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Unit 2 AWP PART 1

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64 views36 pages

Unit 2 AWP PART 1

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Mahak Bansal
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3.6 Radian, Steradian and Beam Solid Angle (Q,) The basic difference between radian and steradian is that the radian is the measure of a plane angle; while the steradian is the measure of a solid angle. One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle with radius 'r’ that is subtended by an arc whose length is also r. It is represented as unit rad os Antenna Fundamentals, Wave Theory and Antenna 3-16 Refer Fig. 3.14. The total circumference C of a 8 \ ncorer circle with radius r is given by, teas C=2nr | A Thus over a complete circle there are 2n radians. In the similar way, the measure of a solid angle is defined as steradian. One steradian is defined as Fig, 3.14 Representation of 1 a solid angle with its vertex at the centre of the radian plane angle sphere with radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side equal to r. The angle in steradian is expressed in Sr. Refer Fig. 3.14 (a). The area of a complete sphere with radius r is given by, Equivalent area Area = — : Solid angle subtended A = 4nr? . (1) by area A Thus over a closed sphere with radius F the solid angle subtended by it is 4 Fig. 3.14 (a) Representation of 1 steradian steradian. Solid angle Now we can write, 1 steradian = 1 gy = Sblid angie of sphere -Q 4n 2 _ (180)? > 1St = Trad? = (—*] (deg)? = 3282.81 Square degrees -- @) ‘The infinitesimal area ds on the surface of a sphere with radius r is given by, ds = 5? sino dodo m2 Hence the element of solid angle dQ of a sphere is given by, —emrora spher d dQ = & ~ sino d0 do steradian r Beam Solid Angle (or Beam Area) A Generally in the antenna pattem the beam area or beam solid angle is expressed in Steradian. It is defined as the inte ral ize mucwel asp egral of n e ‘ ee 8! ‘ormalized power pattern over here. It is nx ©, = Jf Ps.@,6)sinao do = 00:0 Wave Theory and Antenna 3-17 Antenna Fundamentals But dQ = sin dO dé. Hence beam area is given by, Qnon a Q, = ff Py 0.0d@ steradian @ = 0050 Many times, the beam area Q, is described in terms of the angles subtended by half power points of the main lobe as shown in the Fig. 3.15. £—Eduivalent solid angle 2, Pattern of beam area Qa, Half power beam width 8p ~< Fig. 3.15 Representation of equivalent solid angle Thus beam area can be written as, Beam area = Qy = Oyp yp steradian 6) Where @,4p and $yp are half power beamwidths neglecting minor lobes. Note ‘that above relationship is approximate relationship. 3.8 Directive Gain [Gp (0,6)] and Directivity [D] An isotropic antenna is the omnidirectional antenna. The meaning of the omAidirectional antenna is the antenna acting as a point radiator which radiates equally in Ail directions. But practically an isotropic antenna does not exist in practice. Practically antenna does not radiate equally in all directions. If the antenna were isotropic i.e. if it were to radiate uniformly in all directions, then the power density at all the points on the surface of a sphere will be same. The average power can be expressed in terms of the radiated power as, -(@ The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density Paco to the average Power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of the directive gain is unity. Rearranging the terms, Py (8,6)+1? tz | Gp (6,0) Wave Theory and Antenna 3-19 Antenna Fundamentals The numerator in the above ratio is the radiation intensity while the denominator is the average valug of the radiation intensity. Hence the directive gain can be written as, Gp (0) = LO UO) (2) ‘mensuire_of the concentration of the ) The_ratio_of Esimain Power Gey to the average power radiated is called maximum directive gain or directivity of the antenna. It is denoted by Gp max or D. ~ P. D=G, = —dmx 71 Dmmax = Pr @ 4nr? ‘The directivity can alternatively defined as, Umax _ 4 U, D = Gpmax = pm = Ae Emax aC = ae ® ‘The directivity of an antenna is dimensionless quantity. The directivity can also be expressed in terms of the electric field intensify aS. 4nlEmaxl” © a |E@,)* sino 40 do We know that average powr density Payg can be defined as, + % Payg = & J J (0,4) sino d0 do 49-0020 But we know that dQ = sind d@ dé, 1 Pavg = J J P(6,0) d& Watt/Sr » (6) Thus from equation (3), putting value of P,yg, the directivity can be defined as, Pamax (8,4) max : ex D= -7 “eo f PO, 4) da 7) Wave Theory and Antenna 3-20 Antenna Fundamentals Rearranging terms, D 1 P08) Fr J | reseax| 2° But Pu oe = P, (0,9) = Normalized power pattern 4n 4n D = ———_ = — [f Pa@.oaa 2a ~ 8) Es Equation (8) represents the directivity in terms of beam area (or beam solid angle) © So alternatively we can define the directivity as the ratio of area of a sphere (47 St) to the beam area Qq of an antenna. Key Point ; If the beam area of an antenna is smaller, its directivity is greater. An isotropic radiator has lowest possible directivity of value D = 1. All practical antennas have directivity value D > 1. If the half power beamwidths of an antenna are known, then we can express directivity as, 412537 ae 9) Shp np 2 Where 41253" = Number of square degrees in sphere = an( 2) square degree ®};p = HPBW in one principle plane up = HPBW in other principle plane Above equation is obtained by neglecting minor lobes. If we consider minor lobes too, then the approximate formula for directivity is, wo (10) tmp Example 3.1 : If an