VERNIER CALLIPERSE EXP 1/ S1

FORMULA :
length of one mainscale division
Least countof vernier calliperse =
no. of divisions on vernier scale
0.1cm
= = 0.01cm
10
4 3 3
Volume of the sphere V = π r cm
3
Table 1 : To determine the radius of the sphere :

Main Scale reading vernier coincidence Fraction Total

S .NO M .S .R a cm n b = n x LC cm a+b cm

1 1.8 6 0.06 1.86

2 1.8 7 0.07 1.87

3 1.8 6 0.06 1.86

4 1.8 8 0.08 1.88

5 1.8 7 0.07 1.87

6 1.8 6 0.06 1.86

Diameter of the sphere d = 1.866 cm

Radius of the sphere r = 0.933 cm

Calculation :
4
Volume of the sphere V = π r 3 cm3
3
4
= X 3.14 X ( 0.933)
3

3
= 3.401cm3
Precautions :
Body should be gently fixed between jaws without applying excess pressure.
Readings should be taken without parallax error

Result :

Volume of the sphere V = 3.041 cm3

 SCREW GAUGE EXP 2 /S1

FORMULA :
Dis tan ce moved on pitch scale 5mm
Pitch of the screw
= = = 0.01mm
no. of rotations 5
Pitch of the screw 1mm
Least count
= = = 0.01mm
No. of divisions on head scale 100
Error : + 4 Correction : -4

Table 1 : To determine the radius of given cylinder

Pitch scale Head scale reading Fraction Total
Sl Reading Observed Correction n b = n x LC a + b mm
No a mm
1 2 56 52 0.52 2.52
2 2 55 51 0.51 2.51
3 2 55 51 0.51 2.51
4 2 56 52 0.52 2.52
5 2 55 51 0.51 2.51
6 2 55 51 0.51 2.51

Average diameter of the cylinder d = 2.513 mm

Radius of the cylinder r = 1.2565 mm

Table 2 : To determine the thickness of glass plate :

Pitch scale Head scale reading Fraction Total
Sl Reading Observed Correction n b = n x LC a + b mm
No a mm
1 1 27 23 0.23 1.23
2 1 28 24 0.24 1.24
3 1 27 23 0.23 1.23
4 1 26 22 0.22 1.22
5 1 27 23 0.23 1.23
6 1 28 24 0.24 1.24

Thickness of the glass plate t = 1.231 mm

PRECAUTIONS : Screw should be rotated in one direction to avoid backlash error

Body should be gently fixed between shafts without applying pressure

RESULT : Radius of the cylinder r = 1.2565 mm

Thickness of the glass plate t = 1.231 mm
 PHYSICAL BALANCE EXP 3 / S1

FORMULA :

 HRP − ZRP 
Correct mass of the body Mass corresponding to HRP + 
=  X 0.01 gm
 HRP − LRP 
Where HRP = higher resting point
ZRP = Zero resting point
LRP = Lower resting point
To determine the mass of the body :
Sl Contents in pans Turning points Mean turning points Resting point
no
Left Right Left Right Left Right
3 17
1 -------- --------- 3 17 3 17 10 ( ZRP )
3

10.000
2 Iron bolt 2.000
0.500 1 17
0.200 1 17 1 17 9 (LRP )
0.100 1
0.020
-----------------
12.820 gm

3 Iron bolt 10.000

2.000 3
0.500 3 19 3 19 11 ( HRP )
0.200 3 19
0.100
0.010
-----------------
12.810 gm

CALCULATIONS :
 HRP − ZRP 
Correct mass of the body Mass corresponding to HRP + 
=  X 0.01 gm
 HRP − LRP 
11 − 10 
= 12.810 +   X 0.01
 11 − 9 
= 12.810 + 0.5(0.01)
= 12.810 + 0.005
=12.815 gm
mass 12.815
Volume of the object
= V = = 1.628 cm3
density 7.87
Precautions : Heavy weights should not be added in the pans
Arrest beam during addition or removal of weights

