R2 R3 + R1R2

Ra − Rc = (5-19)
R1 + R2 + R3

subtracting Equation (5-19) from Equation (5-14) gives:

2 R1 R2
2 Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3

R1R2
 Rc = (5-20)
R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore, the equivalent star resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of
the two delta arm resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the sum of the delta
resistances.

5-7-2 Star-delta transformation

We can now consider how to substitute a star connected circuit of Figure 5-19 (b) by the
equivalent delta-connected circuit of Figure 5-19 (a). Dividing Equation (5-16) by Equation (5-
18) gives:

Ra R
= 2
Rb R1
Ra
 R2 = R1 (5-21)
Rb
also, dividing Equation (5-16) by Equation (5-20) gives:
Ra R
= 3
Rc R1
Ra
 R3 = R1 (5-22)
Rc
substituting the values of R2 from Equation (5-21) and R3 from Equation (5-22) into Equation (5-
16) gives:
R12 Ra 2
Ra =
 RR RR 
Rb Rc  R1 + 1 a + 1 a 
 Rb Rc 

107
 R12 Ra 2
=
R1 ( Rb Rc + Ra Rc + Ra Rb )

hence R1 Ra = Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra

therefore:
Rb Rc
R1 = Rb + Rc + (5-23)
Ra

similarly it can be shown that,

Ra Rc
R2 = Ra + Rc + (5-24)
Rb

Ra Rb
and R3 = Ra + Rb + (5-25)
Rc

Therefore, the equivalent delta resistance connected between two terminals is the sum of the two
star resistances connected to those terminals plus the product of the same two star connected
resistances divided by the third star resistance.

Example 5-5

Find the source current (Is) in the circuit shown in Figure 5-20 using star delta transformation.

108
 A

5

Is

50 
100V B C

10 

Figure 5-20: Circuit diagram for example 5-5

Solution

Replace the delta resistances of terminals ABC by their equivalent star connected resistance as in
Figure 5-21
The star connected resistance can be evaluated by using Equations (5-16), (5-18) and (5-20).

200  250
 Ra =  = 100 
500

250  50
 Rb =  = 25 
500

200  50
 Rc =  = 20 
500

109
 A

5 Ra

N
Is

Rb Rc

100V
B C

45  50 

10 
D

Figure 5-21: Circuit diagram of example 5-5 delta-star transformation

from Figure 5-21 we can deduce that:

RND = ( RNB + RBD ) ( RNC + RCD )

= ( 25 + 45 ) ( 20 + 50 ) 
= 35 
hence the equivalent resistance connected across the source Req is:

Req = 5  + 100  + 35  + 10  = 150 

E 100 V
 Is = = = 0.67 A
Req 150 

5-8 The Voltage - Divider Principle

There are times, especially in electronic circuit, when it is necessary to develop more than one
voltage level from a single supply voltage. This can be done by the circuit shown in Figure 5-21.

110
The circuit can be analysed by a direct application of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, that is:

E = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (5-26)

I
1

R1 V1

R2 V2

E 3

R3 V3

R4 V4

Figure 5-22: Circuit diagram showing voltage divider principle

E = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4

E = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 )
E
 I=
R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
now we can use Ohm's law to calculate any voltage, let as pick V1

E
 V1 = IR1 = R1
R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
V1 R1
hence = (5-27)
E R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
similarly:

119
 V2 R2
= (5-28)
E R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
V3 R3
= (5-29)
E R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

V4 R4
and = (5-30)
E R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

dividing Equation (5-27) by Equation (5-30), gives:

V1 R1
= (5-31)
V4 R4
similarly:
V1 R
= 1
V2 R2

V1 R
= 1
V3 R3

V2 R
= 2
V4 R4

and so on.

Therefore, for a series circuit, the ratio between any two voltage drops is the same as the ratio of the
two resistance across which these voltage drops occur. This is referred to as the voltage-divider
principle.

