and  connection:

Circuit configuration is often encountered with resistors, which do not appear to be in

series or parallel. Two new circuit configuration have been introduced known as the
star " " connection (also known as wye " Y " connection) and delta "  "
connection as shown in figure 19.

R1

RA RB

R2 R3

RC
(a) " " connection (b) "  " connection

Figure 19. Star and delta connection

Conversion between  and connection:

The purpose of this section is to develop the equations for converting  to and
vice versa. This type of conversion will normally lead to circuit that can be solved
easily.
Referring to figure 20, the expressions for founding R 1, R2 and R3 in terms of RA, RB
and RC and vice versa are:

R1
RA RB
R2 R3

RC
Figure 20

1- delta () to star ( ) conversion: the relationships that replace the delta
connection with the equivalent star connection are:
RA RB
R1 
RA  RB  RC
RA Rc
R2 
RA  RB  RC

14
 RB RC
R3 
RA  RB  RC

Note that each resistance of connection is equal to the product of the resistors
connected to the same terminal divided by the sum of the delta resistors.

2- star ( ) to delta () conversion: the relationships that replace the star connection
with the equivalent delta connection are:
RR
R A  R1  R 2  1 2
R3
RR
R B  R1  R 3  1 3
R2
R R
RC  R2  R3  2 3
R1
Note that each resistance of  connection is equal to the sum of the two star resistors
connected to those terminals, plus the product of the same two star resistors divided
by the third star resistance.

Example 12: Convert the  connection shown in figure 21. (a) to a connection.
Solution:
RA RB 20  10
R1    3.333 
R A  R B  R C 20  30  10
RA RB
RA RC 30  10 10  20 
R2   5
R A  R B  R C 20  30  10
RB RC 20  30 30 
R3    10 
R A  R B  R C 20  30  10 RC
Figure 21. (a)
The equivalent network is shown in figure 21. (b)

3.333  R1

R2 R3
5 10 

Figure 21. (b)

15
Example 13: Convert the connection shown in figure 22. (a) to a  connection.
Solution:
RR 60  40
R A  R 1  R 2  1 2  60  40   220 
R3 20 60  R1
RR 60  20
R B  R 1  R 3  1 3  60  20   110 
R2 40
R R 40  20 R2 R3
R C  R 2  R 3  2 3  40  20   73.333 
R1 60 40  20 
The equivalent network is shown in figure 22. (b) Figure 22. (a)

RA RB
220  110 
73.333 
RC
Figure 22. (b)

Example 14: Find the equivalent resistance between terminals a & b in figure 23
Solution:
Convert the delta connection consist of resistors a
RA = 2 k, RB = 2 k and RC = 1 k 2 k 2 k
to star connection:
RA RB 2 2
R1    0.8  1 k
RA  RB  RC 2  2 1
RA RC 2 1
R2    0.4 
RA  RB  RC 2  2 1
3 k 4 k
RB RC 1 2
R3    0.4  b
RA  RB  RC 2  2 1
Figure 23
By redrawing the circuit we get the diagram shown
In figure 24.
We have R0.4 and R4 in series, so
R0.4 + R4 = 0.4 + 4 = 4.4 k
And, also R0.4 and R3 in series, so
R0.4 + R3 = 0.4 + 3 = 3.4 k

16
Now a
R3.4 // R4.4 = 1.918 k
Req = 1.918 + 0.8 = 2.718 k
0.8 k

0.4 k 0.4 k

Figure 24
3 k 4 k
b

Voltage Divider Rule:

Evaluating the voltage across any resistor in a series cct. Can be simplified by using
the voltage divider rule. The general equation for this rule is:
+
R V R1
Vx  x T [for any resistor R x]
RT
where: R2
Rx: represent a resistor in the combination of the series
VT R3
resistors (where x can be any number from 1 to N).
Vx: the voltage drop across R x.
VT : is the voltage applied across the combination (note RN
that it is not necessary that VT be a source of emf) -

Req: is the equivalent resistance of the combination Figure 25

(Req = R1 + R2 + …… + RN)
and for two or more resistors in the series combination the equation become
R V
Vx  x T
RT
here R' x : is the sum of resistors required to found the voltage across them.
and V' x : is the voltage drop across R' x.

17
Example 15: For the circuit of figure 26, find
1. V1  V1 -  V2 -
2. V2 R1 2  R2 3 
3. V
R3 1 
Solution: E = 40 V
V
R E 2  40 -
1- V1  1   8V R4 4
RT 2  3 1 4
R2  E 3  40
2- V2    12 V
RT 2  3 1 4 Figure 26
(R 3  R 4 )  E (1  4)  40
3- V    20 V
RT 2  3 1 4
Current Divider Rule:
The evaluating of a current through a combination of resistors connected in parallel,
can be found by using the current divider rule. The general equation for this rule is:
R eq I T
Ix  IT
Rx
where: R1 R2 R3 RN
Rx: Represent a resistance in which its required
to find the current through it and x can be
any number from 1 to N.
Ix: The current through the branch of Rx Figure 27

IT : Is the total current enter to the combination of the

Parallel resistors
Req: Is the equivalent of the parallel resistors

Example 16: Find I1 and I2 in cct of figure 28.