antenna has a main lobe with Op = 20°, Op = 20°, calculate approximate directivity and comment on result, “ ‘ Solution ; Let us use approximate formulae, neglecting minor lobes, p = Se Stdes?) _ 41255(deg?) _ 95 Hp Sup (20°)(20°) Wave Theory and Antenna 3-21 Antenna Fundamentals Expressing directivity of a givén antenna in dBi ic. decibles over isotropic antenna (or radiator). D. = 2 login Direetivity of given antenna fina) Directivity of isotropic radiator 103 = 20 log ig D = 1 for isotropic radiator = 40.2567 dBi Thus the antenna radiates a maximum power in the direction of main lobe w' 103 times as much as radiated by an isotropic radiator for the same power input. +-3.9 Directivity and Resoiution The resolution of an antenna is defined as half of the beamwidth between first nulls. ee Resolution = FNEW (1) *-* But half the beamwidth between first nulls is approximately equal to the half power beamwidth (APBW) of an antenna, a ie. HPBW ~ mew . ENBW Actually in practice for an antenna HPBW is slightly less than —> ~~ ‘As we discussed earlier, the antenna beam area is given by the product of two half power beamwidths in two principle planes. Hence we can write, FNBW. FNBW By = Oye b= (EH) ® > If there are N-number of point sources of radiations distributed uniformly, then antenna resolves those and its expression is given by, 4 N a, | where Q, = Beam area expressed in Sr. .. 3) A But by definition, the directivity of antenna is defined as, 4) Wave Theory and Antenna 3-22 Antenna Fundamentals Thus ideally number of point sources resolved’ By an antenna is equal to directivity of an antenna. Key Point : The resolution of antenna is also called Rayleigh Resolution. The expression D= ve represents number of beam areas of antenna pattern while D = N represents number of point sources resolved by antenna in the sky which is ideally equal to directivity of an antenna. 3.10 Power Gain [Gp (0,)] and Radiation (or Antenna) Efficienc: |_ Power Gan evar The practical antenna is made up of a conductor having finite conductivity. Hence we must consider_the ohmic power loss of the antenna. If the practical antenna has ohmic Tosses (I2R) represented by Pigs, then the power radiated P,,q is less than the input power Py. Then we can express the P,,q in terms of the Pi, as eke eee en ee Prd = Mr Pin where 1), is called radiation efficiency of an antenna. Thus the radiation efficiency of an antenna can bé written as, _an antenna can De Wren 38. Prad Tr = Pin —_—___—. But the total input power to the antenna can be written as, Pin = Prad *Ploss —_—_~ Hence the radiation efficiency can be written as, Prad ak > Plat Poss The power radiated and the ohmic power loss can be expressed interms_of rms. current as, ns 7 7 i current{as7y Pra = Hms Rraa and Pross = Tims Rioss ven by, Then the radiation effici pee we iter Wave Theory and Antenna 3-23 Antenna Fundamentals fer radiate The ratio of the input fo the antenna denoted by Gp (8,4) ver_radinted ina particular direction (0,0) tothe actual power s called power gain of antenna. The power gain of the antenna is nd it is given by, *P max ~ Radiation intensity due to isotropic lossle: Maximum radiation intensity antenna But the maximum radiation intensity is given by, = Prad (aPin) Umax = fq GDmax | Spmax =e Gomax =" DI For many practical antennas, the radiation efficiency n, is 100%. Then the the dire ‘directional gain of power gain is approximately same as the din the antenna. Generally, both power gain and the directional gain _are_expressed_in decibels (a8). Example 3.2: The radiation resistance of am arttenna is 72 Q and loss resistance is of 8.Q. What is the directivity if the power gain is 30 ? Solution : The efficiency of antenna is given by, Rea ea Prad = 7 rad tRigg 7248 80 Me Pag Piow 7 The power gain of the antenna is given by, Gpmax = 9*Gdmax _ Wave Theory and Antenna 3-24 Antenna Fundamentals wi Hence directivity is given by, Gp 30 G = —Pmax _ 50 33: 4 max Th 15 = 33:33 Hence directivity (in dB) is given by Ga max (0 dB) = 10108 5, [Gg max ] = 10 log yy (33.33) = 15.2283 dB ” Example 3.3 : An aritenna has a radiation 72 Qand a loss resistance of 7Q. If the pours gain is 20, calculate the directivity «nd efficiency of the antenna. Solution : Rg = 73.2 Mr 91.25 % % Nr Now the power gain and directivity are related to each other through relation by, Gp = mr-Gq Gp_ 20 Gy = P= oping = 219178 Expressing directivity in dB as, Gg (in dB) = 10 logy, [Gy] = 10 log,9(21.9178) = 13.4079 dB imp Example 3.4 : Calculate power gain of a half wave dipole whose ohmic losses and directive gain are 7 Q.and 1.64 respectively. Solution : For a half wave dipole, R, ‘rad = 732 Hence antenna efficiency is given by, R oe " Ryad + Ross Wave theory and Antenna 3-25 Antenna Fundamentals Power gain ~ Directive gain But Gy = 164 :. Hence power gain is given by, TieGq = 0.9125 (1.64) = 1.4965 (0 log (1.4965) = 1.7507 4B G or Gp (in dB) = 10 logy Gp wap Example 3.5: Calculate the minimum distance required to measure the field pattern of an anterma of diameter 2 m at a frequency of 3 GHz. Frequency = 3 GHz = 3 x 10° Hz d = Diameter = 2m Solution : Given : ‘The wavelength at signal frequency is given by, ‘The minimum distance required to measure the field pattern of an antenna is given by, 2d? _ 22)? OL = 80m 3.11 Front to Back Ratio (FBR) _ itis the ratio of the power radiated in the desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction. the opposite cect op bower radiated in desired direction a Power radiated in opposite direction very high as it is expected to have ier than that in