Result : Mass of the given body 12.815 gm

Volume of the body 1.628 cm3
 SIMPLE PENDULUM EXP 4 / S1

FORMULA :

length of one mainscale division

Least countof vernier calliperse =
no. of divisions on vernier scale

0.1cm
= = 0.01cm
10
l
Acceleration due to gravity g = 4π 2 2 cm / s 2
T
Where l – length of the pendulum cm
T – time period of the pendulum sec
g' − g
Percentage error in det er min e the value of g = X 100 %
g
Where gl - calculated value in cm /s2 g - standard value = 980 cm/s2
Table 1: To determine the radius of the bob :
Sl no Main scale reading Vernier coincidence Fraction Total
M S R a cm n b = n X LC cm a + b cm
1 1.8 7 0.07 1.07
2 1.8 7 0.07 1.07
3 1.8 8 0.08 1.08

Diameter of the bob d = 1.873 cm Radius of the bob r = 0.9365 cm

l
Table 2 : To determine the value of
T2
Sl Length of the Time taken for 20 oscillations Time period T2 l
no Pendulum l cm Trail 1 Trail 2 Mean x T =x/20 s S2 cm/s2
T2
1 50 28 29 28.5 1.425 2.03 24.63
2 60 32 31 31.5 1.575 2.48 24.19
3 70 34 34 34 1.7 2.89 24.22
4 80 36 36 36 1.8 3.24 24.69
5 90 38 38 38 1.9 3.61 24.93
6 100 40 40 40 2 4 25

l
Average value of = 24.61 cm /s2
T2

Calculation :
l
Acceleration due to gravity g = 4π 2 2
cm / s 2
T
= 4 X 3.142 X 24.61
= 971.1 cm / s 2
g' − g
Percentage error in det er min e the value of g = X 100 %
g
980 − 971.1
= = X 100 0.908 %
980
Model Graph :
A graph is drawn between length of the pendulum and square of the time period ,
the nature of the graph is a straight line passing through origin

T2
From graph

B
OA -- Length of seconds pendulum cm

O
A l cm

Precautions :
The pendulum should oscillate with small amplitudes
The pendulum should oscillate in the vertical plane
Spinning oscillations are not considered

Result :
Acceleration due to gravity g = 971.1 cm/s2
Percentage error in determine the value of g = 0.908 %
Length of seconds pendulum from L – T2 graph = 100 cm
 CONCURRENT FORCES EXP 5 / S1

FORMULA :
To verify parallelogram law OC = OD cm

P Q R
To verify Triangle law = =
p q r
Volume of the given stone V = W1 – W2 c.c
W1
Relative density of the stone d =
W1 − W2
Where W1 - weight of the stone in air gm
W2 - weight of the stone in water gm

Table 1 : To verify parallelogram law

Sl P Q R OA OB OC OD COD
no gm wt gm wt gm wt cm cm cm cm

1 150 150 150 3 3 3 3 180

2 200 200 200 4 4 4 4 180

Table 2 : To verify Triangle law

Sl P Q R p q r P Q R
no gm wt gm wt gm wt cm cm cm
p q r

1 150 150 150 3 3 3 50 50 50

2 200 200 200 3 3 3 66.66 66.66 66.66

Table 3: To determine the weight of stone using parallelogram law

Sl no P Q R OA OB OC Weight of the stone

gm wt gm wt gm wt cm cm cm W = OC x Scale gm

1 150 150 W2 3 3 2 100

2 200 200 W1 4 4 4 200

Average weight of the stone in air W1 = 200 gm

Average weight of the stone in water W2 = 100 gm

Table 4: To determine the weight of stone using Triangle law

Sl no P Q R p q r Weight of the stone

gm wt gm wt gm wt cm cm cm P
W= r gm
p

1 150 150 W2 4 4 2.8 105

2 200 200 W1 3 3 3 200

Average weight of the stone in air W1 = 200 gm

Average weight of the stone in water W2 = 105 gm
Calculation :
Average weight of the stone in air W1 = 200 gm

