FUNDAMENTALS OF ELELCTRICAL

ENGINEERING(FEE)
Mr. Manoj D Kharad
Lecturer in Electrical Engg Govt polytechnic Ch.Sambhajinagar

CH.3 MAGNETISM

Contents: (12/70)
3.1 Magnetic field, types of magnet, permanent and electromagnet, its applications.
3.2 Flux, flux density, magnetic field strength, MMF, reluctance, permeability.
3.3 Comparison between electric and magnetic circuits.
3.4 Ohms law of magnetic circuits.
3.5 Concept of series and parallel magnetic circuits.
3.6 Magnetization curve, magnetic hysteresis, hysteresis loop, hysteresis loss and methods to
minimize it.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 1

• Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where effects of the
magnetism present is called the magnetic field

• Magnetic flux(Φ): The total number of lines of force in a magnetic field

is called as magnetic flux. Unit :Weber (Wb).

• Characteristics of magnetic field / flux :

✓ Forming a closing loop
✓ Did not crossed against each other
✓ Has a certain direction
✓ Repel between one another

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 2

 Types of magnet
1. Electromagnet 2. Permanent magnet
They are temporarily magnetized. These are permanently magnetized.
Electromagnets are made up of soft Permanent magnets are made up of
materials. hard materials.
Strength of magnetic field lines can be varied The strength of magnetic field lines
easily. remains constant.
The poles of electromagnets can be changed. The poles of these magnets can never
be changed.
Electromagnets are magnetized only when It creates its own persistent magnetic
electric current passes through it. field.
Magnetic field can be lost temporarily by Once magnets are demagnetised,It
switching off electric current can’t gain magnetization
Wire wounded across an iron nail and Bar magnet
connected to a battery.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 3

Applications of Electromagnets:
• Electromagnets are used in motor
• Transformer
• Different measuring instruments.
• Amplifiers, electric motors, and generators have electromagnets.
• MRI machines that examine internal organs without surgeries also use
these magnets.
• Control switches in relays work on the principle of electromagnets.
Applications of Permanent Magnet:
• These magnets are used in speakers and headphones/earphones.
• Even mobile phones have permanent magnets.
• Permeant magnet field Generators
• Television and hard drives.
• The magnets are widely used to hold objects, so they don’t shut on their
own, such as refrigerator doors, several boxes, cupboards, etc., using
permanent magnets.
• In magnetic water treatment.
Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 4
• Magnetic flux density(B): The Magnetic flux per unit area measured in
plane perpendicular to the flux is called as Magnetic flux density.
Unit: Wb/m2 or Tesla (T).

• Magnetic field strength(H): It is force experienced by a unit North Pole

placed in magnetic field or The magneto-motive force per unit length is
called the magnetic field strength. Unit: At/m
𝐹 𝑁𝐼
𝐻= =
𝐿 𝐿

• Magneto Motive Force (MMF/Fm): Magneto Motive Force is defined as the

force responsible for the generation of flux.
MMF (Fm) = N.I Unit: Ampere turns (AT)
Where N=Number of turns of magnetizing coil.
I= Current through the coil.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 5

• Permeability: Ability of material to carry magnetic flux is called as
permeability

• Absolute Permeability (μ): The ratio of magnetic flux density(B) to

magnetic field strength(H).
μ =B/H μ = μ0 μr Unit: Henry/meter

• Permeability of free space(μ0): The ratio of magnetic flux

density(B) in air or vacuum to magnetic field strength(H) in air or
vacuum.
μ0=B0/H0 μ0= 4π * 10 -7 Unit: henry/meter

• Relative Permeability (μr): The ratio of magnetic flux density(B) in

any medium to magnetic flux density in air or vacuum(B0).
μr= B/B0 Unit less quantity
the value of relative permeability of air or vacuum is =1
Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 6
• Reluctance (S): Reluctance is defined as the opposition to the flux in a
𝐾𝑙
material. 𝑆= Unit: AT/Wb.
𝑎
Where K =Constant of proportionality.
𝑙= length of magnetic circuit in meter
A= cross sectional area in m2
1 𝑙 𝒍
𝐾= 𝑆= μ= μ0.μr 𝑺=
µ µ𝑎 𝛍𝟎 𝛍𝐫 𝒂
. .
Reluctance can also be defined as the ratio of magneto motive force (MMF) to
the flux(Ø).
𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑵.𝑰
𝑆= 𝑺=
Ø Ø

• Ohm’s Law for magnetic circuit: says that Magnetic flux is directly
proportional to the Magneto motive force (MMF) and inversely proportional
to the reluctance(S)
𝐌𝐌𝐅
Ø=
𝐒