the back or opposite Obviously, the front-to-back ratio value di large radiation in tbe front or desired direction rathe Secon cy of operation. So_when_frequency—of -an antenna s on the spacing between the wereases the FBR decrease elements of the antenna. The FBR depends on_freque changes, the FBR also changes. Similarly the FBR depen ntenna elements, If the spacing between antenna elements * The FBR also depends on the electrical length of the parasit Wave Theory and Antenna 3-26 ‘Antenna Fundamentals ‘The FBR can be raised by divertng the gain of backward direction response of the antentia to The Front ot forward or desired drection by adjusting the length of the parasitic ‘lements. The method of adjusting the electrical length of the parasitic element is called Clements ThE 5 , "tuning, Thus higher EBR is obtained af the cost of gain fom the opposite direction. Practically the BR is important in_case_of the receiving antennas rather than transmittir ‘agg. At the receiving antenna, adjustments are made in such a way to obtain maximum FBR rather than maximum gain. — aa 3.42 Antenna Beamwidth 312 Aen eoeorw Basically antenna beamwidth is the measuic of the directivity of the antenna. The anfenra beamwidth is an angular wich in degrees. It is measured on a radiation. pattern “The antenna beamwidth is defined as the angular width in degrees betw two points on a major lobe of a radiation pattern where the radiated power decreases to half of beamwidth is illustrated in_the fs maximum value, The measurement of the antenna 4) and{b). Main lobe axis Beamiath between fist nus (GWEN) ) ior oes Back obe {)Antenna_power pattern in (b) Antenna power pattern in Pparcomdietes “fectangular co-ordinates aa ~and logarithmic scale Fig. 3.16 Measurement of antenna beamwidth Jn the Fig. 36 (a), antenna power pattern is represented co-Bidinates. “The same patern—is—represented on logarithmi ‘co-ordinates in the Fig. 316 (b). OO . The beamwidth is also called Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) because it is measures etween opin on lobe where the power is half of its maximum power, rom Fig, 3.16 {@) itis clear that the power is maximum at point P, while it is half at (Points P, and P, both, Hence the angular width between points P, and P, is nothing but a beamwidth or half power beamwidth (HPBW). The ear scale in_polar je scale in rectangular Wave Theory and Antenna 3-27 Antenna Fundamentals 3-dB beamwidth as reduction of power to half of its maximum value corresponds to the reduction of power (expressed in dB) by 3 dB. From Fig, 3.16 (b) it is clear power is maximum at point P, bul at points P, and P, the power is 3 dB down the maximum power. Mat times, the antenna radiation pattern is described in terms of the angular width petween first nulls or first side lobes. Then such an angular beamwidth ‘is. called Beamwidth between First Nulls (BWEN), The directivity (D) of the antenna is related with beam solid angle 2, or beam area B through expression ee where, BES = (HPBW) in horizontal plane x (HPBW) in vertical plane. (1) (HPBW) in E-plane x (HPBW) in H-plane ... where 0, and 04; in radians. __4n — OnOn if 0, and Oy are in radians 4.2) We can convert angles expressed in radians into angles in degrees by using relation, Trad = cs 57.295 = 57." Then, 4n(57.3)> _ 41257 @ OE Oy OE OW ~ Above formula is approximate formula and it is applicable only to the antennas with narrow beamwidth (about 20°) with no minor lobes in the radiation pattern. The beamwidth of the antenna is affected by the shape of the radiation pattern, wavelength and dimensions. 3.13 Antenna Beam Efficiency (em) To examine the quality of the transmitting and receiving ant efficiency parameter is important. For the antenna with major | the beam efficiency is defined as, ap __ Power transmitted (or recived) within the cone angle Oy a = Dower transmitted (or received) by antenna Q) the antenna beam coincident with z-axis a Wave Theory and Antenna 3-28 Antenna Fundamentals where, 0; is the half angle of the cone within which the percentage of total power ig found. Mathematically, the beam efficiency is given by, ie f f LG, @)sin@ dodo Oa oe @ 7 7 J Ue, ¢sine dodo The beam efficiency can be expressed in terms of the mean beam area (Qy4) and total beam area (Q,). Then the beam efficiency can also be defined as the ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area. It is also denoted by &\y BE = ey =—M ++ 3) Note that the total beam area (Q,) is the combination of the main beam area (Q,,) and the minor lobe area (Qy,) ice. Op = Qy + 2p ~& Dividing equation (4) by Qq on both the sides, we get so oe where, a . ain beam area = &\, = Beam efficiency And = ‘Minos lobe ares Stray factor Thus fy +&m =1 - 8) 3.14 Antenna Beamwidth (Aw) In general, the performance of antenna depends on various characteristics such as antenna gain, side lobe level, standing wave ratio (SWR), antenna impedance, radiation patterns, antenna polarization, front-to-back (FBR) ratio ete. During the operation of antenna these requirements may change. Thus there is no unique definition for antenna bandwidth. The functional bandwidth of the antenna is generally limited by one or more Wave Theory and Antenna 3-29 Antenna Fundamentals factors mentioned above. So the antenna bandwidth can be specified in many ways such as i) Bandwidth over which the gain of the antenna is higher than the acceptable value, or ii) Bandwidth over which the standing wave ratio of transmission line feeding antenna is below acceptable value, or iii) Bandwidth over which the FBR is minimum