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INTEGRALS
• Further, the formula that gives all these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral of the
function and such process of finding anti derivatives is called integration.
• The development of integral calculus arises out of the efforts of solving the problems of the
following types:
(a) the problem of finding a function whenever its derivative is given
(b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the graph of a function under certain
conditions. These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e.g., indefinite and
definite integrals, which together constitute the Integral Calculus.

Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation:

𝑑𝑦
• Notation Given that, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Symbols/Terms/Phrases Meaning
Integral of f with respect to x
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Integrand
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑛 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Variable of integration

𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Integrate Find the integral

An integral of f A function F such that, 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Integration The process of finding the integral

1
 Constant of Integration Any real number C, considered as
constant function

Important Formulae’s:

∫ 1 dx = x + c ∫ k dx = kx + c where k ∈ R
xn+1 2 3
∫ x n dx = n+1
+ c where n ≠ −1 ∫ √x dx = 3 x 2 + c
1 1
∫ x dx = logx + c ∫ √ x dx = 2 √ x + c

∫ ex dx = ex + c ax
∫ ax dx = loge a
where a ≠ 1, a > 0

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cosx + c ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sinx + c

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙og |secx| + c ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = log|sin 𝑥| + 𝑐

= –log |cos x| + c = −log|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥| + 𝑐
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log |sec x + tan x| + c ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥
= log | tan 2 | + 𝑐

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 1 1 𝑥
∫ 1+ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = tan-1x + c ∫ 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐

1 1 𝑥 𝑥
∫ √1− 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin-1x or -cos-1x ∫ √𝑎2− 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin-1(𝑎) + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑎) + c

𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 1
∫ √𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + c

1 1 𝑥−𝑎 1 1 𝑎+𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑎−𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥 2 −𝑎2 2𝑎 2𝑎

1
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 2−1 𝑑𝑥 = sec-1x + c or -cosec-1 x+ c ∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑥 𝑎2
∫ √𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐
2 2

2
 𝑥 𝑎2
∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2
√𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 + 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
𝑑
∫ 𝐼 . 𝐼𝐼dx = I ∫ 𝐼𝐼 - ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝐼 ∫ 𝐼𝐼 Where I & II are functions in x

Some properties of indefinite integral:

I. The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other in the sense of
𝒅
the following results: ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

And 𝒇′ (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + 𝑪 where C is any arbitrary constant.

Proof:
𝑑
Let F be any anti derivative of f, i.e., 𝑑𝑥 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑 𝑑
Then, 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶)
𝑑
= 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Similarly, we note that, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

and hence∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶

where C is arbitrary constant called constant of integration.

II. Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same family of curves and
so they are equivalent.
𝑑 𝑑
Proof: Let f and g be two functions such that, 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Or [∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥]
Hence, ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶, where C is any real number

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶

So, the families of curves, {∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 , 𝐶1 ∈ 𝑅 }

And, {∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶2 , 𝐶2 ∈ 𝑅 }
are identical. Hence, in this sense, ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥are equivalent.
III. ∫[𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)]𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + ∫ 𝒈 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙

3
 Proof: By Property (I), we have
𝑑
[∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + ∫ 𝒈 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙] = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)……………….. (1)
𝑑𝑥

On the other hand, we find that

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + ∫ 𝒈 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙] = ∫ 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 + ∫ 𝒈 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)……………………. (2)
Thus, in view of Property (II), it follows by (1) and (2) that

∫(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

IV. For any real number k, ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
Proof: By the Property (I), 𝑑𝑥 ∫[𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥] = 𝑘. 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)

Therefore, using the Property (II), we have ∫ 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

V. Properties (III) and (IV) can be generalised to a finite number of functions f 1 , f 2 , ..., f
n and the real numbers, k1 , k2 , ..., kn giving

= ∫ 𝑘1 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑘2 𝑓2 (𝑥) + … … + 𝑘𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)

= 𝑘1 ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑘2 ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥) + … … … … … . +𝑘𝑛 ∫ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)

To find an anti-derivative of a given function, we search intuitively for a function whose

derivative is the given function.

Example:
1. Write an anti-derivative for each of the following functions using the method of
inspection:
(i) 𝐜𝐨 𝐬 𝟐𝒙
We look for a function whose derivative is cos 2x
𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑 𝑑 1
Or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 2 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)
1
Therefore, an anti-derivative of cos 2x is2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

(ii) 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙𝟑

We look for a function whose derivative is 3x2 + 4x3 . Note that
𝑑 2
(𝑥 + 𝑥 3 ) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

4
 Therefore, an anti-derivative of 3x2 + 4x3 is x3 + x4 .

𝟏
(iii) ,𝒙 ≠ 𝟎
𝒙

𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏 𝟏
(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙) = , 𝒙 > 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 [𝒍𝒐𝒈(−𝒙)] = − (−𝟏) = , 𝒙 < 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝒅 𝟏
Combining above, we get𝒅𝒙 (𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒙|)is one of the anti-derivatives of 𝒙

2. Find the following integrals:

𝒙𝟑 −𝟏
(i) ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐
𝑥 3 −1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥=∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 (by Property V)
𝑥2

𝑥1+1 𝑥 −2+1
=( + 𝐶1 ) − ( + 𝐶1 )
1+1 −2 + 1
𝑥2 𝑥 −1 𝑥2 1
= + 𝐶1 − − 𝐶2 = + + 𝐶1 − 𝐶2
2 −1 2 𝑥
𝑥2 1
+ +𝐶
2 𝑥
where C = C1 – C2 is another constant of integration.
𝟐
(ii) ∫ (𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏) 𝒅𝒙
2 2
We have ∫ (𝑥 3 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 3 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥

2
𝑥 3+1 3 5
= + 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥3 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 5
3+1
𝟑
𝟏
(iii) ∫ (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒆𝒙 − 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
3 3
1 1
We have ∫ (𝑥 2 + 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥=∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
𝑥 2+1
= + 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥| + 𝐶
3
2+1
2 5
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥| + 𝐶
5
3. Find the following integrals:
(i) ∫(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝒅𝒙
We have ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥=∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5
 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
(ii) ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙)𝒅𝒙

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + co t 𝑥

= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
(iii) ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥=𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

4. Find the anti-derivative F of f defined by f (x) = 4x3 – 6, where F (0) = 3

𝑑
One anti-derivative of f (x) is x4 – 6x since 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 4 − 6𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 6

Therefore, the anti-derivative F is given by

F(x) = x4 – 6x + C, where C is constant.
Given that F (0) = 3, which gives, 3 = 0 – 6 × 0 + C or C = 3
Hence, the required anti-derivative is the unique function F defined by F(x) = x4 – 6x + 3

Problems:
1. Find an anti-derivative (or integral) of the following functions by the method of
inspection.
(i) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
𝑑
We know that 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
1 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = − (cos 2𝑥)
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
1
Therefore, the anti-derivative of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 = − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥

(ii) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙
𝑑
We know that 𝑑𝑥 (sin 3 𝑥) = 3 cos 3𝑥
𝑑 1
∴ cos 3𝑥 = ( sin 3 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 3
1
Therefore, the anti-derivative of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 is 3 sin 3 𝑥

6
(iii) 𝒆𝟐𝒙
𝑑
We know that 𝑑𝑡 (𝑒 2𝑥 ) = 2𝑒 2𝑥
1 𝑑 2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 = (𝑒 )
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 = ( 𝑒 )
𝑑𝑥 2
(iv) (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝟐
𝑑
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3 = 3𝑎(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3
3𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
∴ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 = ( ) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3
𝑑𝑥 3𝑎
(v) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒𝒆𝟑𝒙
𝑑 1 4
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑒 3𝑥 )
𝑑𝑡 2 3
Therefore, the anti-derivative of
1 4
(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 4𝑒 3𝑥 ) = (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 3
2. Find the following integrals in Exercises
(i) ∫(𝟒𝒆𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝒅𝒙

= 4 ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 1𝑑𝑥

𝑒 3𝑥
= 4( )+𝑥 +𝐶
3
4 3𝑥
= 𝑒 +𝑥+𝐶
3
𝟏
(ii) 𝒙𝟐 (𝟏 − ) 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐
1
We have ∫ 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )

𝑥2
= ∫ (𝑥 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥

= ∫(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 0 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2+1 𝑥 0+1
= − +𝐶
2+1 0+1

7
 𝑥3 𝑥2
= −
3 1
(iii) (𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄)𝒅𝒙

= ∫(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑑𝑥

𝑎𝑥 3 𝑏𝑥 2
= + + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
3 2

(iv) (𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒆𝒙 )𝒅𝒙

𝐼 = ∫(2𝑥 2 + 𝑒 𝑥 )

= 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2
𝐼 = 𝑥3 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

𝟏 𝟐
(v) (√ 𝒙 − ) 𝒅𝒙
√ 𝒙
2
1
= ∫ (√𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
2
2 1 1
= ∫(√𝑥) + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ) − 2 √𝑥 (
√𝑥 √𝑥
1 1
= ∫ (𝑥 + − 2) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 + − 2𝑥 0 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
1
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥1+1 𝑥 0+1
= + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥| − 2 +𝐶
1+1 0+1
𝑥2
= + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥| − 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2

𝒙𝟑 +𝟓𝒙𝟐 −𝟒
(vi) ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟐

= ∫(𝑥 + 5 − 4𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 5 ∫ 1. 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 4
= + 5𝑥 + + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
8
 𝒙𝟑 +𝟑𝒙+𝟒
(vii) ∫ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒙

𝑥3 3𝑥 4
=∫ + +
√𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥
𝑥3 3𝑥 4
=( 1+ 1 + 1 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1 1
= ∫ (𝑥 3−2 + 3𝑥1−2 + 4𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥
5 1 1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥
5 1 1
𝑥 2+1 3𝑥 2+1 4𝑥 −2+1
=∫ +∫ 1 +∫
5 1
2+1 𝑥 2+1 −2+1

𝒙𝟑 −𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟏
(viii) ∫ 𝒙−𝟏

𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1) + 1(𝑥 − 1)
=∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

= ∫(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 0 )𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2+1 𝑥 0+1
= + +𝐶
2+1 0+1
𝑥3
= +𝑥+𝐶
3

(ix) ∫(𝟏 − 𝒙)√𝒙𝒅𝒙

1 1
= ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑥1+2 ) 𝑑𝑥

1 3
= ∫ (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

1 3
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

9
 1 3 3 5 3 3
𝑥 2+1 𝑥 2+1 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
= − = − = − +𝐶
1 3 3 5 3 5
2+1 2+1 2 2

(x) ∫ √𝒙(𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)𝒅𝒙

1 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑥 2 (3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥 2+2 + 2𝑥 2+1 + 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
5 3 1
= ∫ (3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
5 3 1
= 3 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
5 3 1
3𝑥 2+1 2𝑥 2+1 3𝑥 2+1
= + + +𝐶
5 3 1
+ 1 + 1 + 1
2 2 2
7 5 3
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
=3× +2× +3× +𝐶
7 5 3
7 5
6𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 3
= + + 2𝑥 2 + 𝐶
7 5

(xi) ∫(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒆𝒙 )𝒅𝒙

= 2 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2𝑥 2
= − 3(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
= 𝑥 2 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

(xii) ∫(𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝟓√𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

1
= 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 5 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥 2+1 𝑥 2+1
=2 − 3(−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + 5
2+1 1
2+1
3
2𝑥 3 5 × 2𝑥 2
= + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + +𝐶
3 3

10
 3
2𝑥 3 10𝑥 2
= + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + +𝐶
3 3

(xiii) ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙(𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 ) 𝒅𝒙

𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
And 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙
(xiv) ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1
2
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=∫ × = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 1

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥

𝑥1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − + 𝐶
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝟐−𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
(xv) 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙
2 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
2 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= ∫( 2 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1
= ∫ (2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − . )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

= ∫(2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

= 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑥 𝑐. 𝑑𝑥

11
 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

Methods of Integration:
1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration using Partial Fractions
3. Integration by Parts
1. Integration by substitution:

𝑰 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒇(𝒈(𝒕)) 𝒈′ (𝒕)𝒅𝒕

Examples:
1. 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒙
We know that derivative of mx is m. Thus, we make the substitution mx = t so that mdx = dt
1 1
∴ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − co s 𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑚 𝑚
1
=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑚
2. 𝟐𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)
Derivative of x2 + 1 is 2x. Thus, we use the substitution x2 + 1 = t so that 2x dx = dt.

∫ 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 2 + 1) = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 𝐶 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟒 √𝒙𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 √𝒙
3.
√𝒙
1
1 1
Derivative of √𝑥 is 2 𝑥 −2 = 2
√𝑥
1
Thus, we use the substitution√𝑥 = 𝑡, so that 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
√𝑥

𝑡𝑎𝑛4 √𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 √𝑥 2𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡𝑑𝑡

∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = 2 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡𝑑𝑡
√𝑥 𝑡
Again, we make another substitution tan t = u so that, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢

4 2
𝑢5
4
∴ 2 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2 + 𝐶
5
2 2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑡 + 𝐶 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 √𝑥 + 𝐶
5 5

𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙)
4. 𝟏+𝒙𝟐
1
𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑥2

12
 𝑑𝑥
Thus, we use the substitution, 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑡 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
1+𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥)
Therefore ∫ = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 𝐶 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥) + 𝐶
1+𝑥 2

Some important integrals involving trigonometric functions and their

standard integrals using substitution technique:
(i) ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 |𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙| + 𝑪
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
We have ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = – dt

𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ = −𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑡

Or ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| + 𝐶

(ii) ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙| + 𝑪

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
We have ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= Put sin x = t so thatcosxdx = – dt

𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑡

(iii) ∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙| + 𝑪

sec 𝑥(sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥)
We have ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙+𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙

Put sec x + tan x = t so that sec x (tan x + sec x) dx = dt

𝑑𝑡
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙| + 𝑪
𝑡
(iv) ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒄𝒐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙| + 𝑪
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥(𝒄𝒐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙+𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙)
We have ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝒄𝒐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙−𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙)
𝑑𝑥

Put cosec x + cot x = t so that – cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx = dt

𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ = −𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| = −𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |+𝐶
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − cot 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝐶
Examples:

13
 1. Find the following integrals:
(i) ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙
We have ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Put t = cos x so that dt = – sin x dx

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − ∫(1 − 𝑡 2 ) 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑡3 𝑡5
= −(𝑡 2 − 𝑡 4 )𝑑𝑡 = ( − ) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
3 5
1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 3
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
(ii) ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙+𝒂) 𝒅𝒙

Put x + a = t. Then dx = dt. Therefore

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑎)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑎) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎
=∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎)𝑡 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎)[𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡| + 𝐶1 ]

= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎) − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎)[𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑎) | + 𝐶1 ]
= 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎)[𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑎) | − 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎]
sin 𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎)𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑎)| + 𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑎)
where, C = – C1 sin a + a cos a, is another arbitrary constant
𝟏
(iii) ∫ 𝟏+𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
1 + tan 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
= ∫
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑥 𝐶1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
=2+ + 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥…………….. (1)
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

14
 𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑡 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝐼=∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 | + 𝐶2
𝑡

Now putting this in (1),

𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝐶1 1 𝐶1 𝐶2
∫ = + + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 | + +
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥 1
= + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 | + 𝐶
2 2

Problems: Integrate the functions in Exercises

𝟐𝒙
(i) 𝟏+𝒙𝟐

2𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
Put 1+x2=t⇒2xdx=dt
2𝑥 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶
1+𝑥 𝑡
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|1 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝐶

(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙)𝟐
(ii) 𝒙

(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 ∫
𝑥
put logx=t ....... (1)
1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
𝑡3
⇒ ∫ 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = +𝐶
3
Put value of t from eq. (1).
we get,
(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)3
∫ = +𝐶
𝑥 3
𝟏
(iii) 𝒙+𝒙𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙

15
 1
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∫
𝑥 + 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
1
𝑃𝑢𝑡 1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥(1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) 𝑡
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥| + 𝐶
(iv) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)

= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑡, −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = ∫ −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡 = −[−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡] + 𝐶

=cost+C=cos(cosx)+C
(v) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)

2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)=∫ 2
= 2

Put 2(ax+b)=t
⇒2adx=dt
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = − [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ] + 𝐶
2 2 2𝑎 4𝑎
1
=− [−𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ] + 𝐶
4𝑎
(vi) √𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃

∫ √𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

Let ax+b=t
diff w.r.t 'x'
𝑑𝑡
𝑎(1) + 0 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎
𝑑𝑡
Now ∫ √𝑥. 𝑎
1
= ∫ √𝑡. 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

16
 1 1 1 𝑡 3/2 2 3/2
= ∫ 𝑡 2 . 𝑑𝑡 = [ + 𝐶] = 𝑡 +𝐶
𝑎 𝑎 3 3𝑎
2
2
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3/2 + 𝐶
3𝑎
(vii) 𝒙√𝒙 + 𝟐

= ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 2

put x+2=t⇒x=t−2
3 1
= ∫(𝑥 − 2)√𝑡(𝑑𝑡) = ∫ (𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 2 ) 𝑑𝑡
5 3
𝑡2 𝑡2 2 5 4 3
= −2× = (𝑥 + 2)2 − (𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝐶
5 3 5 3
2 2
(viii) 𝒙√𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐
Put 1+2x2=t
⇒4xdx=dt
√𝑡𝑑𝑡
= ∫ 𝑥√1 + 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
4
3
1 1 1 𝑡2 1 3
= ∫ 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = ( ) + 𝐶 = (1 + 2𝑥 2 )2 + 𝐶
4 4 3 6
2

(ix) (𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐)√𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏

Let x2+x+1=t
⇒(2x+1)dx=dt
3
𝑡2
∫(4𝑥 + 2) √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ √𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ( ) + 𝐶
3
2
4 1
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐶
3
𝟏
(x) 𝒙−√𝒙
1 2
Put√𝑥 − 1 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥( 𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
√ √

= 2𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶 = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔|√𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
𝒙
(xi) ,𝒙 > 𝟎
√𝒙+𝟒

17
 Let x+4=t⇒dx=dt
𝑥 (𝑡 − 4) 4
∴∫ = 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (√𝑡 − ) 𝑑𝑡
√𝑥 + 4 √𝑡 √𝑡
3 1
𝑡2 𝑡2
= − 4( ) + 𝐶
3 1
2 2
2 3 1
= (𝑡)2 − 8(𝑡)2 + 𝐶
3
2 1 1
= 𝑡. 𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 2 + 𝐶
3
2 1
= 𝑡 2 (𝑡 − 12) + 𝐶
3
2 1
= (𝑥 + 4)2 (𝑥 + 4 − 12) + 𝐶
3
2
= √𝑥 + 4(𝑥 − 8) + 𝐶
3
𝟏
(xii) (𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏)𝟑 𝒙𝟓
Put x3−1=t
∴3x2dx=dt
1 1
⇒ ∫(𝑥 3 − 1)3 𝑥 5 = ∫(𝑥 3 − 1)3 . 𝑥 3 . 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
7 4
1 𝑑𝑡 1 4 1 1 𝑡3 𝑡3
= 𝑡 3 (𝑡
+ 1) = ∫ (𝑡 3 + 𝑡 3 ) 𝑑𝑡 = [ + + 𝐶]
3 3 3 7 4
3 3
1 3 7 3 4
= [ 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 3] + 𝐶
3 7 4
7 4
1 1
= 7 (𝑥 3 − 1)3 + 4 (𝑥 3 − 1)3 +C
𝒙𝟐
(xiii) 𝟑
(𝟐+𝟑𝒙𝟑 )

𝑥2
Let 𝐼 = (2+3𝑥 3)3

Take 2+3x3=t
On differentiating, we have
𝑑𝑡
9𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =
9
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑡 −3+1
𝐼=∫ = × +𝐶
9. 𝑡 3 9 −3 + 1

18
 1 𝑡 −2 1
= +𝑐 =− +𝑐
9 −2 18𝑡 2
1
=− +𝐶
18(2 + 3𝑥 3 )2

𝟏
(xiv) , 𝒙 > 𝟎, 𝒎 ≠ 𝟏
𝒙(𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙)𝒎

Put 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑡
1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
1 𝑑𝑡 𝑡 −𝑚+1
⇒∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = ( )+𝐶
𝑥(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)𝑚 (𝑡)𝑚 1−𝑚
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥)−𝑚+1
∴( )+𝐶
1−𝑚
𝒙
(xv) 𝟗−𝟒𝒙𝟐

Put 9−4x2=t
∴−8xdx=dt
𝑥 1 1 1 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡 (𝑥𝑖𝑥) = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|9 − 4𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
9 − 4𝑥 8 𝑡 8 8
(xvi) 𝒆𝟐𝒙+𝟑
Put 2x+3=t
∴2dx=dt
1 1 1
𝑒 2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 (𝑒 𝑡 ) + 𝐶 = 2 𝑒 2𝑥+3 +C

𝒙
(xvii) 𝟐
𝒆𝒙
𝑑𝑡
put x2=t⇒2x.dx=dt⇒x. dx= 2

1 𝑑𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 1
=∫ × ⇒ × +𝐶
𝑒𝑡 2 −1 2
11 1 1 1 2
⇒− 𝑡
= − −𝑥 2 + 𝐶 = − 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶
2𝑒 2𝑒 2
−𝟏𝒙
𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒏
(xviii) 𝟏+𝒙𝟐

Put tan−1x=t

1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑥2

19
 −1𝑥
𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1𝑥
⇒∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐶 = 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝐶
1+𝑥

𝒆𝟐𝒙 −𝟏
(xix) 𝒆𝟐𝒙 +𝟏

𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
= ∫ 2𝑥
𝑒 +1
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 −𝑥
(𝑒 2𝑥 − 1)𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥−𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
=∫ = ∫
(𝑒 2𝑥 + 1)𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥−𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 … … … … (1)
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
Let= 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑡
Differentiating wrt x
𝑑𝑡
𝑒 𝑥 + (−1)𝑒 −𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 =
𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)
1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )
𝑡

𝒆𝟐𝒙 +𝒆−𝟐𝒙
(xx) 𝒆𝟐𝒙 −𝒆−𝟐𝒙
𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑒 −2𝑥
Given ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥

Suppose u=e2x+e−2x du=2(e2x−e−2x)dx

1 1 1 𝑙𝑛(𝑢) 𝑙𝑛(𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )

∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = =
2𝑢 2 𝑢 2 2

2𝑥 + (−2𝑥) 2𝑥 − 2𝑥
= = =0
2 2

(xxi) 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑)

tan2(2x−3)=sec2(2x−3)−1
Let 2x−3=t
∴2dx=dt

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2𝑥 − 3) = ∫[𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (2𝑥 − 3) − 1] 𝑑𝑥

20
 Let 2x−3=t
∴2dx=dt

1
= (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 1𝑑𝑡
2
1 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 1𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2𝑥 − 3) − 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
(xxii) 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 (𝟕 − 𝟒𝒙)
sec2(7−4x)dx
let 7 - 4x = t
then - 4dx = dt
𝑑𝑡 1 1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝐶 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛(7 − 4𝑥) + 𝐶
−4 4 4 4
𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙
(xxiii)
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐

Let sin−1x=t
1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
⇒∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑡2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2
= +𝐶 = +𝐶
2 2

𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙−𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
(xxiv) 𝟔𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙+𝟒𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥−3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥−3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Given 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥+4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥=2(3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥+2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)

Let 3cosx+2sinx=t

∴(−3sinx+2cosx) dx=dt
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔| 𝑡| + 𝐶 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥|
6𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2 2

Integration using trigonometric identities:

21
1. Find the integral of ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙
Recall the identity cos 2x = 2 cos2 x – 1, which gives
1 + cos 2𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
2
1 1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥 1
= + sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4

2. Find the integral of ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙

1
From the identity ∫ sin 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑦) + sin (𝑥 − 𝑦)]

1
= ∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = [sin 5𝑥 + sin (−𝑥)]
2

1 1
∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = [− cos 5 𝑥 + cos 𝑥] + 𝐶
2 5

1 1
∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶
10 2

3. Find the integral of ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

From the identity sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x, we find that

3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 =
4

3 1 3 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + 𝐶
4 4 4 12

Problems:

1. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓)
𝐼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑥 + 5)
𝑡 = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑡
=2+0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑥
2
Therefore,

22
 1 1 1 sin 2𝑡
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫(1 − cos 2𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑡 − ]+𝐶
2 4 4 2
Substitute the value of t,
1 sin 2(2𝑥 + 5) 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥 + 10)
𝐼 = [(2𝑥 + 5) − ] = [(2𝑥 + 5) − ]
4 2 4 2

2. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙
1
∫ sin 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑦) + sin (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2
1
∫ sin3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4 𝑦 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 4𝑦) + sin (3𝑥 − 4𝑦)]
2
1
∫ sin3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4 𝑦 = ∫[sin 7𝑥 − sin 𝑥]
2
1 1
∫ sin3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4 𝑦 = ∫ sin 7𝑥 − ∫ sin 𝑥
2 2
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠7𝑥
∫ sin3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4 𝑦 = [− + cos 𝑥] + 𝐶
2 7

3. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟖𝒙
1
∫ sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 = ∫ [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
∫ sin 4𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥 = ∫ [𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝑥 − 8𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝑥 + 8𝑥)]
2
1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥 = ∫ [𝑐𝑜𝑠(−4𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (12𝑥)]
2

1 sin 4𝑥 sin 12 𝑥
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥 = ∫(cos 4𝑥 − cos 12𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ( − )
2 4 12

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
4. 𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

23
 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
∫( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

= 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
5. 𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

2𝑥
1 − cos 𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
=
1 + cos 𝑥 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
2
𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 = (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 1)
2 2
𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
= −𝑥+𝐶
1
2

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙
6. 𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥) 12 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 (1 + cos 𝑥)(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

𝑠𝑜, ∫ =∫ =
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 1 + cos 𝑥 1 + cos 𝑥

= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 − sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙−𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
7. 𝟏+𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
∫ =∫
1 + sin 2𝑥 1 + 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥+2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 [∵ 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥]
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝑥,
𝑑𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
24
 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠,
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 1
∫ × = ∫ = − + 𝐶 = − +𝐶
𝑡2 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑡2 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

8. 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑 𝟐𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐𝒙

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 2𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2𝑥. sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

Put sec2x=t

2sec2x.tan2xdx=dt
𝑑𝑡
sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 =
2
1 2
1 𝑡3 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 2𝑥
𝐼 = ∫(𝑡 − 1) 𝑑𝑡 = [ − 𝑡] + 𝐶 = [ − sec 2𝑥] + 𝐶
2 2 3 2 3

𝟏
9. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒙

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= (∫ 3
+ ∫ 3
) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 3
) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 sin 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
1 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
=∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1
= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥(tan 𝑥 + cot 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
tan 𝑥
1
= ∫ (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑝𝑢𝑡 tan 𝑥 = 𝑡
Differentiating w.r.t. x
𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠, ∫ (𝑡 + ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 × × 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

25
 1 1
= ∫ (𝑡 + ) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
𝑡2
= + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑡| + 𝐶
2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
= + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
2

Integrals of Some Particular Functions:

In this section, we mention below some important formulae of integrals and apply them for
integrating many other related standard integrals:
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒙−𝒂
(1) ∫ 𝒙𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝒂 |𝒙+𝒂| + 𝑪

Proof:
1 1
=
𝒙𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎)
1 (𝑥 − 𝑎) − (𝑥 + 𝑎) 1 1 1
= [ ]= [ − ]
2𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎) 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∫ = [∫ −∫ ]
𝒙𝟐 −𝒂 𝟐 𝟐𝒂 𝒙−𝒂 𝒙+𝒂
1
= [𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 𝑎| − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + 𝑎|] + 𝐶
2𝑎
1 𝑥−𝑎
= | |+𝐶
2𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎

𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒂−𝒙
(2) ∫ 𝒂𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝒂 |𝒂+𝒙| + 𝑪

1 1 (𝑎 + 𝑥) + (𝑎 − 𝑥) 1 1 1
= [ ] = [ + ]
𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 2𝑎 (𝑎 + 𝑥)(𝑎 − 𝑥) 2𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
Therefore ∫ 𝒂𝟐 −𝒙𝟐 = 2𝑎 [∫ 𝑎−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑎+𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
1
= [−𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑎 − 𝑥| + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑎 + 𝑥|] + 𝐶
2𝑎
1 𝑎+𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |+𝐶
2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥

𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒙
(3) ∫ 𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒂 + 𝑪

26
 Put x = a tan θ. Then dx = a sec2 θ dθ.
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
∫ 2 =∫ 2
𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑎2
1 1 1 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝐶
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝟏
(4) ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠|𝒙 + √𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 | + 𝒄
√ 𝒙𝟐 −𝒂𝟐

Let x = a secθ. Then dx = a secθ tan θ dθ

1 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 √𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑎2

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃| + 𝐶1

𝑥 𝑥2
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | + √ 2 − 1| + 𝐶1
𝑎 𝑎

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑎| + +𝐶1

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
𝟏 𝒙 𝒙
(5) ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = sin-1(𝒂) + 𝒄 𝒐𝒓 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝒂) + c
√ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟐

Let x = a sinθ. Then dx = a cosθ dθ.

1 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝐶
𝑎

𝟏
(6) ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠|𝒙 + √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 | + c
√ 𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

Let x = a tan θ. Then dx = a sec2θ dθ.

1 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 √𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑎2

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)| + 𝐶1

𝑥 𝑥2
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | + √ + 1| + 𝐶1
𝑎 𝑎2

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝐶1

27
 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
𝒅𝒙
(7) To find the integral ∫ 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄

2
𝑏 𝑐 2
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 [𝑥 + + ] = 𝑎 [(𝑥 + ) + ( − 2 )]
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 and writing 𝑎 − 4𝑎2 = ±𝑘 2
1 𝑑𝑡 𝑐 𝑏2
We find the integral reduced to the form 𝑎 ∫ 𝑡 2 ±𝑘 2 depending upon the sign of(𝑎 − 4𝑎2 )and

hence can be evaluated.