I1 4.5 
Solution:
R eq I T I=8A 9
I1 
R 4.5
3
Req = R4.5 // R9 // R3 = 1.5 I2
Figure 28
1.5  8
I1   2.667 A
4.5
R eq I T 1.5  8
I2    4A
R3 3

18
For two resistors only in parallel, as shown in figure 29. The general form of the rule
can be simplified to the following expression. IT
R y IT Ix Iy
Ix 
Rx  Ry Rx Ry
If we assume that Rx = 30, Ry = 60
and IT = 9A, then
R y IT 60  9 Figure 29
Ix    6A
R x  R y 60  30

Example 17: for the cct. shown in figure 30 (a), calculate

1- Io. 20 
2- The power dissipated in the 14 resistor.
Io 3  5
Solution
1- R20 and R5 are in parallel
R20 // R5 = 4 (figure 30 (b)) 33 V
6 18  14 
Now, R4 and R14 are in series
R14 // R4 = 18 (figure 30 (c))
Figure 30 (a)
The three resistors R6, R18 and R18 Io 3  4
are in parallel
R6 // R18 // R18 = 3.6 (figure 30 (d))
V 33 33 V 6 18 
Io    5A 14 
R eq 3  3.6
2- returning to figure 30 (c) Figure 30 (b)
Io 3 
R eq I o 3.6  5
I18    1A
R 18 18
since R18 is consist of R4 and R14, 33 V 6 18  18 
so, the current passing through
R14 is the as that passing through
R18. Figure 30 (c)
P = I2 R = (1)2 × 14 = 14 watt. Io 3

33 V 3.6 

Figure 30 (d)

19
Kirchhoff's Current Law:
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) stated that the algebraic sum of the current entering
to a node must equal the sum of current leaving the node. In equation form
 I entering   I leaving A
I1 = 4
3A =
So in figure 31. I5
I1 + I3 + I5 = I2 + I4 I4 = 3 A
3+4+4=8+3
11 = 11 I2 = 8 A

I3 = 4 A
Figure 31

Example 18: Find the currents I3 and I5 in figure 32.

Solution:

I1 = 3A
For node 1

?
=
I2 + I3 = I1 + I4

I5
I2 = 4A I4 = 3A
4 + I3 = 3 + 3 Node 1
Node 2

 I3 = 2A Rx I6

I3 = ?
=
5A

For node 2
Figure 32
I4 + I5 = I6
3 + I5 = 5
 I5 = 2A
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law:
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) stated that the algebraic sum of the potential rises
and drops around a closed loop (or path) is zero. In equation form
 
V 0 R1  3 
+ V1 -
Applying (KVL) to the circuit of figure 33.
+ V2 -

18 – (3  2) – (6  2) = 0 18 V R2  6 

I = 2A
Figure 33

20
Example 19: Satisfy KVL on the circuit shown in figure 34 – (a), if the total current
in the circuit equal to 1.4A.
20 V
R1  1 
Solution:
The voltage drop across
R1 = 1.4  1 = 1.4 V R4  3  R2  4 
R2 = 1.4  4 = 5.6 V
R3 = 1.4  2 = 2.8 V
R4 = 1.4  3 = 4.2 V R3  2 
6V

applying KVL to the circuit Figure 34 – (a)

20 – 1.4 – 5.6 – 2.8 – 6 – 4.2 = 0 20 V
R1
+ 1.4 -

+ 5.6 -
+ 4.2 -
R4 R2
- 2.8 +

R3
6V
Figure 34 – (b)

Example 20: using Kirchhoff's law, calculate the current in each branch of the circuit
shown in figure 35.
I1 a I2
Solution:
E1 I3
Applying KVL to the loop formed 6V E2 4V
from E1, R1 and R
R  10
6 – 10 I3 – 2 I1 = 0 ………… (1)
R1  2  R2  3 
Applying KCL to node (a)
I3 = I1 + I2 ………………… (2) Figure 35

Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get

6 – 10 (I1 + I2) – 2 I1 = 0
12 I1 + 10 I2 = 6 …………… (3)
Similarly, applying KVL to the loop formed from E1, R1, E2 and R2
6 – 4 + 3 I2 – 2 I1 = 0
2 I1 – 3 I2 = 2 …………… (4)
Solving equations (3) and (4) we get
I1 = 0.6786 A
I2 = – 0.2143 A
I3 = 0.4643 A