equal to the specified value ‘Thus in general we can define the bandwidth of antenna as the band of frequencies he antenna maintains required characteristics to the specified value. But as the wntenna change during the operation, the specifications are set depending upon the application for which that antenna is used. That means for certain antenna where Jue to the increase in side Tobe level, antenna gain decreases and resistance value changes, then the lower frequency limit is obtained by considering one of the parameters like pattem, gain or impedance. While the other parameters decide higher freqency limit. the antenna bandwidth mainly depends on impedance and pattern of .dance variation decides the bandwidth as Under such condition, bandwidth of the over which th requirements of a In general, ‘antenna. At low frequency, generally impe pattern characteristics are frequency insensitive. antenna is inversely proportional to Q factor of antenna. ‘Thus bandwidth can be expressed mathematically a5, Bandwidth = (B.W,) = Aw= 0, ~@, z (1) * 2) where, fy is the centre frequency or design frequency or resonant frequency, while Qfactor of antenna is given by, Total energy stored by antenna Q= 2n —Trergy radiated per cycle -@) ‘Thus for lower Q antennas, the antenna bandwidth is very high and vice a versa. 3.15 Input Impedance of Antenna or to ‘As discussed in the begining, an antenna is used to radiate power into free space receive energy from the space. The antenna can be used as either transmitting antenna or Wave Theory and Antenna 3-30 Antenna Fundamentals receiving antenna. Basically an antenna is connected to the transmitter or receive through either a transmission line or a waveguide with certain characteristic impedance. Consider that a practical antenna and transmitter are connected through a transmission line as shown in the Fig. 3.17 (a). 5 Antenna zo Ve A RF. Z voltage 4] B 8 (a) Antenna fed with (b) Equivalent circuit RF. voltage Fig. 3.17 A practical antenna fed via transmission line with R.F. voltage and its equivalent circuit including antenna impedance Z, With the RF. voltage supplied to antenna, the current distribution establishes on antenna. Once the current distribution is established, the power is radiated in the free space. At the same time a small part of power inputed is dissipated becauses ohmic losses in antenna. It is also observed that near antenna reactive field develops. So we can represent antenna with a complex antenna impedance Z,, with real resistive component Ry and reactive component X,. Such impedance is called antenna input impedance and it draws the power same as that antenna draws irom the transmission line. The equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 3.17 (b). Basically, antenna input impedance is the ratio of voltage applied at antenna terminals to the input current at terminals. Now consider that antenna with input impedance 4=R, + j Xq is connected to a source with Thevenin's equivalent voltage V and Thevenin's equivalent impedance Z, = Rg + j Xc- The maximum power transfer is possible only if the antenna input impedance Z, is complex conjugate of source impedance Z. The condition for maximum power transfer can be given as, Ry = Rg and X,=-Xg Thus under matching load condition, antenna current is given by, The real power supplied by the source can be expressed as, 1 . 1 \ = ZRetVgl") = 3[INel el] a) TRy Wave Theory and Antenna 3-31 Antenna Fundamentals So half of the power supplied is dissipated or lost in source resistance Re, itself while the remain half power is dissipate in antenna resistance Ry. Thus the effective power input to the antenna is, -lip Io? Pa = ZIPERA= aR, Q) Basically, antenna impedance Z, consists real resistive part Ry which gives power radiated by antenna while the reactive part indicates the reactive power stored in the near-field of antenna. The antenna resistance Ry is a combination of two resistances namely radiation resistance R,,4 and loss resistance R,,..- ie Ry = Resa + Rss a The total power inputed to antenna can be written as, . eliyeR ol yy? Py = FIP Rg = 3 IT? Beg + Rios) ely 1iy2 f ie. Pin = 5 II? Raa = 5 HI? Roos (4) ‘The total power radiated by an antenna is given by, 1 Pag = 3 II? Rea 6) The power dissipated or lost in antenna due to ohmic losses is given by, 1 Ploss = 3 ITI? Riss (6) Thus, from equation (4), (5) and (6) we can conclude that the total power imputed to the antenna is the combination of power radiated and power dissipated part of the power inputed to antenna is radiated by R,,4 and some small part of power is dissipated in Rss 1mm Example 3.6: An antenna is fed with a voltage source of (100 + j 80) V with impedance 50 . Calculate radiation efficiency of antenna, real power delivered by source, real power _ input to antenna, power radiated by antenna and power dissipated by antenna if antenna impedance is (71 + j 25) Q which includes loss resistance of 1 Q. Solution : Given : Vq = (100 + j 80) V = 128.0625 2 38.66" V 502 : Z, = (71+j25)9 Rag = 702) Rog =12 i) Radiation efficiency is given by, . : Rea m _71 ‘e ° _ 0.9859 Me = RaatRigs 7041 7 Wave Theory and Antenna 3-32 Antenna Fundamentals ‘Thus radiation efficiency is 98.59 % The equivalent circuit of system is as shown in the Fig. 3.18. Zp= (71 + )25)0 Fig. 3.18 128.062 121 66° _ 128.062 238.66" © 123.5556 211.67" 128.0625 2 38.66" OF 71+ P25) a 1 1.0365 2 26.99° A ii) Total power delivered by sources, Pg ; RelVgI"]= 5 Re [(128.0625.238.66") (1.03652 26.99°)] : Pg = Propped = 663684 W iii) The real power input to the antenna is given by, ipeRyet ? (71) = 38.1388 W Pig = SIN? (Ra) = 5 (1.0365)? (71) iv) The power radiated by antenna, lia wl 2 - Prag = SID? Ryag = 3 (1.0865)? 