Example 5-6

In Figure 5-23 find:

(a) No load voltage Vo
(b) Load voltage Vo, when load resistance RL = 500 k
(c) The power dissipated in the 50 k resistor if the load resistance in accidentally short
circuited, that is, RL = 0 

Solution:

120
 50k 

E = 100V

100k  Vo R L

Figure 5-23:Circuit diagram for example 5-6

(a) Use voltage-divider principle gives:

Vo 100 k
=
E ( 50 + 100 ) k

 100 
Vo = 100 V   = 66.67 V
 150 
(b) When RL = 500  , the resistance across Vo is :

100  500
Ro = 100 k 500  = k = 83.3 k
100 + 500

therefore using voltage-divider principle gives:

Vo 83.3 k
 =
E ( 50 + 83.3) k
 100 
Vo = 100 V   = 62.5 V
 150 

(c) when RL = 0 , then Ro = ( 50 k 0 k ) = 0 

Vo 0
 =
E 0 + 50 k

Vo = 0 V

121
Therefore, the voltage across 50 k resistor is 100 V. Hence, the power dissipated in 50 k is
given as:

V 2 (100 V )
2

P= = = 0.2 W
R 50 k

5-9 The Current-Divider Principle

The current-divider principle state that in a parallel circuit, the ratio between any two branch current
is the same as the ratio of conductances which these corresponding currents flow.

To translate the current-divider principle into useful algebraic equation, we will use the fact that the
voltage across nodes A and B, that is, V is common (see Figure 5-24) for the n parallel resistor,
therefore,

V = I1 R1 = I 2 R2 = I 3 R3 = ... = I x Rx = ... = I n Rn (5-32)

I1 R2 G1 I R G
= = hence x = n = x (5-33)
I 2 R1 G2 I n RN Gn

I1 I2 I3 Ix In

R1 R2 R3 Rx Rn V

Figure 5-24:Circuit diagram showing current - divide principle

Example 5-7

122
 Is 2.25  A I2 2.6  I4
B

I1 I3

12V 15  6 4

Figure 5-25: Circuit diagram for example 5-7

Find the current through 4  resistor in Figure 5-25.

Figure 5-25 can be reduced to Figure 5-26 by combining the parallel resistors of 4  and 6  , to
RBC.

Is 2.25  A 2.6 
B

12V 15  R BC

Figure 5-26: Simplification of figure 5-25

where RBC = 4  6 

 RBC = 2.4 

therefore,

123
 RAC = 15  ( RAB + RBC )
= 15  5 
15  5
= 
15 + 5
RAC = 3.75 
hence the resistance across the voltage source is:

RS = 2.25  + RAC = 3.75  + 2.25  = 6 

therefore the source current is:
12 V
IS = =2A
6
By current-divider principle we can write:

I 2 RAB + RBC 5 
= =
IS RS 6

5
I2 = IS   A
6
I S = 1.67 A
by current-divider principle

I4 4 4
= =
I 2 RAB + RBC 6 

4
I 4 = I 2   A = 1.11 A
6

5-10 Loop or Mesh Analysis Method

For any given circuit, the number of linear independent simultaneous equation required to solve the
circuit using loop analysis method is

n = B − N +1 (5-34)

where B is the number of branches and N is the number of nodes.

In Figure 5-27 the circuit shown has four nodes, that is, N = 4, and five branches, that is, B = 5.
Thus according to Equation (5-34), two independent equations are required. This is also the same
number of meshes as shown in Figure 5-27. It is important to note that an independent equation is
one that cannot be obtained from the other simultaneous equations through algebraic manipulations.

124
 Ia R R Ib
1 2
1 2 3

Ic

E R E
1 1 3 2 2
I1 I2

Figure 5-27: Circuit diagram showing loops, branch and loop currents

Once the meshes or loops are chosen, the technique itself is simply the application of KVL to each
mesh or loop to obtain the required equations. The objective here is to develop a systematic
procedure with which to write these equations in a straight forward and simple manner.