𝒑𝒙+𝒒
(8) To find the integral of the type ∫ 𝒅𝒙where p, q, a, b, c are constants, we are to find
𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄

real numbers A, B such that,

𝑑
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝐴 (𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄) + 𝐵 = 𝐴(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐵
𝑑𝑥
To determine A and B, we equate from both sides the coefficients of x and the constant terms.
A and B are thus obtained and hence the integral is reduced to one of the known forms.
Examples:
Find the following integrals:
𝒅𝒙
(1) ∫
√ 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏𝟔

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑎−𝑥
∫ = | |+𝐶
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 2𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−4
∫ =∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |+𝐶
√𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 42 8 𝑥+4

𝒅𝒙
(2) ∫
√ 𝟐𝒙−𝒙𝟐

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
√2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 √1 − (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑡 + 𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
√2𝑥 − 𝑥2 √1 − 𝑡2
𝒅𝒙
(3) ∫ 𝒙𝟐 −𝟔𝒙+𝟏𝟑

We have x2 – 6x + 13 = x2 – 6x + 32 – 32 + 13 = (x – 3)2 + 4

28
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
So, ∫ = ∫ (𝑥−3)2
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+13 +22

x – 3 = t. Then dx = dt
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 −1
𝑡
∫ = ∫ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 +𝐶
(𝑥 − 3)2 + 22 𝑡 2 + 22 2 2
1 𝑥−3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 +𝐶
2 2

𝒅𝒙
(4) ∫ 𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟑𝒙−𝟏𝟎

We write the denominator of the integrand,

13𝑥 10
3𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 10 = 3 (𝑥 2 + − )
3 3
13 2 17 2
= 3 [(𝑥 + ) − ( ) ]
6 6
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 ∫ = ∫
3𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 10 3 13 2 17 2
(𝑥 + 6 ) − ( 6 )
13
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥 + = 𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
6
17
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑡− 6
∴∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | | + 𝐶1
2 17 2 3 × 2 × 17 𝑡 +
17
𝑡 −(6) 6 6
13 17
1 𝑥+ 6 − 6
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | | + 𝐶1
17 13 17
𝑥+ 6 + 6
1 6𝑥 − 4
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | | + 𝐶1
17 6𝑥 + 30
1 3𝑥 − 2 1 1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝐶1
17 𝑥+5 17 3

1 3𝑥 − 2
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |+𝐶
17 𝑥+5

𝒅𝒙
(5) ∫
√ 𝟓𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝒙

29
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
√5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
√5 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 )
5
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
√5 2 2
√(𝑥 − 1) − (1)
5 5
1
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − = 𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
5
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑡
∫ = ∫ 2
√5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 √5 𝑡 2 − (1)
5

𝑑𝑥 1 1 2
∫ = √ 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑡 + 𝑡 − ( ) | + 𝐶
√5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 √5 5

𝑑𝑥 1 1 2𝑥
∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 − + √𝑥 2 − | + 𝐶
√5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 √5 5 5

𝒙+𝟐
(6) ∫ 𝟐𝒙𝟐 +𝟔𝒙+𝟓 𝒅𝒙

Using the formula

𝑑
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝐴 (𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄) + 𝐵 = 𝐴(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐵
𝑑𝑥
we express,
𝑑
𝑥+2=𝐴 (𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟓) + 𝐵 = 𝐴(4𝑥 + 6) + 𝐵
𝑑𝑥

Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get 4A = 1 and 6A +
B = 2 or
1 1
𝐴= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 =
2 2
𝑥+2 1 4𝑥 + 6 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
2𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 5 4 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 5 2 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 5
1 1
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
4 2
In I1 , put 2x2 + 6x + 5 = t, so that (4x + 6) dx = dt
𝑑𝑡
𝐼1 = ∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑡| + 𝐶 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5| + 𝐶1
𝐼

30
 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = ∫ = ∫
2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5
2
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
2 3 2 1 2
(𝑥 + 2) + (2)
3
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 + = 𝑡 , , 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
2
1 𝑑𝑡 1
𝐼2 = ∫ 2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2𝑡 + 𝐶2
2 1 1
𝑡 2 + (2) 2×2

3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2 (𝑥 + ) + 𝐶2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2𝑥 + 3) + 𝐶
2
𝑥+3
(1) ∫ √5−4𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Problems:
𝟑𝒙𝟐
(1) 𝒙𝟔 +𝟏

3𝑥 2 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
∫ 6 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 2
𝑥 +1 (𝑥 ) + 1
t=x3⇒dt=3x2dx
𝑑𝑡
=∫
𝑡2 +1
=tan−1t+c where c is the constant of integration.
=tan−1(x3)+c where t=x3

𝟏
(2)
√𝟏+𝟒𝒙𝟐

1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 4𝑥 2
√4 (1 + 𝑥 2 )
4
1 1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 2
√4√4 + 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 + 1
4

1 1 1 1 2
= ∫ √ 2
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + 𝑥 + ( ) | + 𝐶
2 2 2 2
√𝑥 2 + (1)
2

31
 1 1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + | + 𝐶
2 4

1 4𝑥 2 + 1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √ |+𝐶
2 4

1 √4𝑥 2 + 1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + |+𝐶
2 √4
𝟏
(3)
√𝟗−𝟐𝟓𝒙𝟐

Let 5x=t
∴5dx=dt
1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
√9 − 25𝑥 2 5 √9 − 𝑡 2
1 𝑡 1 5𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐶
5 3 5 3

𝟏
(4)
√𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙+𝟐

Let x+1=t
∴dx=dt

1 1
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑡 + √𝑡 2 + 1| + 𝐶
√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 √𝑡 2 + 1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |(𝑥 + 1) + √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 1| + 𝐶

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |(𝑥 + 1) + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶

𝟏
(5)
√(𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙−𝟐)

9 9
(x−1)(x−2)=x2−3x+2=𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 − 4 + 2

3 2 1 3 2 1 2
= (𝑥 − ) − = (𝑥 − ) − ( )
2 4 2 2

32
 1 1
∫ =∫
√(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 2 2
√(𝑥 − 3) − (1)
2 2
3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 − = 𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2

1 1 1 2
∫ =∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑡√𝑡 2 − ( ) | + 𝐶
2 2 2 2
√(𝑥 − 3) − (1) √𝑡 2 − (1)
2 2 2

3 3 2 1 2
√
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |(𝑥 − ) (𝑥 − ) − ( ) | + 𝐶
2 2 2

𝟒𝒙+𝟏
(6)
√𝟐𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟑
𝑑
Let 4𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3)

⇒4x+1=A(4x+1)+B
⇒4x+1=4Ax+A+B
Equating the coefficients of x and constant term on both sides, we obtain
4A=4⇒A=1
A+B=1⇒B=0
Let 2x2+x−3=t
∴(4x+1)dx=dt
4𝑥 + 1 1
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑡
√2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 √𝑡
2√𝑡 + 𝐶 = 2√2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 + 𝐶

Integration by Partial Fractions:

The following Table indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated
with various kind of rational functions.

Form of the rational function Form of the partial fraction

𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
,𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 +
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏)

33
 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎)2
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑐)
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ 2
+
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑐)
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
+ 2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)

Examples:

𝑑𝑥
(1) ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)

The integrand is a proper rational function. Therefore, by using the form of partial fraction
1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2)
where, real numbers A and B are to be determined suitably.
This gives 1 = A (x + 2) + B (x + 1).
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant term, we get A + B = 0 and 2A + B = 1
Solving these equations, we get A =1 and B = – 1.
Thus, the integrand is given by,
1 1 −1
= +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2
1 −1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥+2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + 1| − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
𝑥+1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |+𝐶
𝑥+2
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
(2) Find ∫ 𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙+𝟔
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
Here the integrand 𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙+𝟔 is not proper rational function, so we divide x2 + 1 by x2 – 5x +

6 and find that

𝑥2 + 1 5𝑥 − 5 5𝑥 − 5
2
=1+ 2 =1+
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)
5𝑥−5 𝐴 𝐵
Let (𝑥−2)(𝑥−3) = (𝑥−2 ) + (𝑥−3)

34
 5x – 5 = A (x – 3) + B (x – 2) Equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides,
we get A + B = 5 and 3A + 2B = 5. Solving these equations, we get A = – 5 and B = 10
𝑥 2 +1 5 10
Thus, ∫ 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 = ∫ 1 − 𝑥−2 + 𝑥−3 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 = ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 − 5 ∫ + 10 ∫
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥−2 𝑥−3

𝑥2 + 1
∫ = 𝑥 − 5𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 2| + 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 3| + 𝐶
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6

𝟑𝒙−𝟐
(3) ∫ (𝒙+𝟏)𝟐 (𝒙+𝟑)