Average weight of the stone in water W2 = 102.5 gm

Volume V = W1 - W2 = 97.5 cc

W1 200
Relative density =d = = 2.0512
W1 − W2 97.5
Precautions :
Pulley should be frictional less
Weights should not touch the board

Result :
Triangle law and Parallelogram laws are verified
Volume of the given stone V = 97.5 cc
Relative density of the stone d = 2.0512
 FORCE CONSTANT OF A SPRING EXP 6 / S1

FORMULA :

4π 2 (m2 − m1 )
Force constant of the given spring is K = dyne / cm
T22 − T12

Where T12 - square of the time period when mass with m1 in s2

T22 - square of the time period when mass with m2 in s2

Table :

Sl no Load Time taken for 20 oscillations Time Period

Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3 Mean X
m gm T = s T 2 S2
X sec 20

1 100 16 16 16 16 0.8 0.64

2 150 19 19 19 19 0.95 0.9025

3 200 21.5 21.5 22 21.66 1.083 1.173

CALCULATION :

=m1 100
= gm m2 150 gm =m1 150
= gm m2 200 gm =m1 100
= gm m2 200 gm
4π (m2 − m1 )
2
4π 2 (m2 − m1 ) 4π 2 (m2 − m1 )
K= K= K=
T22 − T12 T22 − T12 T22 − T12
4 X 3.142 (150 −100 ) 4 X 3.142 ( 200 −150 ) 4 X 3.142 ( 200 −100 )
= = =
0.90252 − 0.642 1.1732 − 0.90252 1.1732 − 0.642
= 7519 dyne / cm = 7302 dyne / cm = 7409 dyne / cm

PRECAUTIONS :
Load should not be beyond elastic limit
Spring should be hanged to rigid support only.

Result : Force constant of given spring is K = 7409 dyne/cm

= 7.409 N/m
 SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID
FORMULA: EXP 7 / S1
 r
 h +  rdg
Surface tension of given liquid T =  3  dyne / cm
2
Where h = capillary raise of liquid = 5.832 cm
r = radius of bore = 0.024 cm
d = density of liquid = 1 gm/cc
g = acceleration due to gravity = 980 cm/s2
length of 1 div on main scale
Least count of vernier =
no of div on vernier scale
1
= 20 = 0.001 cm
50
TABLE :
To determine the capillary raise of liquid:
Sl Reading at lower meniscus Reading at the tip of the wire Capillary raise
No. (M.S.R)+(V.C x L.C ) R1 cm (M.S.R)+(V.C x L.C ) R2 cm h = R1 ~ R2 cm

8.45 + (23 x 0.001 ) 2.6 + (41 x 0.001 )

1 8.45 + 0.021 2.6 + 0.041 5.832
8.473 2.641

TABLE :
Sl Position of the Microscope readings Diameter of the bore Radius of the
No. cross wire (M.S.R)+(V.C x L.C ) cm d = R3 ~ R4 cm bore
r = d/2 cm
4.2 + (21 x 0.001 )
1 4.2+0.021
4.221
0.048 0.024
4.25 + (19 x 0.001 )
2 4.25 + 0.091
4.269

CALCULATION:
 r  0.024 
 h +  rdg  5.832 +  0.024 x 1 x 980
Surface tension of given liquid T =  3 dyne / cm =  3 
2 2
= (
5.832 + 0.008 ) 23.52
= 68.67 dyne/cm
2

PRECAUTIONS:-
 Capillary tube should be uniform bore.
 Capillary tube must clamped vertically.