To develop this procedure, let us first consider the branch currents, Ia Ib and IC in the circuit shown
in Figure 5-27.

Writing KVL for mesh (1) and mesh (2) respectively in the indicated direction, that is, clockwise, we
have:

E1 = I a R1 + I c R3 (5-35)

and E2 = I b R2 + I c R3 (5-36)

using KCL at node 2, we have:

Ic = Ib + Ib
substituting the value of IC into Equations (5-35) and (5-36) gives:
E1 = I a R1 + ( I a + I b ) R3

or E1 = I a ( R1 + R3 ) + I b R3 (5-37)

and E2 = R3 ( I a + I b ) + I b R2

or E2 = I b ( R2 + R3 ) + I a R3 (5-38)

Clearly, Equations (5-37) and (5-38), for the two meshes, provide the required two equations for the
two unknowns, Ia and Ib. They can then be solved to determine these two branch currents.

To produce a more systematic procedure, each mesh is assumed to allow a fictitious mesh current, I1
and I2 for meshes (1) and (2) in the circuit of Figure 5-27, to flow in this mesh. The systematic

125
procedure also requires that the direction of these mesh currents be the same. These mesh, or in
general loop currents, can easily be related to the real branch currents.

In the case of the circuit of Figure 5-27, we can easily deduce that:

I1 = I a
I 2 = − Ib
substituting the values of Ia and Ib into Equations (5-37) and (5-38) gives:

E1 = I1 ( R1 + R3 ) − I 2 R3 (5-39)

and E2 = − I 2 ( R2 + R3 ) + I1R3

or − E2 = I 2 ( R2 + R3 ) − I1R3 (5-40)

Equations (5-39) and (5-40) are called the mesh (or in general the loop) equations. Solution of these
equations provides the required value of the unknown mesh currents, I1 and I2 in this case. The
different branch currents can then easily be deduced.

The current in an element common between two meshes is the net algebraic sum of the two mesh (or
loop) currents. For example the current IC in Figure 5-27 flowing in resistor R3 is the algebraic sum
of mesh currents I1 and I2, that is:

I c = I1 − I 2

With the loop (or mesh) currents determined and the branch currents identified, the voltage across
and the power in any component can easily be calculated. If the solution results is a negative value
for either mesh or branch current, this means that the real current direction is opposite to the one
assumed.

The systematic procedure outlined above, resulting in the mesh Equations (5-39) and (5-40) can be
generalized by noting that:

R11 = self or total resistance of mesh 1

= R1 + R3 (in Figure 5-27)

R12 = R21 = mutual or common resistance between mesh 1 and mesh 2

= R3 (in Figure 5-27)

R22 = self or total resistance of mesh 2

= R2 + R3 (in Figure 5-27)

126
 E11 = algebraic sum of all the source voltages in mesh 1, driving the mesh current,
I1

= E1 (in Figure 5-27)

E22 = algebraic sum of all the source voltages in mesh 2, driving the mesh current,
I2

= - E2 (in Figure 5-27)

Therefore the general form of the mesh equations for a two-mesh network [with reference to
Equations (5-39) and (5-40)] can be written as follows:

E11 = R11 I1 − R12 I 2 (5-41)

E22 = − R21I1 + R22 I 2 (5-42)

Similarly, one can extend such a systematic procedure to any network with any number of meshes.
For example, for a four-mesh network, the mesh equations are in the form:

E11 = R11 I1 − R12 I 2 − R13 I 3 − R14 I 4

E22 = − R21 I1 + R22 I 2 − R23 I 3 − R24 I 4

E33 = − R31 I1 − R32 I 2 + R33 I 2 − R34 I 4

E44 = − R41 I1 − R42 I 2 − R43 I 3 + R44 I 4

where R11, R22, R33, and R44 are self resistance of meshes 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. E11, E22, E33
and E44 are also the algebraic sums of the voltage sources in meshes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively,
driving the corresponding mesh currents. The mutual or common resistance between each pair of
meshes are clear, that is:

R12 = R21 (mutual resistance between mesh 1 and 2)

R23 = R32 (mutual resistance between mesh 2 and 3)

R34 = R43 (mutual resistance between mesh 3 and 4)

R13 = R31 (mutual resistance between mesh 1 and 3)

R14 = R41 (mutual resistance between mesh 1 and 4)

R24 = R42 (mutual resistance between mesh 2 and 4)

Rules for setting up loop equations:-

127
(i) Choose proper loops, such that at least each loop contain at least one element which wasn't
included in a previous loop.

