ = 1.5
 = 600
t =?
𝑛𝜆
Solution: 𝑡=
2𝜇 cos 𝑟

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1×5890×10−10
= 2 ×1.5 ×cos 60°

= 3.926 × 10−7 𝑚

5. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 is illuminated with light of different wavelengths at an
angle of 450 . Destructive interference is observed for the wavelength 5890A 0 . Find the
thickness of the film.
Ans: Given: µ=1.33
∠i = 450
λ = 5890A0
t =?

sin𝑖
Solution: To find ∠r, we use Snell’s law, 𝜇 =
sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖
or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝜇
sin 450
= 1.33
= 0.5316
−1
or r = sin (0.5316)
= 32.12°
Condition to obtain dark fringe is 2𝜇𝑡cos r = n λ
𝑛λ 1×5890×10−10
∴𝑡= =
2𝜇cos r 2×1.33×cos 32.12°
= 2.614 × 10−7 m
6. A soap film of 5000Å thickness is viewed at angle of 35°to the normal. Find the
wavelengths of visible spectrum which will be absent from the reflected light. The refractive
index of the film is 1.33. (4M) (Summer-04)
Ans. Given: t=5000Å
∠i =35°
µ=1.33
Solution: Condition of destructive interference is 2 µ t cos r = n λ

sin 𝑖
By Snell’s law 𝜇 = sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖 sin 35
∴ sin 𝑟 = =
𝜇 1.33

∴ 𝑟 = 25.54°
For first order, n = 1
λ1 =2 µ t cos r
=2×1.33×5000Å× cos (25.54°)
= 12000Å --------- (in IR range)
For second order, n = 2
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ2 = 2
= 2
= 6000 Å -------- (in visible region)
For third order, n = 3
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ3 = 3
= 3
= 4000 Å -------- (in visible region)
For fourth order, n = 4
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ4 = = = 3000 Å -------- (in UV region)
4 4
Therefore, wavelengths λ 2 and λ3 will be absent in the visible spectrum.

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8. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass wedge of RI 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm; wavelength of light is 5893 Ao . Calculate wedge angle. (3M) [Winter-14]
Ans: Given: µ = 1.52
β = 0.1 mm = 10-4 m
λ = 5893 A0 = 5893 ×10-10 m.
𝜃= ?

λ
Solution: Fringe width 𝛽 =
2𝜇𝜃
λ
Wedge angle 𝜃 =
2𝜇𝛽
5893×10−10
=
2×1.52×10−4
= 1.94×10-3 rad
= 0.11°
9.When a wedge-shaped air film is viewed by a monochromatic source of light incident
normally, the interference fringes 0.4mm apart are observed. If the air space is filled with
water (μ=1.33) how far apart will the fringes be observed? (3M) [Summer-16&19]
Ans: Given: βair = 0.4mm
𝜇 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.33
βwater =?

λ
Solution: Fringe width, β =
2μθ
λ
βair = − − − (1) (as μ = 1 for air film)
2θ
λ
λ 2θ
βwater = = − − − (2)
2μwater θ μwater
λ
Substituting = βair from eqn. (1) in (2) we get
2θ
βair 0.4mm
βwater = = = 0.3m
μwater 1.33
10. A glass wedge of angle 0.01radian is illuminated by monochromatic light of 6000Å falling
normally on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge will be tenth dark fringe
observed? (3M) [Summer-05]
Ans. Given: n=10,
Angle ‘θ’ = 0.01rad
λ = 6000Å = 6000x10-10 m
Find distance of 10th dark ring from edge of wedge L=?
λ
Solution: Fringe width 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃
for air film µ=1
Distance L=10 𝛽
λ
=10 × 2𝜃
6000×10−10
=10× 2×0.01
= 3×10-4 m

11.In a Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of the 15 th ring is 0.590 cm. and that of the 5 th
ring is 0.336cm. If the radius of the Plano convex lens is 100cm calculate the wavelength of
the light used. (3M) [Summer -17]
Ans: Given: R = 100 cm = 100×10-2 m,
D15 = 0.590 cm = 0.59 ×10-2 m,

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 Applied Physics

D5 = 0.336 cm = 0.336×10-2 m,
(n+p)=15, n = 5, p =10
λ =?
D2n+p −D2n
Solution: λ= 4pR
[ (0.59×10−2)2−(0.336×10−2)2] m2
= 4×10×100×10−2m
= 5.8801 × 10−7 m
=5880.1×10-10 m = 5880.1 Å
12.A glass microscope lens (µ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (µ=1.38) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light λ=5800Ǻ 0 . What minimum film
thickness should be deposited on the lens? (3M) [Winter-19]
Ans: Given: µg =1.5
µf =1.38
λ = 5800Ǻ
𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?
λ
Solution: 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓
5800Å
=
4 × 1.38
= 1051 Å

13.We wish to coat a flat slab of glass (µ g =1.5) with a thinnest possible film of a transparent
material so that light of wavelength 600 nm incident normally is not reflected. We have two
materials to choose from M1 (µ1 =1.25) and M2 (µ2 =1.6). Which one should be the
appropriate? What will be the smallest possible thickness of the coating?