RESULT: Surface tension of given liquid T = 68.67dyne/cm

 APPARENT EXPANSION

FORMULA: EXP 8/ S1

Coefficient of apparent expansion γ = m2 − m3 / 0c

a
( m3 − m1 ) ( t2 − t1 )
Where m1 = mass of empty specific gravity bottle = 25.820 gm
m2 = mass of specific gravity bottle + liquid =53.250 gm
m3 = mass of specific gravity bottle + remaining liquid =52.640 gm
t1 = initial temperature = 32 0
c
t2 =final temperature = 96 0
c
TABLE :
CALCULATION :
Sl.no Contents in pans Turning points Mean turning points Resting Masss of the
point body
Left Right Left Right Left Right

3 17
1 _______ _______ 3 17 3 17 10 ________
3 (Z.R.P)
20.000
5.000 2 15
2 Empty sp 0.500 3 15 2.66 15 8.83 25.820 (m1)
0.200
gravity bottle 3
0.100
0.020
25.820

50.000
3 Sp gravity bottle 2.000 6 19 6 19 12.5 53.250 (m2)
+ liquid 1.000 6 19
0.200 6
0.050
53.250

50.000
2.000
4 Sp gravity bottle 5 19
0.500
+ remaining 0.100
5 19 5 19 12 52.640 (m3)
liquid 0.020 5
0.020
___________
52.640
Coefficient of apparent expansion γ = m2 − m3 / 0c
a
( m3 − m1 ) ( t2 − t1 )
= 53.250 − 52.640
( 52.640 − 25.820 )( 96 − 32 )
= 0.61 =0.000355 / 0c
26.82 x 64
PRECAUTIONS :-
 Heavy weights should not be added.
 Expelled liquid should not fell into water bath.

RESULT : Coefficient of apparent expansion = 0.000355 / 0c

 BOYLES LAW
FORMULA : EXP 9 / S1
At constant temperature for a given mass of gas volume is directly proportional to pressure.
P V = Constant

Since area of bore is constant, p l = constant

Pressure of the air column p= H ± h

Table : To verify boyles law:

Sl.no Position of Length of the 1/l Vertical heights Difference in Pressure pl =

the tube air column cm -1 h1 cm h2 cm heights p= H ± h constant
l cm h = h1- h2 cm cm
1 16.1 0.062 44.4 54.5 10.1 86.1 1386

2 16.5 0.060 47 54.9 7.9 83.9 1384

3 18 0.055 52.2 52.2 0 76 1368

4 20 0.050 53 46.5 -6.5 69.5 1390

5 21 0.047 54.5 44.4 -10.1 65.9 1383

6 19.4 0.051 54.1 49.5 - 4.6 71.4 1385

Where H = atmospheric pressure = 76 cm of Hg

h = h1 - h2 cm

h- 1/l graph :
a graph is drawn between h and 1/l taking h on X axis and 1/l on y axis.
The -ve X intercept gives the value of atmospheric pressure.

1 −1
cm
l

A O h cm

PRECAUTIONS :
 Temperature should be constant.
 Quill tube must have uniform bore.
 Quill tube must be fixed vertically.

RESULT :
 Boyles law is verified.
 Atmospheric pressure from h-1/l graph is 76 cm of Hg
 SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SOLID
FORMULA: EXP 10 / S1
Specific heat of given solid s =  m1 s1 + ( m2 − m1 ) s2  ( t3 − t1 ) cal / gm 0c
( m3 − m2 )( t2 − t3 )
Where m1 = mass of empty calorimeter + stirrer = 42.520 gm
m2 = mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water = 130.650 gm
m3 = mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water + solid = 152.560 gm
t1 = initial temperature = 31 0 c t 2 = temperature of solid = 94 0 c
t3 = resultant temperature = 34 c 0
S 1 = Specific heat of calorimeter =0.092 cal / gm 0c
S 2 = Specific heat of water = 1cal / gm 0c

Sl.no Contents in pans Turning points Mean turning points Resting Mass of the
point body
Left Right Left Right Left Right