(ii) All loop currents should be chosen such that they are in one direction (either clockwise or
counterclockwise).

(iii) If no current source is present apply for loops KVL.

(iv) If a current source is present relate the current source with the loop current(s), then treat the
current source as having a voltage drop Vi. Set up loop equations and apply KVL and KCL
for the loops (see examples 5-9 and 5-10).

Example 5-8

In circuit 5-27 if E1 = 12 V , E2 = 24 V , R1 = R2 = 3  , and R3 = 6  . Find the current through R3.

Solution

Using Equation (5-41) and (5-42) for loop I and loop II respectively gives:

9 I1 − 6 I 2 = 12 V (i)
−6 I1 + 9 I 2 = −24 V (ii)

2
multiply Equation (i) by 3 throughout gives:

6 I1 − 4 I 2 = 8 V (iii)

adding Equations (ii) and (iii) gives:

0 + 5I 2 = −16
 I 2 = −3.2 A
Substituting the value of I2 into Equation (iii) gives:
6 I1 − 4 ( −3.2 ) = 8 V
 I1 = −0.8 A
Therefore, the current through 6  resistor IC is:

I c = I1 − I 2

= −0.8 − ( −3.2 )

I c = 2.4 A

Example 5-9

128
 3 3

Ic

12V 6 II
24V
I
I I
1 2

Figure 5-28: Circuit diagram of example 5-8

Find the current delivered by 7 volts source in Figure 5-29.

Solution
By inspection the current source current equal I1 minus I3, that is,

7 A = I1 - I3 (i)

KVL around loop A-C-B-A

0 = - I1 + 6I2 - 3I3 (ii)

KVL around loop A-B-D-A

7 = 3I1 - I2 - 2 I3 + Vi (iii)

KVL around loop B-C-D-B

0 = - 2I1 - 3I2 + 6I3 - Vi (iv)

adding Equations (iii) and (iv) eliminates Vi, therefore:

7 = I1 - 4I2 + 4I3 (v)

129
 A

1 I2 2

B C
3
7V
7A

I1
2 I3 1

Figure 5-29: Circuit diagram of example 5-9

B C

7V
7A Vi

Figure 5-30: Circuit diagram of example 5-9 showing how to represent the voltage drop across
the current source

Equation (i), (ii) and (v) can be re-written in matrix form as;

130
 7 0 −1
0 6 −3
7 −4 4
I1 =
1 0 −1
−1 6 −3
1 −4 4
by using Crammer's rule we can solve for I1, that is;

7 ( 24 − 12 ) − 0 + ( −1)( 0 − 42 ) 
I1 =  =9 A
1( 24 − 12 ) − 0 + ( −1)( 4 − 6 ) 

hence the current delivered by the voltage source is 9 A.

Example 5 - 10
Using loop analysis find the currents following through a 3 ohm resistor and 4 ohm resistor in Figure
5-31.
Solution:

The solution can be simplified by re-drawing Figure 5-31 as Figure 5-32

By inspection:

2 3
A B C

10V 4 5A 5

Figure 5-31: Circuit diagram of example 5-10

I3 = 5 A (i)

131
 2 3
A B C

10V 4 5 5A

I1
I
2 I3

Figure 5-32: Simplification of figure 5-31

KVL around loop A-B-D-A gives:

6 I1 - 4 I2 = 10 (ii)

KVL around loop B-C-D-B gives:

- 4I1 + 12I2 - 5I3 = 0 (iii)

Equations (i), (ii) and (iii) can be re-written in matrix form as:

0 0 1   I1   5 
 6 −4 0   I 2  = 10 (iv)

 −4 12 −5  I 3   0 

by using Crammer's rule we can solve for I2, that is:

0 5 1
6 10 0
−4 0 −5 190
I2 = = A = 3.39 A
0 0 1 56
6 −4 0
−4 12 −5

hence the current through the 3  resistor is I2 = 3.39 A flowing from node B to node C.