70) = 37.6016 W v) The power dissipated in antenna is given by, lip =t 2 ay = Puissp = Ploss = glll? Rioss = 3 (1-0365)" (1) = 0.5372 W 3.16 Self and Mutual Impedance of Antenna In general, any antenna is usually fed_with a transmission line.So it is important to knfow the impedance of the antenna-at the terminals where transmission line is connected. ‘Sich impedance is very important in the analysis of antenna. In general, any antenna can be used either as transmilling antenna or as receiving antenna. The transmitter and Teceiver are used along with transmitting antenna and receiving antenna respectively. Soa order to obtain_maximum power available from transmitter or to extract maximum | Teceived power from antenna at receiver, the impedance of t 3.16.1 Self Impedance of Antenna The impedance of antenna measured at the terminals where transmission line RF. power connected is called anten: ut impedance. These terminals are nothin; = a oO ed Wave Theory and Antenna 3-33 Antenna Fundamentals fe sere the impedance is also called feed point impedance or terminal the RF. power carried by the transmission line from the transmitter, excites jenna_input impedance can be alternatively called driving Antenna 1 1 — Antenna 4 , terminal Transmission Transmission = 2 line LJ (a) Representation of (b) Representation of antenna terminals(or feed ‘antenna impedance points) Fig. 3.19 Representation of antenna impedance When the antenna is lossless and isolated from ground and_other_objects,_the impedance offered by antenna to the transmission line is re resented by srminal “hetwork with impedance Z, as shown in the 3.19 (b). Note that the notation Z, epresents that the antenna impedance acts as load to the transmission line driving ate With a lossless and isolated antenna, the antenna terminal impedance is same as The self impedance of the antenna is a complex quantity gi Zy = RutiXn ~@) The real part of Zq Le. Ry, is called self resistance or radiation resistance of antenna, while the imaginary part of Zy; ue. X,, 1s called self reactance of antenna, For half wave “dipole, the self impedance is typically ——— Zy = Ry tiXn = 73454245 / o-Q) Key Point >The self impedance of antenna is always positive. The value of self impedance same for ten used ither_as transmitting antenna or recetving antenna, The self impedance of the antenna is nothing but the impedance measured at input terminals ‘ntenna with all other antennas are isolated from it. _ 3.16.2 Mutual Impedance of Antenna onsid f impedance of antenna, we assumed that the antenna is sossfess “and isola the other objects and ground. But many times in the large antenna systems, any antenna may be placed in the close vicinity of other active antennas, : : GC ste- me) b (nef, gpbouth al ) While’ considering. the s ON Wave Theory and Antenna 3-34 Antenna Fundamentals dance is not simply equal to the self impedance of ced due to the currents flowing in other called mutual In such cases, the antenna terminal impe The antenna but another impedance get a8 placed close to the antenna considered. Such impedance j introd active anteni impedance of antenna. | Before discussing mutual impedance of antenna, let us consider the coupled circuits wits kept very closed fo each other. When current flows in circuit 1, the minals of circuit-2. Similarly the current flowing in ircuit-1. It is illustrated in the "induced at the open te I pI e Be Circuit-1 Circuit - 2 Circuit-1—Cirouit- 2 Fig. 3.20 Representation of voltage induced in coupled circuits iment in other circuit. GB) - (4) Key Poin! Note that mutual inpedence and tS ere 2 are altogether different “concepts. pe ive the induced voltage in one circuit “Yo the current in other circuit. While the transfer ined i the ratio of voltage imposed im one circuit to | the calfed coupled an Exactly 8) (6) Wave Theory and Antenna 3-35 Antenna Fundamentals moe My ql | Ay A Ae @) OO) Fig. 3.21 Coupled antennas But_according ‘eciprocity theorem, we can write the mutual impedance of antenna a8, a a = M = q i The mutual impedance depends on. ’) Magnitude of induced voltage, ii) Phase difference between induced voltage and input current, iil) Tuning conditions of coupled antennas. ii) Tuning conditions of ore 3.17 Radiation Resistance In general, an antenna radiates power into fre waves. So the power dissipated is given by, Pag = PR ~(@ ‘rad .¢ space in the form of electromagnetic [Assuming all the power dissipated in the form of electromagnetic waves, then we can write, Prad R= te -2) ‘The resistance which relates power radiated by radiating antenna and the current flowing through the antenna is a fictitious resistance. Such resistance is called radiation resistance of antenna and it is denoted by R,,g oF Ry oF Ro. Key Point: The radiation resistance is a fictitious resistance such that when it is connected in series with antenna dissipates same power as the antenna actually radiates Hira een ee te Wave Theory and Antenna 3-36 Antenna Fundamentals But practically the energy supplied to the antenna is not completely radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves, but there are certain radiation losses due to the loss resistance denoted by Rjg.,- Thus the total power is given by, P= Prag +Phoss = Radiation loss + Ohmic loss - P = P Rag +1? Ross P = 12 (Rag +Riggg) @) Key Point: Tie radiation resistance of antenna depends on antenna configuration, ratio of length and diameter of conductor