Permeance: It is the reciprocal of reluctance. It is measuredMr.inM.D.Kharad

Wb/AT. Lecturer ,GPCS
7
 Electric and magnetic circuit similarities

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 8

 Similarities:
Sr no. Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
1. Current- Flow of Electrons Flux- Lines of force through a
through conductor is current, it medium from N pole to S pole form
is measured in Amperes. flux. It is measured in Weber.
2. EMF- It is driving force for MMF- It is driving force for flux,
current, measured in volts. measured in Amp- turn.
3. Resistance- It is opposition of to Reluctance- It is opposition offered
current measured in Ohms. to flux measured in AT/Wb.
4. Resistance is directly Reluctance is directly proportional to
proportional to length of length of magnetic path.
conductor.
5. Resistance is inversely Reluctance is inversely proportional
proportional to cross sectional to cross sectional area of magnetic
area of conductor. path.
6. Resistance depends upon Reluctance varies inversely according
nature of conductor material (l)Lecturer
Mr. M.D.Kharad to permeability
,GPCS of medium 1/µ. 9
 Dissimilarities:
Sr no. Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
1. Current is actual flow of Flux is direction of force- Nothing
electrons. flows between N pole and S pole.
2. Energy is required to produce Energy is required to produce flux
current and to maintain it. but not for its maintanence.
3. Current does not pass through Flux can pass through air also.
air.
4. Resistance is almost constant. Reluctance depends on permeability.
It can vary slightly due to Hence it can vary to a great extent
change in temperature. due to the variations in the flux
density, but reluctance does not
change much with temperature.
5. We can use insulation to define There is no insulator for magnetic
the path of the current. flux. Hence its path cannot be
defined.
Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 10
 Series Magnetic Circuit
• Figure shows the series magnetic circuit. This is because it consists of
three parts A,B and C which are connected one after the other to form a
chain.
• The length of these parts are 𝑙1 ,𝑙2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙3 respectively where as the cross
sectional areas are a1 ,a2 and a3 respectively relative permeability's of the
three parts are µ𝑟1 , µ𝑟2 and µ𝑟3 respectively.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 11

 Expression for the total reluctance:
• Let a coil of N number of turns be wound on any one of parts and let the
current through the coil be I amperes. Hence the total m.m.f. is given by
m.m.f.=F=N.I (AT)
this m.m.f establishes a flux which is same for al the three parts of the
magnetic circuits. as the flux is same in series circuits
• Let S1 ,S2 and S3 are the individual reluctances of A,B and C respectively
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
𝑆1 = , 𝑆2 = , 𝑆3 =
µ0 . µ𝑟1 . 𝑎1 µ0 . µ𝑟2 . 𝑎2 µ0 . µ𝑟3 . 𝑎3
• And if F1 ,F2 and F3 are m.m.f of three parts then total m.m.f can
expressed as
F= F1 + F2 + F3
F=Ø.S1 + Ø.S2 + Ø.S3
F=Ø(S1 + S2 + S3)
F= Ø.S
Where S is equivalent reluctance of the series magnetic circuit.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 12

 S=S1 + S2 + S3

𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
𝑆= + +
µ0 . µ𝑟1 . 𝑎1 µ0 . µ𝑟2 . 𝑎2 µ0 . µ𝑟3 . 𝑎3
• Thus the total reluctance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
reluctance of the individual parts of the series magnetic circuit.
• Expression for total Ampere turns MMF of the series magnetic circuits as
below
F= F1 + F2 + F3
F=H1.l1 + H2.l2 + H3.l3
• Where H1 ,H2 and H3 Re the magnetic field strength of the three parts A,B
and C respectively.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 13

 Series Magnetic circuit with air gap
• Fig shows magnetic core with a small air gap. We can use the principle of
series magnetic circuit here. Note that even with the presence of small air
gap. the magnetic circuit gets complete because flux can pass through air.
This would not have been possible for electrical circuit.
• Let the mean length of the ion core be lc and that of the air gap lg let Sc be
the reluctance of the core and let Sg be the reluctance of the air gap

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 14

The total reluctance S= Sc + Sg
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑔
Sc = and Sg =
µ0 .µ𝑟𝑐 .𝑎𝑐 µ0 .𝑎𝑐
• The expression for Sg has been written by assuming that the cross
sectional area of the air gap is equal to that of the core and the absolute
permeability of air.
µ=µ0
• Hence the total reluctance is given by
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑔
Sc = +
µ0 .µ𝑟𝑐 .𝑎𝑐 µ0 .𝑎𝑐
• Total MMF = F= mmf of the core + mmf of the air gap

F= Fe + Fg = Ø sc + Ø sg = Ø (sc + sg)

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 15

 Parallel Magnetic Circuit
• A magnetic circuit which has more one path for the magnetic flux is
called as parallel magnetic circuit.
• Consider a coil of N turns wound on limb AF carries an electric current of
I amperes. The magnetic flux φ1 set up by the coil divides at B into two
paths viz.
• The magnetic φ2 passes along the path BE.
• The magnetic flux φ3 passes along the path BCDE.
• Therefore, the total flux is, φ1=φ2+φ3