132
By using Crammer's rule we can also solve for I1, that is:

5 0 1
10 −4 0
0 12 −5 220
I1 = = A = 3.93 A
0 0 1 56
6 −4 0
−4 12 −5

hence, the current through 4  resistor is ( I1 − I 2 ) = 0.54 A flowing from node B to node D.

5-11 Nodal Analysis Method

In section 5-10 we described the technique of analysing electric circuits using mesh or loop currents
as the unknown variables. In this section we shall introduce another technique of analysing electric
circuits by using node voltages as the unknown variables. This technique is based on the application
of KCL at the various nodes in a given circuit. The aim of solving the circuit by this method is to
determine the nodal voltages by writing a set of node equations. These equations can be obtained
systematically if one node is established to be a reference node. Then, all other node voltages in the
circuit are designated with respect to the reference node.

If a given circuit has n nodes, the reference is usually chosen to be the one with the largest number of
branches connected to it. This choice simplifies the solution because it avoids writing KCL equation
at this (reference) node. For convenience, the voltage of this (reference) node is taken to be zero.

(a) (b)

Figure 5-33: Symbol used to indicate a reference node

The reference node can be indicated using either symbol (a) or symbol (b) in Figure 5-33. However,
this book will use symbol (a) of Figure 5-33 exclusively.

133
The nodes are assigned either numbers or symbols and a single subscripted notations will be used to
indicate node voltages, all with respect to the chosen common reference point (node). It is then
required to write (n - 1) KCL equations at the different nodes in terms of (n - 1) unknown node
voltages and solve the resulting linear simultaneous equation to determine the value of the
unknowns.

R R
1 3
Va Vb Vc

a b c
I ab I cb

I da
I bd R I cd R I1
E 2 4
1

Figure 5-34: Circuit diagram showing Node - Voltage designation

It is possible, to express the voltage between any pair of nodes in terms of the nodal voltages of these
two nodes. Suppose we wish to determine the voltage between points b and c on Figure 5-34, that is,
Vbc. Then Vbc = Vb - Vc similarly, the voltage Vcb is equal to Vc - Vb. Thus we can see that if an
element is connected between a node and the reference node, the voltage across it is the node
voltage. However, if an element is connected between two non-reference nodes, the voltage across
the element is the difference of the node voltages.

Consider, for example, the circuit in Figure 5-34. There are four nodes in this circuit, Node d has
most branches connected to it (four). It is therefore assigned as the reference node. Therefore, it is
assigned zero potential, that is Vd = 0. Nodes a, b, and c are chosen as indicated, with the node
voltage Va, Vb and Vc being the voltages at these three nodes, respectively, with respect to the
ground reference node d. Applying KCL at node b provides:

I bd = I ab + I cb

Vb Va − Vb Vc − Vb
hence = + (5-43)
R2 R1 R3
note Vd = 0

similarly, applying KCL at node c gives:

134
 I1 = I cb + I cd

Vc − Vb Vc
hence I1 = + (5-44)
R3 R4

By inspection on node a gives:

Va = E1 (5-45)

Rearranging Equations (5-43) and (5-44) and using conductances instead of the resistances of the
element yields.

0 = G1Va − ( G1 + G2 + G3 )Vb + G3Vc (5-46)

I1 = −G3Vb + ( G3 + G4 )Vc (5-47)

1 1 1
where G1 = , G2 = and G3 = .
R1 R2 R3
If I1, E1, R1, R2 and R3 are known, then, by solving the simultaneous Equations 5-45 to 5-47 the
three unknown nodal voltages can be found. Once the nodal voltages are determined, the branch
currents can also be determined.