Ans: Given: µg =1.5

µ1 =1.25
µ2 =1.6
λ= 600 nm = 600×10-9 m.
𝜇 𝑓 = ? , 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?

Solution: 𝜇𝑓 = √𝜇𝑔 = √1.55 = 1.22

The refractive index of the material to be used as the film must be closer to 1.22.
So, among M1 and M2 , M1 is suitable for thin film coating and its thickness must be
λ
𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓
600 × 10−9
=
4 × 1.25
= 0.12 × 10−6 m = 0.12 μm

14.A material having an index of refraction of 1.33 is used to coat a piece of glass. What
should be the minimum thickness of the film in order to minimize reflected light at
wavelength of 500 nm? What should be the refractive index of the glass to get best effects?
Why?
Ans: Given: µf =1.33
λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9 m.
𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?
λ
Solution: 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 4𝜇
𝑓

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 Applied Physics

500 × 10−9
=
4 × 1.33
= 9.398 × 10−8 m

Since 𝜇𝑓 = √𝜇𝑔

𝜇𝑔 = 𝜇2𝑓 = (1.33)2 = 1.76

If the refractive index of the glass is equal to 1.76, then the thin film acts as a best anti
reflection coating.
15.A glass microscope lens is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ=1.38) film to increase the
transmission of normally incident light of wavelength 6800 Å. What is minimum film
thickness needed for optimum result? (2M) [Summer-11]
Ans: Given: λ=6800 Å
µf = 1.38
t min . =?

λ
Solution: 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 4𝜇
𝑓

6800Å
=
4 × 1.38
= 1231.88 Å

16. Find the thickness of water film with refractive index of 1.33 formed on a glass
windowpane to act as non-reflecting film. Given λ=5500 Å. (2M)
[Summer-13]
Ans: Given: λ= 5500Å
µf = 1.33
tmin . = ?
λ 5500Å
Solution: 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 4𝜇𝑓
= 4×1.33
= 1033 Å

17. A glass microscope lens (μ = 1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ =1.30) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light (λ = 5800 Å). What minimum film
thickness should be deposited on the lens? (3M) [Summer-14]
Ans: Given: λ= 5800 Å
µf = 1.3,
tmin . = ?

λ
Solution: 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓

5800Å
= = 1051 Å
4 × 1.3

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 Applied Physics

28. What is the minimum number of lines per cm in a 2.5 cm wide grating which will just
resolve the two sodium lines (5890 A and 5896 A) in the second order spectrum.

Ans: Given: D1 = 5890Å,

D2 = 5896Å,
Width of grating = 2.5 cm
Order of spectrum = 2
Number of lines per cm =?

λ
Solution: R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N
λ 5893
or N = = = 491
𝑛𝑑𝜆 2×6

491
Number of lines per cm = 2.5
= 196

29.A grating has 2.5cm of the surface ruled with 5000lines/cm. i) What is the resolving power
of the grating in first, second and third order? ii) If another grating has 6000 lines/cm
compare the results. Give your conclusions.
Ans: (i) Given: Number of lines /cm = 5000
Width of grating = 2.5 cm
n = 1,2,3.
R.P. =?
Solution: Total number of lines on grating ‘N’ = 2.5 × 5000 =12500
λ
R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N
For n =1, R.P.= 1× 12500 = 12500
For n =2, R.P.= 2×12500 = 25000
For n =3, R.P.= 3× 12500 = 37500

(ii) Number of lines /cm = 6000

Total number of lines on grating ‘N’ = 2.5 × 6000 =15000
λ
Since R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N

For n =1, R.P.= 1× 15000 = 15000

For n =2, R.P.= 2×15000 = 30000
For n =3, R.P.= 3×15000 = 45000
As the number of lines /cm is increased, the resolving power of grating increases.

1.25. EXERCISE
1. A 500nm thick oil film in air is illuminated by white light in the direction perpendicular to the
film. What wavelengths will be absent in the reflected light in the wavelength range 300-700nm?
(Take μ=1.46 for oil)
Ans: 486.6nm and 365nm
2. Calculate the thickness of a soap film that results constructive interference in reflected light, if the
film is illuminated with light of wavelength 6000A 0 . Refractive index of soap film is 1.46.
0
Ans: t min=1027A