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 16

The path BE and BCDE are in parallel and hence form a parallel
magnetic circuit. In a parallel magnetic circuit, the MMF required for
the whole parallel magnetic circuit is equal to MMF required for any
one of the parallel paths.
Let
S1=Reluctance of magnetic path ABEF
S2=Reluctance of magnetic path BE
S3=Reluctance of magnetic path BCDE
• Therefore,
Total MMF=MMF for path ABEF + MMF for path BE or BCDE
Total MMF=φ1S1+φ2S2+φ3S3

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 17

 B-H curve
• The B-H curve is the graphical representation of relation between magnetic
flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H), with H plotted on the x-
axis and B plotted on the y-axis.
• The B-H curve can be described by dividing it into 3 regions.
• Region OA: For zero current, H = 0 and B is also zero. The flux density B
then increases gradually as the value of H is increased. However B changes
slowly in this region.
• Region AB: In this region, for small change in H,
there is large change in B.
The B-H curve is almost linear in this region.
• Region beyond B: After point B,
the change in B is small even for
a large change in H. Finally,
the B-H curve will tend to be parallel to X axis.
This region is called as saturation region.
Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 18
 Concept of leakage flux, useful flux and fringing
• Leakage flux: Some flux while passing through the magnetic circuit,
leaks through the air surrounding the core. This flux is called as leakage
flux.
• Useful flux:- The flux in the air gap which is actually utilized for various
purposes depending upon the application is called as useful flux
• Fringing: When the magnetic flux passing or crossing an air gap tends to
bulge outwards the iron ring, this effect is called as “Fringing”.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 19

 Hysteresis loop
• The arrangement for plotting the hysteresis loop is shown in figure.
• The electromagnetic part consists of a coil wound on the iron ring. The
current direction can be reversed using reversible switch as shown. The
magnitude of current is changed by varying the resistance.
• Magnetic ring is subjected to a cycle of magnetization and
demagnetization for both the directions of the current

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 20

• When the magnetic material is subjected to magnetization and
demagnetization then flux density B in magnetic material lags behind the
applied magnetizing force H. This phenomenon is known as magnetic
hysteresis.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 21

• During demagnetization of core (ring) it is seen that even if the
magnetizing force has reduced to zero, the flux density does not become
zero. Some flux remains in the core. This flux is called “Remanent or
residual flux” and
• the corresponding flux density is called “Residual magnetism”.

• This property of magnetic material is referred as “Retentivity”.

• To wipe out the residual flux in the core, the magnetizing force in the
opposite direction is required. This force is called “Coercive force Hc”.

• At large magnetizing force values, it is seen that there is no appreciable

change in flux densities. The flux density remains constant in spite of
change in magnetizing force. This is called “Magnetic saturation”.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 22

Hysteresis loss: The losses which occur because of the reversal of the
magnetism is known as the hysteresis loss.
• due to presence of magnetic hysteresis a fraction of the applied
power to the magnetic circuit is lost in the form of heat.
• This energy loss is given by the area under the hysteresis loop.
WH= ηBmax1.6 f v
Where,
V = volume of the core in m3
η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient.
Bmax = maximum value of flux density

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 23

The factors affecting the hysteresis loss are:
• Frequency of magnetization: The frequency here corresponds to the
number of cycles of magnetization per second. The hysteresis loss is
directly proportional to the frequency.
• Volume of the material: The hysteresis loss is proportional to the
volume of the material. In fact the hysteresis loss per unit volume in one
cycle is equal to the area under the hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis Loss/ volume= Area under hysteresis loop
• Area enclosed by the hysteresis loop: The hysteresis loss is directly
proportional to the area under the hysteresis loop .For the low loss
materials the hysteresis loop is narrow.

• Methods to minimize the hysteresis loss:

1. By reducing the operating frequency,
2. By reducing the volume of the material and
3. By selecting a material which has a narrow hysteresis loop.
Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 24
 Hysteresis loop for Different materials

Hysteresis loop for Hysteresis loop for

hard steel materials are cast steel, Steel alloy plastic
used for permanent material can be used
magnets. for electromagnets

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 25

 ASSIGNMENTS-3
1) Draw simple magnetic circuit.
2) State the relationship between permeability of free space and relative
permeability of air.
3) Compare electric circuit and magnetic circuit on any four points.
4) Explain B-H curve for magnetic material. With the help of diagram, explain
the concept of leakage flux, useful flux and fringing.
5) Define the following terms: i) Magnetic flux density, ii) Reluctance, iii)
Magneto-motive force, iv) Permeance.
6) Explain Hysteresis loop of magnetic material with neat diagram
7) Give any two similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic
circuits.
8) State the values for permeability of free space and relative permeability of
air.
9) Define (i) Magnetic field strength (ii) Magnetic flux density
(iii) Permeability, give relation between them.

Mr. M.D.Kharad Lecturer ,GPCS 26