Equations 5-45 to 5-47 can be generalized and expressed in the matrix form shown below:

 Gaa −Gab −Gac  Va   I aa 

 −G Gbb −Gbc  Vb  =  I bb  (5-48)
 ba
 −Gca −Gcb Gcc  Vc   I cc 

where Gii = sum of the conductance of all the elements connected directly between node i and the
other nodes in the network. These terms are referred to as self conductance of the
nodes.

Gij = Gji = sum of the conductance of the elements connected directly between nodes
i and j. These terms are referred to as mutual - conductance of the nodes.

Iii = algebraic sum of all the current sources entering node i.

The procedure can then easily be extended to any network with n number of nodes. Once the node
simultaneous equations are obtained, then they can be solved by any method e.g. Crammer's rule to
find the values of the nodal voltages.

135
Example 5-11

In Figure 5-34, if E1 = 12 V, R1 = R2 = 4 , R3 = 5 , R4 = 2  and I1 = 4 A .

Find the current Icb and Ibd.

Solution

From Equation (5-45)we can write:

Va = 12 V (i)

From Equation (5-46) we can write:

1 1 1 1 1
0= Va −  + + Vb + Vc
4  4 4 5 5

0 = 0.25Va − 0.7Vb + 0.2Vc (ii)

substituting the value of Va from Equation (i) into Equation (ii) and re-arranging gives:

−3 = −0.7Vb + 0.2Vc (iii)

from Equation (5-47) we can write:

1 1 1
−4 = − Vb +  + Vc
5 5 4

4 = −.2Vb + 0.45Vc (iii)

using Crammer's rule to solve for Vb from Equations (iii) and (iv) gives:

136
 4 0.45
−3 0.2
Vb =
−0.2 0.45
−0.7 0.2

4  0.2 + 3  0.45
=
−0.2  0.2 + 0.7  0.45

Vb = 7.82 V

substituting the value of Vb into Equation (iv) gives:

4 = −0.2  7.82 + 0.45Vc (iv)

Vc = 12.36 V

Vb 7.82 V
hence Ibd = =
R2 4
= 1.95 A
V −V
and I cb = c b
R3
12.36 − 7.82 V
=
5 Ω
= 0.91 A

Example 5-12

Use nodal method to find the current through a 3 ohm resistor in Figure 5-31.

Solution
by inspection we can write:

Va = 10 V
KCL at node B gives:

Va − Vb Vc − Vb Vb
0= + −
2 3 4

which can be simplified to:

0 = 0.5Va − 1.083Vb + 0.333Vc (i)

substituting the value of Va into Equation (i) and rearranging gives:

137
 5 = 1.083Vb − 0.333Vc (ii)

KCL at node C gives:

Vc − Vb Vc
0= + +5 A
3 5
−5 = −0.333Vb + 0.533Vc (iii)

Va 2 Vb 3 Vc

A B C

10V 4 5A 5

Figure 5-35: Circuit diagram of example 5-12

Equations (ii) and (iii) can be arranged into matrix form; that is:

 1.083 −0.333 Vb   5 

 −0.333 0.533  V  =  −5 (iv)
  c  

using Crammer's rule to solve for Vb from Equation (iv) gives:

5 −0.333
−0.333 0.533
Vb =
1.083 −0.333
−0.333 0.533

= 2.14 V
substituting the value of Vb into Equation (iii) gives:

138
 −5 = −0.333  2.14 + 0.533Vc (iii)

Vc = −8.04 V

Vb − Vc
I bc =
3

2.14 V − ( −8.04 V )
I cb =
3

= 3.39 A

which is similar to the value we found when we analysed the same circuit using mesh analysis
method.

Alternative solution
The voltage source in Figure 5-31 can first be changed to an equivalent current source, and then we
can use Equation (5-48) to solve for nodal voltages.