21
Circuit Analysis Technique:
Up to this point we have been able to analyze relatively simple resistive circuit. By
the intelligent application of Kirchhoff's laws in combination with Ohm's law. This
approach can be used for all circuit, but as the circuits become structurally more
complicated and involve more and more elements, we will soon find this direct
method quite cumbersome. Powerful technique of circuit analysis have been
introduced that facilitate the analysis of complex circuit.
Before preceding to these technique we must understanding the following terms:
1- A – node – is a point in a circuit where two or more circuit element join. It will be
found that it is convenient to identify only those nodes in the circuit that join three
or more elements, which will be referred as essential nodes.
2- A closed path or loop, is created by starting at a selected node and then tracing
through a set of connected basic circuit element in such a manner that we return to
the original starting node without passing through any intermediate node more
than once.
3- A mesh is a special type of loop; that is, it doesn't contain any other loops within
it.
4- A branch is a path that connects two nodes. Also it will be found that it is
convenient to identify only those branches that connect essential node which will
be refereed as essential branches.
For the circuit shown in figure 36, there are
a. Seven nodes (a, b, c, d, e, f and g).
b. Four essential nodes (b, c, e and g).
c. Four meshes (V1 – R1 – R5 – R3 – R2; V2 – R2 – R3 – R6 – R4; R5 – R7 – R6; and
R7 – I). Note that there are several loops that are not meshes. For example (V1
– R1 – R5 – R6 – R4 – V2) is a closed loop but it is not a mesh because other
closed loop can be found within it.
d. Seven essential branches (V1 – R1; R2 – R3; V2 – R4; R5; R7; I). Also note that
there are several branches that are note essential like (R 2).
a b
R1

V1 R5

d
c e R7 I
R2 R3

V2 R6
R4

f g

Figure 36

22
Source Conversion:
Every source of emf, weather it be a battery or generator will have some internal
resistance. The equivalent circuit of any source of emf will therefore appear as shown
in figure 37 below.

Rint

E Figure 37

A given voltage source V with a series resistance R can be converted into (or
replaced by) an equivalent current source supplying a current equal:
V
I And a resistance R in parallel with it.
R
a

a
R
I R

V b

b
Figure 38

Similarly a current source of I and a parallel resistance R can be converted into a

voltage source of voltage V = I R and a resistance R in series with it as shown in
figure 38.

23
1- Mesh Current Method:
Example 21: Write the mesh equations for the network shown below.
2

2V
1 4V
I1 I2 I3
3
2V 1 4

Figure 39

Solution:
(1 + 1) I1 – (1) I2 – (0) I3 = 2 – 4
(1 + 2 + 3) I2 – (1) I1 – (3) I3 = 4
(3 + 4) I3 – (3) I2 – (0) I1 = 2
rewrite the above equations:
2 I1 – 1 I2 – 0 I3 = – 2
–1 I1 + 6 I2 – 3 I3 = 4
0 I1 – 3 I2 + 7 I3 = 2
Solving this equations we obtained
I1 = – 0.54 A; I2 = 0.92 A; I3 = 0.678 A.

24
2- Node - Voltage Method:
Example 22: using nodal analysis, determine the potential across the 4  resistor
shown in figure 40.
10 

V1 2 V2 3 V3

3A
6 4

Figure 40

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
     V1 -  V2 -  V3  0
 2 10 6  2 10
 1 1 1 1
    V 2 -  V1 -  V3  3
 2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1 1
     V 3 -  V2 -  V1  0
 3 10 4  3 10

0.766 V1 – 0.5 V2 – 0.1 V3 = 0

– 0.5 V1 + 0.8333 V2 – 0.333 V3 = 3
– 0.1 V1 – 0.333 V2 + 0.683 V3 = 0
Solving the above equations we obtained
V1 = 8.11 V; V2 = 11.11 V; V3 = 6.61 V.
So the voltage across 4  resistor = V3 = 6.61 V.

25
2- Superposition Theorem:
Example 23: Using superposition theorem, find the current passing through the 10 
resistor in the circuit shown in figure 41- (a).
4

6A
6 8
10  8

18 V 12 V

Figure 41 – (a)

Solution: 4
1- when the voltage source of 12 V acts alone,
the circuit diagram become as shown in figure
8
41-(b).
10  6 8
simplifying the circuit, 12 V
10  // 6  = 3.75 
3.75  + 4  = 7.75 
Figure 41 – (b)
7.75  // 8  = 3.937 
12
I Total   1.005 A
11.937 8
the current passing through 7.75  resistor 7.75  8
8  1.005
I 7.75   0.51 A 12 V
8  7.75
6  0.51
I10   0.19 A Figure 41 – (c)
6  10

8
3.937 
12 V

Figure 41 – (d)

26
2- when the current source of 6 A acts alone, 4
the circuit diagram become as shown in figure
41-(e).
6A
simplifying the circuit, 10  6 8 8
10  // 6  = 3.75 
8  // 8  = 4  Figure 41 – (e)
3.75  + 4  = 7.75 
4
46
I 7.75   2.04 A
4  7.75
6  2.04
I10   0.766 A 6A
6  10 3.75  4

Figure 41 – (f)

4

6A

7.75 
Figure 41 – (g)

4
3- when the voltage source of 18 V acts alone,
the circuit diagram become as shown in figure 6
41-(h). 10  8 8
18 V
simplifying the circuit,
8  // 8  = 4 
4+4=8 Figure 41 – (h)
10  // 8  = 4.444 
18 6
I Total   1.7234 A
10.444 8
10 
8  1.723
I10   0.766 A 18 V
8  10

 The total current passing through the 10  Figure 41 – (i)

equal the superposition of the three current
6
I10 = 0.766 A + 0.19 A – 0.766 A = 0.19 A
4.44 
18 V

Figure 41 – (j)

27