used, location of the antenna with respect to ground and other objects. [E] Reciprocity Theorem The statement of the reciprocity theorem is and bilateral network consisting the linear and bilateral impedance the 0 the current I measured in any s follows. “In any linear ratio of voltage V applied between any two terminals t branch is same as the ratio V to I obtained by interchanging the positions of voltage source and the ammeter used for current measurement.” The ratio V to I is generally called transfer impedance. Here both the voltage source and ammeter are assumed to have zero impedances. This theorem holds good if both, voltage source and ammeter have same internal impedances. This theorem is equally useful in the circuit theory as well as the field theory. Let us consider that the antenna system is represented as a 4-terminal network with pair of 1 oh ee —J_b 2 L, Ly +o }_+—o+ 4 + Antenna v. v4 Mi system V2 a =a) -o—___] Ss t 2 Input port Output port (a) (b) Fig. 3.24 4-Terminal representation of the antenna system .¢ Theory and Antenné Wav ry a 3-39 Antenna Fundamentals terminals at input and another pair of terminals at the output. It is also called two port network as pair of terminals is defined as port. The 4-terminal representation of the antenna SY 3424 (a). Note that the pair of ter at the pair of terminals or ports are Mothing but the terminals of the dipoles as shown in the Fig. 9.24 (b) . sstem is as shown in the P From Fig. 324, it is clear that there are four variables at two ports; namely pol Vz and a. Such variables are related to each other though the equations given by, Ve tn lite te V2 = 2 ti +2z2 Ip Thus according to the reciprocity theorem for the linear and bilateral networks, the conditions of the reciprocity of the network are, mp s2y 8 Yen 8 = 2h ‘The impedances z;p and 2, are called mutual impedances which are individually ratio of open circuit voltage at one port to the current at other por. Similarly admittances iz and ya, are called transfer admittances which are individually the ratio of a short Yi ted current at one port to the voltage at other port. Finally the impedances and zy are called transfer impedances which are individually the ratio of an open zp port to a short circuit current at other port. circuit voltage at one 3.19 Applications of Network Theorems to Antenna a and the receiving antenna are related to The properties of the transmitting antenna ach otter through various antenna theorems, deduced from the above mentioned setwork theorem, In general, te antenna theorems are applied fo analyze the properties of the transmitting antenna, For such antennas, the sinusoidal current distribution is assumed and for such assumption, the results can be obtained accurately by applying the theorems Tethe antennas used for the transmission. But in case of the antennas used as the recelviNg antennas, the current distribution in not approximately sinusoidal (except for resonant lengths, half wave dipole etc.) and there is a variation in the current distribution in accurdnce with the direction of the received field. This indicates that the basic antent properties such as directional property, impedance property ete, are not identical for the transmitting and receiving conditions. Thus it is difficult to compute the properties of the receiving antennas under this conditions. But by using following antenna theorems the properties of the receiving antenna can be infered from its properties as the transmitting antenna, and vice versa. 3.20 Antenna Coupling based on Reciprocity Theorem Consider two antennas separated by distance d in a space as shown in the Fig. 3.29, Let antenna A be the transmitting antenna and antenna B be the receiving antenna. The power delivered to the load can be obtained easily if we know the orientation of the two antennas and the power supplied to one of the two antennas. This coupling between two antennas can be represented by relating voltages and currents at each terminals of the antenna in terms of pair of equations using z-parameters. Across terminals A - A’, the voltage is V, while across terminals B - B’, the voltage is Vp: The currents I, and Ip both flows in positive, standard directions. —_— UU wave Theory and Antenna 3-45 Antenna Fundamentals _ l le 8 Fig. 3.29 Antenna coupling ‘All these variables can be related to each other using z:parameters as given below. (1) 2) < Ae Zan 1, + Zapp = Zp t+ Ze I, antennas is assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and ‘then the reciprocity theorem can be applied fo two antennas a8 stated below. “Consider that two antennas namely A and B are separated by linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium. When the current I, is applied to the terminals of antenna A and the terminals of antenna B are open circuited (making 'p zero), the voltage Vz appears vrnnals of the antenna B. If current Ip is applied to the terminals of the antenna B aA are open circuited (making I, ze"0), the voltage Va ‘The medium between two Jinear. across te and the terminals of antenn: appears across the terminals ofthe antenna A’. ‘According to the reciprocity theorem, the ratios of the each open circuit voltage to the driving current are same. This can be expressed a8, y, y, 4) 4 =) B hy = 0 and Ip = 0 But from equations (1) and (2), with the conditions applied #8 T, separately, we get, This is calle ii vee led mutual impedance between two antennas. It is denoted by Z,,- Hence, Wave Theory and Antenna 3-46 ‘The equations (1) and (2) can be modified Zul Vy = Zaalyt A Vv, = 2, 6) p> Fmt + Zon be 6) |, Hence the z-parameter equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.30(a) +h h— a 2m 2m 2a9-2m 8 poe Fig. 3.30 (a) Equivalent circuit ‘The equivalent impedance from terminals A - A is given by, Zq = [gq -Zeh + Zyl 2. + 205 - Zl 7 Similarly the equivalent impedance from terminals B - B’ is given by, Zg = [Zgg- Zl + Zyl Zp + Zyq - Zl (8) If we apply the Thevenin’s theorem to the equivalent circuit, then the open circuit voltage is obtained by removing load impedance Z,. The open circuit voltage is given by, Vue = Ta Zin 0) Similarly the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance looking from open circuit can be written as, Zn = 25=Ry tire (10) For antenna, Ry = Rgay assuming antenna to be lossless. 