Then using Equation 5-48, where:

Vb 3 Vc

B C

5A 2 4 5  5A

Figure 5-36: The equivalent circuit of figure 5-31 with the voltage source replaced by an
equivalent current source

139
 1 1 1
Gbb =  + +  s = 1.083 s
 2 4 3

1 1
Gcc =  +  s = 0.533 s
3 5

1
Gbc = Gcb = s = 0.333 s
3

while I bb = 5 A

I cc = 5 A

hence Equation 5-48 will be:

 1.083 −0.333 Vb  5

 −0.333 0.533  V  = 5 (v)
  c  

note that Equations (iv) and (v) are identical hence we can deduce that I cb = 2.0 A .

Example 5-13

Find the current through the voltage source in Figure 5-37.

Va 2 10V Vb

A B

20A 4 5  10A

Figure 5-37: Circuit diagram of example 5-13

Solution

140
The voltage source can be converted to the equivalent current source model, between nodes A and B
as shown in Figure 5-38.
where:
1 1
Gaa = self conductance at node A = + = 0.75 s
4 2

1 1
Gbb = self conductance at node B = + = 0.7 s
5 2

1
Gab = Gba = self conductance at node A and B = s = 0.5 s
2

I aa = ( 20 − 5 ) A = 15 A

I bb = ( 5 + 10 ) A = 15 A

5A

VA 2 VB

A B

20A 4 5 10A

Figure 5-38: Equivalent circuit of figure 5-37

Therefore, based on the general form of the Equation 5-48, the two nodal voltage equation in matrix
form are:

 0.75 −0.5 Va  15

=
 −0.5
 0.7  Vb  15
using Crammer's rule to solve for Va and Vb respectively gives:

141
 15 −0.5
15 0.7
Va =
0.75 −0.5
−0.5 0.7

= 65.45 V

0.75 15
−0.5 15
Vb =
0.75 −0.5
−0.5 0.7

= 68.18 V
To find the current in the voltage source, the original circuit of Figure 5-37 is revisited, with the
node voltages now determined and noting that:

V1 = Vb − 10 = 68.18 − 10 = 58.18 V
then the current through the voltage source is given by:

Va − V1 ( 65.45 − 58.18 )
= V
2 2

= 3.64 A
hence the current through the voltage source is 3.64 A from node A to node B.

142
Questions:

5-1 Find the current through R2 in Figure 5-39 using Kirchhoff's laws.

R1 I1 R3
B I3 C
A
5 I 2 10 

10 V R2 20  27 V

Figure 5-39
.
5-2 Find the current through R2 in Figure 5-39 using superposition theorem.

5-3 Find the current through R2 in Figure 5-39 using loop analysis.

5-4 Find the current through R2 in Figure 5-39 using nodal analysis.

5-5 Use nodal analysis to determine the current through 10  resistor in Figure 5-40.

10 
A B

20 V

20 
5

Figure 5-40

5-6 State Kirchhoff's laws as applied to an electrical circuit.

Two batteries A and B are joined in parallel. Connected across the battery terminals is a

143
 circuit consisting of a battery C in series with a 25 resistor, the negative terminal of C
being connected to the positive terminals of A and B. Battery A has an e.m.f. of 110 volts
and an internal resistance of 3Ω and the corresponding values for battery B are 120 volts and
2Ω. Battery C has an e.m.f. of 50 volts and an internal resistance of 5 Ω. Determine;
(a) the value and direction of the current in each battery,
(b) the terminal voltage of battery A.

5-7 Use mesh analysis to calculate the current in the 3 volts and 4 volts sources in the network
shown in Figure 5-41.

4 8V

1 3V 2

4V
5A

3 5

Figure 5-41

5-8 Use superposition theorem to calculate the current in the 3 volts and 4 volts sources in the
network shown in Figure 5-41.

5-9 Using nodal analysis, find the voltages across the 3 Ω and 5 Ω resistors in the network
shown in Figure 5-41.

5-10 Obtain the value of the current I in Figure 5-42 using superposition theorem.