3𝑥 − 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
∫ = + +
(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 + 3)
So that 3x – 2 = A (x + 1) (x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x + 1)2 = A (x2 + 4x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x2 + 2x +
1)
Comparing coefficient of x2 , x and constant term on both sides, we get A + C = 0, 4A + B + 2C = 3
and 3A + 3B + C = – 2. A=11/4 , B=-5/2 and C=-11/4
Solving these equations, we get.
3𝑥−2 11 𝑑𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 11 𝑑𝑥
Thus the integrand is given by, ∫ (𝑥+1)2 (𝑥+3) = 4
∫ (𝑥−1) − 2 ∫ (𝑥+1)2 − 4
∫ (𝑥+3)

11 5 11
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 1| − − |𝑥 + 3| + 𝐶
4 2(𝑥 + 1) 4

11 𝑥−1 5
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |− +𝐶
4 𝑥+3 2(𝑥 + 1)
𝒙𝟐
(4) Find ∫ (𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒)

𝑥2
Consider ∫ (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥 2+4) put 𝑥 2 = 𝑦
𝑥2 𝑦
Then (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥 2+4) = (𝑦+1)(𝑦+4)

𝑦 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 + 4) 𝑦 + 1 𝑦 + 4

35
 So that y = A (y + 4) + B (y + 1) Comparing coefficients of y and constant terms on both
1 4
sides, we get A + B = 1 and 4A + B = 0, which give A=− 3 , 𝐵 = 3

𝑥2 1 4
= − +
(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 4) 3(𝑥 2 + 1) 3(𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 4𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 2
= ∫− +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 4) 3(𝑥 + 1) 3(𝑥 2 + 4)
2

𝑥2 1 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 = − ∫ + ∫
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 4) 3 (𝑥 2 + 1) 3 (𝑥 2 + 4)
1 4 1 𝑥
= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + × 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝐶
3 3 2 2

1 2 𝑥
= − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝐶
3 3 2
𝒙𝟐 +𝒙+𝟏 𝒅𝒙
(5) ∫ (𝒙+𝟐)(𝒙𝟐+𝟏)

𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
∫ = +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 2 + 1)

Therefore, x2 + x + 1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 2)

Equating the coefficients of x2 , x and of constant term of both sides, we get A + B =1, 2B +
3 2 1
C = 1 and A + 2C = 1. Solving these equations, we get, 𝐴 = 5 , 𝐵 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 5

Thus, the integrand is given by

2 1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑥+ 3 1 2𝑥 + 5
∫ = + 5 5= + ( )
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 1) 5(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 2 + 1 5(𝑥 + 2) 5 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 1 2𝑥 1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∫ 2
= ∫ + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 5 (𝑥 + 2) 5 (𝑥 + 1) 5 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 3 1 1
∫ 2
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + 2| + |(𝑥 2 + 1)| + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 5 5 5

Problems:
𝒙
(1) ∫ (𝒙+𝟏)(𝒙+𝟐)
𝑥
𝐼=∫
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)
We can write,

36
 𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
−𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)
∴x=A(x−2) +B(x−1) ............ (1)
Putting x=1 in (1)
1=A(−1)+0⇒A=−1
Putting a=2 in (1)
2=0+B (1)⇒B=2
𝑥 −1 2
𝐼=∫ =∫ + 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐼=∫ +∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶
𝑥−1 𝑥−2

𝟑𝒙−𝟏
(2) ∫ (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙−𝟑)

3𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
∫ = + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 3)
(3x−1)=A(x−2)(x−3)+B(x−1)(x−3)+C(x−1)(x−2)

Put x=1,A=1

x=2,B=−5

x=3,C=4
3𝑥 − 1 1 5 4
∫ = − +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 3)
3𝑥 − 1 1 1 1
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 5 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 3)
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 1| − 5𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 2| + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 − 3|

37
 𝟐
(3) ∫ (𝟏−𝒙)(𝟏+𝒙𝟐 )

2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ = +
(1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 ) (1 − 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥 2 )
2

2 𝐴(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

⇒∫ =
(1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 ) (1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )
⇒2=A(1+x2)+(Bx+C)(1−x)

⇒2=A+Ax2+Bx−Bx2+C−Cx

⇒2=(A+C)+(A−B)x2+(B−C)x

Equating coefficients both sides, we get

A+C=2,A−B=0,B−C=0

⇒A=B,B=C

⇒A=B=C,A+A=2⇒A=1

therefore A=B=C=1
2 1 𝑥+1
⇒∫ = +
(1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 ) (1 − 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥 2 )
1 𝑥+1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ = −𝑙𝑜𝑔|1 − 𝑥| + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|(1 + 𝑥 2 )| + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
(1 − 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 2

Integration by Parts:

“The integral of the product of two functions = (first function) × (integral of the second
function) – Integral of [(differential coefficient of the first function) × (integral of the second
function)]”

∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙) ∫ 𝒈(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 − ∫ [𝒇′ (𝒙) ∫ 𝒈(𝒙)𝒅𝒙] 𝒅𝒙

Examples:
(1) Find ∫ 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒅𝒙

38
 𝑑
∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ (𝑥) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶

f(x) = cos x and g(x) = x. Then

𝑑
∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
(2) ∫ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
We take log x as the first function and the constant function 1 as the second function. Then,
the integral of the second function is x.
𝑑
∫ log 𝑥 . 1𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥 ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ (log 𝑥 ∫ 1𝑑𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
= log 𝑥. 𝑥 − ∫ . 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥. 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
(3) ∫ 𝒙𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Take first function as x and second function as ex . The integral of the second function is ex .

∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 1. 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

(4) ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙

Take ex as the first function and sin x as second function. Then, integrating by parts, we have

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + 𝐼1

Taking ex and cos x as the first and second functions, respectively, in I1 , we get

𝐼1 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Substituting the value of I1 in (1), we get

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

39
 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐼

2𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)

𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)
𝐼= +𝐶
2

Problems: Integrate the functions in Exercises

(1) 𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙

∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Taking x as first function and sin x as second function and integrating by parts, we get,
𝑑
∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫( (𝑥) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥. (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) − ∫ 1. (−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

(2) 𝒙𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥

Taking logx as first function and x2 as second function and integrating by parts, we obtain
𝑑
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 1 𝑥3
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ( ) − ∫ . 𝑑𝑥
3 𝑥 3
𝑥 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 3
= − +𝐶
3 9

(3) (𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙)𝟐

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2

Taking (sin−1x)2 as first function and 1 as second function and integrating by parts, we obtain
𝑑
𝐼 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 ∫ 1𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 . 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2

40
 2𝑥
= 𝑥. (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
2𝑥 𝑑 2𝑥
= 𝑥. (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ∫ ( ) − ∫ [ (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
1
= 𝑥. (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 + [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 2√1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ . 2√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥]
√1 − 𝑥 2

= 𝑥. (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 + [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥2√1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ 2𝑑𝑥]

= 𝑥. (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 + [2√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝐶]

𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙
(4)
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐

𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 =
√1 − 𝑥 2
1 −2𝑥
𝐼=− ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − 𝑥 2
−2𝑥
Taking cos−1x as first function and √1−𝑥2 as second function,
1 −2𝑥 𝑑 −2𝑥
= − [𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ∫ − ∫ { 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ∫ } 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥. 2√1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ − . 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − 𝑥 2

1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥. 2√1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ −2𝑑𝑥
2
1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥. 2√1 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2

(5) 𝒙𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙

Consider given the given integration,

Let, 𝐼 = 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑
= 𝑥 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ( ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 1𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

Integrals of some more types:

41
(i) ∫ √𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒅𝒙
Taking constant function 1 as the second function and integrating by parts, we have
1 2𝑥
𝐼 = 𝑥 ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫
2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑥2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
𝐼 = 𝑥. √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥. √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑑𝑥
𝐼 = 𝑥. √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎2 ∫
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑑𝑥
𝐼 = 𝑥. √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 𝐼 − 𝑎2 ∫
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑑𝑥
2𝐼 = 𝑥. √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 ∫
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑥 𝑎2
𝐼 = ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
2 2

𝒙 𝒂𝟐
(ii) ∫ √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒅𝒙=𝟐 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒙 + √𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 | + 𝑪
𝟐
𝟏 𝒙 𝒂𝟐
(iii) ∫ √𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 √ + 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒙 + √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 | + 𝑪
𝒙𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 𝟐

Examples:
1. Find ∫ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒅𝒙

∫ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 4 𝑑𝑥

Put x + 1 = y, so that dx = dy. Then

∫ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑦 2 + 22 𝑑𝑦

1 4
= 𝑦√𝑦 2 + 4 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑦 + √𝑦 2 + 4 | + 𝐶
2 2
1
= (𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 |(𝑥 + 1) + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 | + 𝐶
2
2. Find ∫ √𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

∫ √3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √4 − (𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥

Put x + 1 = y so that dx = dy.