21> Ret Ke wi» ® a For maximum power transfer, the load used must be equal to Ry ~ jXg- Then under this condition, the output voltage is given 2=Re-Me by, Ly Fig. 3.30 (b) Thevenit,’s equivalent circuit Wave Theory and Antenna 3-47 Antenna Fundamentals Then the power received by the antenna is given by, ty Zm y Pp = Power received = \ 2¥2 ) Ry Tin Pr = BR, A) similarly power transmitted is given by, 7 Py = Power transmitted (* Ry= (12) 2) 4 Hence the coupling between two antennas is given by, Pe __ Zin Pre w (13) Pr 4RaRg © rom above expression we can conclude that power received by the antenna as that of the power transmitted depends on the mutual impedance Z,, 3.21 Effective Length (or Effective Height) ‘The effective length of an antenna carrying peak current Im an imaginary linear antenna with a uniformly distributed curren antennas have the same far field in ® = plane. Itis represented by Tre: is defined as the length of , such that both the For practical antenna, 1/2 = M08 ior Ey = iger® iB A I(z) dz a of current can have any distribution. But for an For practical antenna, variation .d to be uniformly distributed over the length. Hence imaginary antenna, current is assume for imaginary antenna, lost B = MOB Sipe j = elm | dz nyB pe Ey = hag © lobes] @ Wave Theory and Antenna 3-48 Antenna Fundamentals But practical and imaginary antenna should produce same electric field at far point. 54 equating equations (1) and (2), we can write, 172 Ler = p> J i@)az = 8), er? Equation (3) represents the effective length of a transmitting antenna. The effective length of a receiving antenna is defined as the ratio of the open circuit voltage v._ induced at the open terminals of an antenna to the incident electric field intensity F, producing Voc. E; Lett = ~ (A) Key Point: Note that the effective length of an antenna used for transmitting is same as that for the same antenna used for receiving. > Example 3.7 : Find the effective length of a half wave dipole. Solution: The effective length of a half wave dipole is given by, 172 ate Let bt J In sinB($- |2) dz ™ 1/2 But ee and L = 2 2n)\(h Le = J vin(2)(3-2) ae a2 oi an(%_282 baw | on(§-2) " ISIE yl 8 a § Wave Theory and Antenna 3-49 Antenna Fundamentals d it 2nz) 1 s Lay = [si w= |sin(22") 1 Ta a a Lap = GM = 0.31832 m 3.22 Effective Aperture or Effective Area [A,] In general, this term is used in relation with the receiving antenna. The effective aperture is the ability of antenna to extract energy from the electromagnetic wave. It is also called effective area, Effective aperture is defined as the ratio of power received in the Joad to the average power density produced at the point. Ae= SS -) Pavg tts. The Power received by the antenna may be denoted by Pg. It is measured in wa 2 power density is measured in watts/m?. Hence effective aperture is measured in m’ In other words we can explain effective aperture as an area which extracts energy from the electromagnetic wave, out of the total area of antenna. Obviously an antenna should have maximum useful area to extract energy. Thus the maximum effective aperture is oblained when power received is maximum. It is denoted by A em- In general, antenna has teriain impedance which is made up of resistive and reactive part. The resistive part of the impedance is nothing but the radiation resistance R,,q. This condition is true because same antenna can be used for transmitting and receiving signal. Now the power transfered will be maximum if the load connected to the antenna is complex conjugate of the antenna impedance. Key Point : Hence under maximum power transfer condition, the power received is ‘maximum and hence the effective aperture is maximum. Let us calculate effective aperture for the Hertzian dipole. When the Hertzian dipole is used as the receiving antenna, it extracts power from the incident waves and delivers it to the load, producing voltage in it. The equivalent circuit for the receiving antenna is as shown in the Fig. 3.31. Z= Rag K oe +) 2. =Rrag Fig. 3.31 Equivalent circuit of the receiving antenna ™ Wave Theory and Antenna 3-50 Antenna Fundamentals The voltage induced in antenna is given by, Voc = JE] aL = Q) where |E| is the magnitude of ihe electric field intensity produced at the receiving point and dL is the length of the Hertzian dipole. Then the current flowing the load is given by, Voc Z4Zy, @) For the maximum power transfer condition, load is selected as the complex conjugate of the antenna impedance (Z, = Z*) . Substituting the values of impedances Z and Z, , the current flowing can be written as, io Voc _ (Rrad +3%) + (Raa “1 %) V, I= s (4) 2Rrad Then the power delivered to the load is given by, Voc_ 2k Pr = Us Read = ee Ryad Vee Pe . BRrad Substituting the value of V,, from equation (2), we get, |E |? di? Py = “BR ~ @) The maximum effective apperature is given by, A. ~ Maximum power received _ PR max om“ “Average power density Pal a [E|? ai? Ae BRna 1B |? 