5-11 Obtain the value of the current I in Figure 5-42 using nodal analysis method.

144
 2 6V
a b

8A 6 2A
8

Figure 5-42

5-12 A car battery has an open-circuit voltage of 24 V and an internal resistance of 20Ω.
Calculate:
(a) The load resistance for maximum power transfer,
(b) the maximum power transfer,
(c) If the load resistance is increased to 150% of the value corresponding to maximum
power transfer, what would be the power absorbed by the load and terminal voltage
of the battery.

5-13 Using Thévenin theorem in Figure 5-43 calculate:

(a) The current I if RL = 10Ω,
(b) the maximum power that can be delivered in RL .

40  10  P I

12 V I 40  II 30  III RL

I1 I2 I3

Figure 5-43

5-14 Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in Figure 5-44 (to the left of
points a and b). Use this result to obtain the value of the current I in the 10Ω resistor. What
should be the value of this resistor (if it was variable) to obtain maximum power transfer and

145
 what is the value of this maximum power?

5-15 Find the Thévenin equivalent for the network shown in Figure 5-45 to the left of points a and
b. Use this result to calculate V and I.

5  20  40V
a

50V 15  10A 10 

Figure 5-44

5A

1 4.5  9V
a
I

5
3

2 4 V
2V
3V

Figure 5-45

5-16 Solve problem 5-15 using Norton's equivalent circuit model.

5-17 In Figure 5-46 find the current through 7 Ω resistor by loop analysis.

146
 20 A

I IV
4

A
3 6

10 A I 1 II 4 7
III
I
I 2 I
1 3

B
2 5

Figure 5-46

5-18 In Figure 5-46 find the current through 7Ω resistor by Norton theorem.

5-19 In Figure 5-3 find the current through the 6Ω by superposition theorem.

5-20 In Figure 5-3 find the current through the 6Ω by loop analysis method.

5-21 In Figure 5-35 find the current through the 2Ω by nodal analysis method.

5-22 In Figure 5-35 find the current through the 2Ω by Thévenin analysis method.

5-23 In Figure 5-35 find the current through the 2Ω by superposition theorem.

5-24 In Figure 5-35 find the current through the 2Ω by loop analysis method.

5-25 Use Kirchhoff's laws to determine the current through R5 in terms of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, E1,
E2, and E3 in Figure 5-47.

147
 R2 R4

R1 R3 R5

E1 E2 E3

Figure 5-47

5-26 Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network shown in Figure 5-48 (to the left of points
a and b). Use this result to obtain the value of the current I in the 10 Ω resistor. If a 10Ω
resistor was replaced by a variable resistor, What should be the value of this resistor to
obtain maximum power transfer and what is the value of this maximum power?

5 20  40 V
a

5V 15  10 A 10

Figure 5-48

5-27 By delta star transformation calculate the value of resistance between B and D in Figure 5-
49.

148
 B

5

5 5
A D

5

Figure 5-49

5-28 By the use of delta star transformation find the source current IS in Figure 5-50.

5
5 5
A D

5

Is
C

5.4 V

Figure 5-50

5-29 Using Delta - Star transformation calculate the value of the resistance between nodes A and
C in Figure 5-51. Find also the current supplied by the voltage source.

149
 D

40  C
A

90 V

Figure: 5-51

5-30 For no load conditions find the voltages with respect to ground of nodes A, B, C and D in
Figure 5-52.

25 

35 
E = 100 V
C
10 

D
30 

Figure 5-52

5-31 For no load conditions find the voltages with respect to ground of nodes A, B, C and D in

150
 Figure 5-53.

150 V 250 V

60  30  40  70 

A B C D

Figure 5-53

5-32 (a) What is the output voltage Vout of Figure 5-54

(b) If another resistor with resistance of 66 k Ω is connected to the output terminals of
Figure 5-54, by what percentage has Vout dropped.

33 k

33 mV

330 k
66 k
Vout

Figure 5-54

151