∫ √3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √4 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

42
 1 4 𝑦
= 𝑦√4 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝐶
2 2 2
1 𝑥+1
= (𝑥 + 1)√3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )+𝐶
2 2
3. √𝟒 − 𝐱 𝟐

𝐼 = √4 − x 2 = √22 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4 𝑥
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ √22 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √4 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝐶
2 2 2
𝑥 𝑥
= √4 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝐶
2 2

4. √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏

𝐼 = √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1

∫ √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = ∫ √𝑥 2 + 2(𝑥)(2) + 1𝑑𝑥

= ∫ √𝑥 2 + 2(𝑥)(2) + (2)2 + 1𝑑𝑥

= ∫ √𝑥 2 + 2(𝑥)(2) + (2)2 − 4 + 1𝑑𝑥

= ∫ √(𝑥 + 3)2 − 3

2
= ∫ √(𝑥 + 3)2 − (√3)
2
𝑥+2 2 (√3) 2
= √(𝑥 + 3)2 − (√3) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + 2 + √(𝑥 + 3)2 − (√3) | + 𝐶
2 2
𝑥+2 2 3
= √𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 − 3 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + 2 + √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 − 3| + 𝐶
2 2
𝑥+2 2 3
= √𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 − 3 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + 2 + √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
2 2

𝒙 𝟐
5. √𝟏 + 𝟗

𝑥2 1 1
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = √1 + = √9 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √32 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
9 3 3
1 𝑥 9
𝐼 = [ √9 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 9|] + 𝐶
3 2 2
43
 𝑥 3
= √𝑥 2 + 9 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 9| + 𝐶
6 2

Definite Integral:

𝑏
A definite integral is denoted by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where a is called the lower limit of the integral
and b is called the upper limit of the integral. The definite integral is introduced either as the
limit of a sum or if it has an anti-derivative F in the interval [a, b], then its value is the
difference between the values of F at the end points, i.e., F(b) – F(a)

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

Area function:
𝑥
Area function and is given by 𝐴(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
First fundamental theorem of integral calculus:
Theorem 1:
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function.
Then A′(x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [a, b].
Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Theorem 2:
Let f be continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti derivative
𝑏
of f. Then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
Examples:
Evaluate the following integrals:

𝟑
1. ∫𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
3 3
𝑥32
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
2 3 2
27 8 19
𝐼 = 𝐹(3) − 𝐹(2) = − =
3 3 3
𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙
2. ∫𝟏 (𝒙+𝟏)(𝒙+𝟐)

44
 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Let 𝐼 = ∫1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2)

Using partial fraction, we get

𝑥𝑑𝑥 −1 2
= +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥𝑑𝑥
So, (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) = −𝑙𝑜𝑔|(𝑥 + 1)| + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔|(𝑥 + 2)| + 𝐶

Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have I = F(2) – F(1) ==

−𝑙𝑜𝑔|(3)| + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔|(4)| − [−𝑙𝑜𝑔|2| + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔|(3)|] + 𝐶
32
= – 3 log 3 + log 2 + 2 log 4 =𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
27
𝟗 √𝒙
3. ∫𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
𝒅𝒙
(𝟑𝟎−𝒙𝟐 )

9
√𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 2
4
(30 − 𝑥2)

We first find the anti derivative of the integrand.

3
3 2
Put 30 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 − 2 √𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 √𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 3 𝑑𝑡
9 √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡 2 1 2 1
Then ∫4 3 2
= − 3 ∫ 𝑡2 = 3 [𝑡 ] = 3 [ 3 ] = 𝐹(𝑥)
(30−𝑥 2 ) 30−𝑥 2

Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have

9

2 √𝑥 2 1 1 2 1 1 19
𝐼 = 𝐹(9) − 𝐹(4) = = [ − ]= [ − ]=
3 3 2 3 (30 − 27) 30 − 8 3 3 22 99
[(30 − 𝑥 2) ]4

𝝅
4. ∫𝟎𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝟐𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝜋
4
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡𝑑𝑡
0

Consider ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡𝑑𝑡

1
Put sin 2t = u so that 2 cos 2t dt = du or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑑𝑢
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑢4 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 2𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑡)
2 8

45
 𝜋 1 𝜋 1
𝐼 = 𝐹 ( ) − 𝐹(0) = [𝑠𝑖𝑛4 ( ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (0)] =
4 8 4 8
Problems:
𝟏
1. ∫−𝟏(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝒅𝒙
1
Let 𝐼 = ∫−1(𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
∫(𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = +𝑥+𝐶
2
By second fundamental theorem of calculus, we obtain
I=F(1)−F(−1)
1 1 1 1
= ( + 1) − ( − 1) = + 1 − + 1 = 2
2 2 2 2
𝝅
2. ∫𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
1
𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
2

𝜋
2 𝜋
∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 ( ) − 𝐹(0)
0 2
1 𝜋 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2 × 2 ) − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2 × 0)=2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋) − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) = 2 × 0 − 2 × 0 = 0

𝟏 𝒅𝒙
3. ∫𝟎
√𝟏+𝒙𝟐

𝑑𝑥
𝐼=∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥)
√1 + 𝑥2
By second fundamental theorem of calculus, we obtain
I=F(1) −F(0)
=sin−1(1)−sin−1(0)
𝜋 𝜋
=2 −0= 2

𝟏 𝟐𝒙+𝟑
4. ∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙
𝟓𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
1
2𝑥 + 3
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 5𝑥 2 + 1
1 1
2𝑥 3
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 5𝑥 2 + 1 2
0 5𝑥 + 1

46
 1 1 10𝑥 1
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
5 0 5𝑥 2 + 1 0 (√5𝑥) + 1

1
1 3 √5𝑥
= [𝑙𝑜𝑔(5𝑥 2 + 1)]10 + [𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ]
5 √5 1 0
1 3
𝐼 = (𝑙𝑜𝑔 6 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √5
5 √5
1 3
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 6 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √5
5 √5

𝟓
5. ∫𝟒 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙

5
I = ∫ ex dx
4

𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
5
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(5) − 𝐹(4) = (𝑒 5 − 𝑒 4 ) = 𝑒 4 (𝑒 1 − 1)
4

Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution:

Examples:
𝟏
1. Evaluate ∫−𝟏 𝟓𝒙𝟒 √𝒙𝟓 + 𝟏
Put t = x5 + 1, then dt = 5x4 dx. Therefore,
2 3 2 3
∫ 5𝑥 4 √𝑥 5 + 1 = ∫ √𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 2 = (𝑥 5 + 1)2
3 3
1
2 3 1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∫ 5𝑥 4 √𝑥 5 + 1 = [ (𝑥 5 + 1)2 ]
−1 3 −1

2 3 3 2 3 3 2 4√2
= [(15 + 1)2 − ((−15 ) + 1)2 ] = [22 − 02 ] = (2√2) =
3 3 3 3
𝟏 𝒙
2. ∫𝟎 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐

𝑥
𝐼=∫
𝑥2 + 2
Let x2+1=t⇒2xdx=dt
When x=0, t=1 and when x=1, t=2

47
 1
𝑥 1 2 𝑑𝑡 1 1 1
∴∫ 2 = ∫ = [𝑙𝑜𝑔]12 = [𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1] = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
0 𝑥 +2 2 1 𝑡 2 2 2

𝟏 𝟐𝒙
3. ∫𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝟏+𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
1 2𝑥
Let 𝐼 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2

lso, let x=tanθ⇒dx=sec2θdθ

When x=0,θ=0 and when x=1
𝜋
4 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
0 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
𝜋
4
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋 𝜋
4 4
=∫ (2𝜃)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 2 ∫ 𝜃𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
0 0

Taking θ as first function and sec2θ as second function and integrating by parts, we obtain
𝜋
𝑑 4
𝐼 == 2 [𝜃 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 − ∫ { 𝜃 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃} 𝑑𝜃]
𝑑𝑥 0
𝜋
𝜋
4
= 2 [𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃] = 2[𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃|]04
0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 2 [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑐𝑜𝑠 | − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|cos 0|]
4 4 4
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 2 [ + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) − log 1] = − log 2 = − log 2
4 √2 4 2 2

𝝅
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
4. ∫𝟎𝟐 𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝜋
sin 𝑥
𝐼 = ∫02 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥……………….. (i)
𝑏 𝑏
Also using ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 (𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜋
(𝜋−𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐼 = ∫02 𝑑𝑥………………..(ii)
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥

𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
⇒(i)+(ii),2𝐼 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥

Put cosx=t=>dt=−sinxdx

48
 𝜋 1 1 𝜋
1 −1
𝜋2
𝐼= ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋𝑡𝑎𝑛 1 =
2 −1 1 + 𝑡 2 0 1+𝑡
2 4

Some Properties of Definite Integrals:

𝑏 𝑏
1. P0: ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
2. P2: ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
3. P3 : ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
4. P4 : ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
5. P5 : ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) (Note that P4 is a particular case of P3 )
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
6. P6 : ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , and 0 if f (2a – x) = – f (x)
𝑎 𝑎
7. (i) ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, if f is an even function, i.e., if f (– x) = f (x).
𝑎 𝑎
(ii) ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, if f is an odd function, i.e., if f (– x) = – f (x).
Examples:
𝟐
1. Evaluate ∫−𝟏|𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙|𝒅𝒙
We note that x3 – x ≥ 0 on [– 1, 0] and x3 – x ≤ 0 on [0, 1] and that x3 – x ≥ 0 on [1, 2]. So by
P2 we write
2 0 1 2
∫ |𝑥 3 − 𝑥|𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ −(𝑥 3 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 3 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−1 −1 0 1
0 1 2
= ∫ (𝑥 3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 3 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−1 0 1
2 0 4 1 2
𝑥4 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥4 𝑥2
=[ − ] +[ − ] +[ − ]
4 2 −1 2 4 0 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − ( − ) + ( − ) + (4 − 2) − ( − )
4 2 2 4 4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 11
=− + + − +4−2− + =
4 2 2 4 4 2 4
𝝅
2. ∫𝟒𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙
−
𝟒

We observe that sin2 x is an even function. Therefore, by P7 (i), we get

𝜋 𝜋
4 4
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝜋
− 0
4

49
 𝜋 𝜋
4 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) 4
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 2 0
𝜋
1 4 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 1
= [𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥] = ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) − 0 = −
2 0 4 2 2 4 2

𝟏
3. ∫−𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 𝒙𝒅𝒙
1
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥
−1

Let f(x) = sin5 x cos4 x. Then f (– x) = sin5 (– x) cos4 (– x) = – sin5 x cos4 x = – f (x), i.e., f is
an odd function. Therefore, by P7 (ii), I = 0

𝝅
𝒅𝒙
4. ∫𝝅𝟒 𝟏+ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
𝟔
√
𝜋 𝜋
𝑑𝑥 √𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫𝜋4 1+ = ∫𝜋4 ………….. (i)
6
√tan 𝑥 6
√𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥+√𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
√𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + −𝑥)
3 6
Then, by P3 𝐼 = ∫ 𝜋
4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6 √𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + −𝑥)+√𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + −𝑥)
3 6 3 6

𝜋
√𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥
=∫ 𝜋
3
………………… (ii)
√𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+√𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
6

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

𝜋
𝜋
3 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥]𝜋3 = − =
𝜋
6 3 6 6
6
𝜋
Hence 𝐼 = 12

Problems:
𝝅
1. ∫𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙
𝜋
∫02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 …………………. (1)

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
𝐼 = ∫02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐼 = ∫02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 …………. (2)

Adding (1) and (2), we obtain

50
 𝜋 𝜋
2 2
2𝐼 = ∫ (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1. 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋
2𝐼 = [𝑥]02
𝜋
2𝐼 =
2
𝜋
𝐼=
4

𝟖
2. ∫𝟐 |𝒙 − 𝟓|𝒅𝒙
𝟖
Let 𝐼 = ∫𝟐 |𝒙 − 𝟓|𝒅𝒙
It can be seen that (x−5)≤0 on [2,5] and (x−5)≥0 on [5,8].
5 8
𝑥2 𝑥2
= − [ − 5𝑥] + [ − 5𝑥]
2 2
2 5

25 64 25
=[ − 25 − 2 − 10] + [ − 40 − − 25] = 9
2 2 2
𝝅
3. ∫𝟎𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
𝜋
Let ∫04 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
4 𝜋
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( − 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
0 4
𝝅
𝟒 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [1 + ] 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + tan 𝑥
𝝅 𝜋 𝜋
𝟒 2 4 4
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ log 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + tan 𝑥 0 0
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2[𝑥]04 ⇒ 2𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 =
4 8
𝝅 𝒙𝒅𝒙
4. ∫𝟎 𝟏+𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝜋 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐼 = ∫0 …………………….. (2)
1+sin 𝑥
𝜋 (𝜋 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐼=∫
0 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝑥)
𝜋 (𝜋−𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐼 = ∫0 …………………… (1)
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Adding (1) and (2), we obtain

51
 𝜋
𝜋
2𝐼 = ∫
0 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝜋 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
2𝐼 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)
𝜋
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2𝐼 = 𝜋 ∫
0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
𝜋
2𝐼 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥
0

2𝐼 = 𝜋[tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥]𝜋0

2𝐼 = 𝜋[2] = 𝜋
𝟐𝝅
5. ∫𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓 𝒙𝒅𝒙
2𝜋
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0

We know that, cos5(2π−x) =cos5x

Also It is known that,
𝑎
2𝑎
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = { 0
0
= 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
𝜋
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2(0) = 0
0

52
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:
Find the following integrals in Exercises

1. ∫(4𝑒 3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
1 2
2. (√𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥
√ 𝑥

3. ∫ √𝑥(3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥+𝑎) 𝑑𝑥
1
6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥)
1
7. 1+𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
1
8. 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

√𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠√𝑥
10.
√𝑥
(1+𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)2
11. 𝑥
(𝑥+1)(𝑥+𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥)2
12. 𝑥
𝑥 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 4 )
13. 1+𝑥 8

14. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
15. ∫ √𝑥 2
−16
𝑑𝑥
16. ∫ √5𝑥 2
−2𝑥
1
17. √9−25𝑥 2
2
18. ∫ (1−𝑥)(1+𝑥 2)

19. 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
3
20. ∫2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
21. ∫04 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 2𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡𝑑𝑡
1
22. ∫−1 5𝑥 4 √𝑥 5 + 1
23. 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝑥

53
 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝑥
24.
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
cos 2𝑥
25. (cos 𝑥+sin 𝑥)2
5𝑥+3
26. √𝑥 2
+4𝑥+10
3𝑥
27. 1+2𝑥 4

54