21 — Wave Theory and Antenna 3-51 Antenna Fundamentals ren al? (1202) 2 al son2 (aL [ my ) 32 Rem = 8x (6) Above equation represents the maximum effective aperture of the Hertzian dipole, But the directivity of the Hertzian dipole is 15. Hence we can rewrite the expression for the maximum effective aperture as, 2 Aen = (Comm) ¥ 0) 1m Example 3.8: An antenna receives a maximum power of 2 UW from a radio station Calculate its maximum effective area if the antenna is located in the far field of the station aohere |E| = 50 mV/m. Solution : The maximum power received is Prmax = 2 HW The average power density is given by, 1 Pog = 2 ay 2 120" Hence the maximum effective aperture area is given by, 2x10% 15 x10-° 0.6033 m? stance and 3.22.1 Relationship between Directive Gain, Radiation Re: Effective Length Consider two antennas as antenna 1 and antenna 2. Let the directivities of these antennas be denoted by D, and D, Assume that their maximum effective areas are — Wave Theory and Antenna 3-52 Antenna Fundamentals, As we have discussed, the directivity of an antenna j is max max® denoted by (Ae, Jingx aNd (Ae, ) 2 proportional to the maximum effective area. Hence we can write, Dy = (Ac max (8) And Dy = (Ac, max (9) D. (Ac) )max 1s 1 (10) Da = (esa Let antenna 1 be the isotropic radiator for which the directivity is unity. ie. D, Hence we can write, ey )iax Bey Ymax (Ac, )max = Balm (11) (Acy)max -(12) and De Let us assume that antenna 2 be the test antenna which is a short dipole. As we know for the short dipole antenna, maximum effective aperture is (=) and the directivity is . Hence we can write, es n 3 a r ae (13) Putting value of (A. max in the expression for Dp, we get, (Ac )max = NIG (ey )ma Fa = FEA en 4) (| Hence in general we can write, ae nd A Wave Theory and Antenna 3-53 Antenna Fundamentals But maximum effective aperture can be expressed interms of the effective length as, La No (cla = 4R, (15) rad Hence putting value of (A.)my in the general expression of D given above, we get >-(4) Lan ARix n),2 >-(3)au(e’] (16) 3.22.2 Different Types of Antenna Apertures In receiving antenna, effective aperture is very important parameter as it indical ability of an antenna to extract energy from electromagnetic waves. Other than the effective aperture (A,) there are other apertures as explained below : tes the ‘A. Scattering Aperture (A,) : The scattering aperture is defined as the x resistance R,,, {0 the average power density produced measured in m’, Mathematically, atio of power received by radiation at point. It is denoted by A, and is (10) Rg = Rag assuming Ri, = 0 and For maximum power transfer condition, R, = Xp, we get, (11) (AQmax = 7 Thus it is observed that under maximum power transfer condition, the maximum scattering aperture (A.)mnq, Of aN antenna is same as maximum effective aperture (A,),_ Wave Theory and Antenna 3-54 Antenna Fundamentals The ratio of scattering aperture of an antenna to its effective aperture is known ag scattering ratio. It is denoted by B and its value lies between 0 and s. The mathematical n for B is, As B= Ae +(12) B. Loss Aperture (A,) It is aperture of an antenna related to the loss resistance of an antenna. It is defined as, the ratio of power dissipated by the loss resistance of an antenna to the average power density at a point. It is called loss aperture and is denoted by A;. ~ Hims “Rioss P, ---(13) AVE, Putting value of I, We get alternative expression for A, as, Va Rio (Ry + Raq)? +X, +X)? 1Pavg But Ryad + Riggs» hence we get, 3 Va “Rios [Ry + Read * Riss)? Xp, +Xq)?1-Pavg ~d) (EE aa Foss) FOL Xa) T Pag | C. Collecting Aperture (A,) The collecting aperture (A) is the sum of effective aperture, scattering and loss aperture of an antenna E attering aperture Hence we can write, > " c a +A, ie. A, = [Him Rt |, [Pins Rio oe ~P, ‘avg, | Fims(Rt +Rrag + Riggs) Pavg (15) Se Wave Theory and Antenna 3-55 Antenna Fundamentals where, Pyyg is the magnitude of average power density at a point substituting value of I, the alternative expression for collecting aperture A, is given by, VIR}, + Rigg + Riggs) : z 16 + Rigg)? +0, #Xq)? MPa fe © (RL FR (tens rad . Physical Aperture (A,) physical aperture (A,) is the parameter which deals with the actual physical size or cross-section of an antenna. In case of antennas like horn antennas, reflector antennas ‘etc. which have larger physical sizes or greater cross-sections in terms of wavelength A, the ysical aperture is very important parameter. The ph cross-section of an antenna The physical aperture (A) is defined as the actual physical jowards an antenna which normal to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves t is set for its maximum response. It is observed that the physical aperture Ay for large cross-section antennas 1S greater than their respective effective aperture A,. While in case of antennas like short dipole, the physical aperture is smaller than respective effective aperture. When the losses are assumed to be zero, the physical aperture and effective aperture both are equal in case of an antenna. This is totally an ideal condition, where we can write, Ay = Ae a (4 Losses are Zet0 i.e. Pigg; = 0) The ratio of maximum effective aperture to the physical aperture of an antenna is known as absorption ratio. It is denoted by y. It is dimensionless quantity and its value lies between 0 and «. The absorption ratio 7 can be defined mathematically as, .-(17)

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