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 Applied Physics

3. Light of wavelength 6000A0 falls normally on a thin wedge- shaped film of refractive index 1.4,
forming fringes that are 2mm apart. Find the angle of wedge.
Ans: θ=1.071x10-4 rad
4. A glass wedge of angle 0.01 rad is illuminated by monochromatic light of 6000A 0 falling normally
on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge will the 10 th fringe be observed by reflected
light.
Ans:3x10-4 m
5. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in thin glass wedge of refractive index 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm. Wavelength of light being 5893A0 . Calculate wedge angle.
Ans: θ=1.93x10-3 radians
6. In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of 20 th dark ring changes from 1.5cm to 1.39 cm, when
a liquid is introduced between the lens and the glass plate. Calculate the refractive index of the
liquid.
Ans: µ=1.16
7. In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of 10 th dark ring due to wavelength 6000A0 in air is 0.5
cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens. (3M) [Winter-16]
Ans: R=1.04 m
8. In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the nth ring and (n+14) th rings are 4.2 mm and 7
mm respectively. Radius of plano- convex lens is 1m. Calculate the wavelength of light used.
9. Ans: λ=5600A0 (3M) [Winter-17]
In Newton's rings experiment, diameter of the 5th ring is 0.336 cm and the diameter of 15th ring is
0.590 cm. find the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens if the wavelength of light used is 5890
Å.
Ans.99.83Å (3M) [WINTER-15]
10. An engineer is interested in enhancing the transmission of light incident on a glass lens. Explain
how this can be achieved using the following thin films (i) MgF 2 (µ=1.38) (ii) ZnS (µ=2.37)
Assume λ=5500A0 and µ for lens = 1.5.
Ans: As refractive index of MgF 2 is closer to the refractive index of glass, it is suitable for
anti-reflection coating and its minimum thickness must be t min= 9.16x10-8 m
11. A thin film of cryolite (µ=1.35) is applied to a common lens. The coating is designed to reflect at
blue end of the visible spectrum and transmit wavelength at the near IR. What should be the
minimum thickness of the film to be given to the lens to transmit light at 8000Å?
Ans.1481Å (3M) [Summer-18]
12. A material having an index of refraction of 1.32 is used to coat a piece of glass. What should be
the minimum thickness of this film in order to minimize reflected light at a wavelength of 700
nm?
Ans.132.57 nm (3M)[Winter-18]
13. A glass microscope lens (μ = 1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ =1.30) film to increase the
transmission of normally incident light (λ = 5800 Å). What minimum film thickness should be
deposited on the lens?
Ans.1051Å (3M)[Winter-14]

14. A plane transmission grating has a total of 40000 lines with a grating element of 1.45 nm.
Calculate the maximum resolving power for which it can be used in the range of 550 nm
wavelength.
Ans. 80000
15. Calculate the least width of a plane transmission grating that has 500 lines/cm, which would just
resolve the two lines of the sodium doublets in second order spectra.
Ans. 0.98 cm

1.26. REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by interference of light?

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 Applied Physics

2. What are the necessary conditions on the path difference and phase difference between
two waves that interfere (a) constructively(b) destructively?
3. Explain the two methods of obtaining interference pattern.
4. State the conditions for obtaining steady/stationary interference pattern.
5. What is thin film.
6. Explain the conditions required to observe interference in thin films.
7. Explain what happens when –
(a)Monochromatic light is incident normally on the uniform thin film
(b)White light is incident on the uniform thin film.
8. Write the condition for maxima and minima due to interference of reflected light in thin
film of uniform thickness. Why the film should be thin.
9. Write an expression for path difference in thin film of constant thickness. Obtain the
conditions for dark and bright fringes of interference pattern.
10. What is thin film? Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film. How
this phenomenon is used in determining the thickness of a thin wire.
11. Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film. How it is used for
testing the optically flat surface.
12. Derive the expression for wedge angle in case of wedge-shaped thin film.
13. Give any two applications of interference in wedge shape thin film in detail.
14. Why circular fringes are obtained in Newton’s rings experiment? Why are these fringes
called fringes of equal thickness?
15. In Newton’s ring experiment, why:
(a)The plano-convex lens has large radius of curvature?
(b)The rings get closer away from the centre.
(c) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.
(d) Fringes are circular.
16. Explain the formation of Newton’s rings with a neat diagram.
17. In Newton’s ring experiment why the rings are crowded away from the centre?
18. In Newton’s ring experiment, if light of red colour is used first and then blue light. Which
set of rings would have a larger diameter and greater spacing between them?
19. How Newton’s ring experiment can be used to determine refractive index of liquid?
20. Give any three applications of Newton’s rings experiment in detail.
21. Draw appropriate diagrams illustrating interference in following cases. Label the
interfering rays and write down the expression for optical path difference for
(a)Constant thickness film.
(b)Wedge shaped thin film.
(c)Newton’s ring experiment
22. Why are the lenses coated with the thin film to improve the transmission of light?
23. What is anti-reflection coating? Obtain the amplitude and phase conditions of such a
coating.
24. Explain antireflection coating. Obtain the condition for minimum thickness of such a
coating.
25. Where do these anti reflection coatings find applications? Explain.
26. Explain any two advanced application of interference in thin films.
27. Define diffraction.
28. Explain the essential difference between interference and diffraction.
29. What is a diffraction grating? Define grating element.
30. Define and write the expression for resolving power of the diffraction grating.
31. What is the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

33