1 _______ _______ 1 19
1 19 1.33 19 10.165 --------------
2 (ZRP)
20.000
2 mass of empty 20.000 2 16
calorimeter 2.000 2 16 2.33 16 9.165 42.520 (m1)
0.500
+ stirrer 2
0.020
---------------------------------------

42.520
-----------------------------------------

100.000 5 18
3 mass of 20.000 5 18 5.33 18 11.665 130.650 (m2)
calorimeter + 10.000 6
0.500
stirrer + water
0.100
0.050
---------------------------------------------

130.650
--------------------------------------------

100.000
50.000 4 16
2.000
mass of 4 16 4.33 16 10.165 152.560 (m3)
0.500
4 calorimeter + 5
0.050
stirrer + water 0.010
+ solid --------------------------------------------

152.560
TABLE :

CALCULATION:

 m1 s1 + ( m2 − m1 ) s2  t3 − t1
specific heat of given solid s = 
( ) cal / gm 0c
( m3 − m2 )( t2 − t3 )
= [ 42.520 x 0.092 + ( 130.650 − 42.520 )1] ( 34 − 31 )
( 152.560 −130.650 )( 94 − 34 )
= ( 3.912 + 88.13 ) 3 = 0.2101 cal / gm 0c
21.91 x 60
PRECAUTIONS :-
 Calorimeter should be highly polished.
 Solid pieces should be small.

RESULT: Specific heat of given solid =0.2101 cal / gm 0c

 VELOCITY OF SOUND
Formula :- Exp:- 11/s1
Velocity of sound at room temperature= Vt 2n(l2 − l1 ) cm / s
Where n = frequency of tuning fork in Hz
l 1 = first resonating length in cm
l 2 = second resonating length in cm

Velocity of sound at 0oc =  t 

V0 Vt 1 −  cm / s
 546 
Where t = room temperature in 0 c = 28oc

n1 l2! − l1!
Compare the frequencies of two forks =
n2 l2 − l1
Table :- To determine the velocity of sound at room temperature

Sl.no Frequency Length of resonating air column Velocity of sound at

of 1 resonating length
st
2nd resonating length room temperature
the tuning Trail Trail Mean Trail Trail Mean l2 − l1 =V 2n ( l − l ) cm
fork 1 2 1 2
t 2 1 s
l1 cm l2 cm
n Hz
1 512 16 16.2 16.1 50.2 50 50.1 34.0 34816

2 480 17.6 17.7 17.65 54.8 54.9 54.85 37.2 35712

3 426 19.9 20.1 20 61.5 61.7 61.6 41.6 35443

4 n 15.8 15.8 15.8 49.7 49.9 49.8 34 --

Average value of Vt = 35323 cm/s

Calculation :
 t   28  cm
Velocity of sound at 0oc V0 =Vt 1 −  =35323 1 −  =33511 s
546   546 
n1 l2! − l1! 37.2
Compare the frequencies of two forks = = = 1.0941
n2 l2 − l1 34

Precautions :-
1.The reading of water level mist be taken without any parallax error
2.The fork must be excited by hitting the prongs with a rubber hammer
3. The fork must be held horizontal so that the prongs vibrate in vertical plane.

Result:-
Velocity of sound at room temperature Vt = 35323 cm/s
Velocity of sound at 00c is V0 = 33511 cm/s
 CONCAVE MIRROR EXP 12/S1

FORMULA :
uv
Focal length of concave mirror f = cm
u+v
Where u - object distance in cm
V - Image distance in cm
Focal length of mirror from infinite distance method f = 15 cm
Table :

Sl no Object distance Image distance 1 1 uv

U cm V cm cm −1 cm −1 f = cm
u v u+v
1 20 60 0.05 0.016 15
2 25 37.5 0.04 0.026 15
3 30 30 0.033 0.033 15
4 35 26.2 0.028 0.038 14.98
5 40 24 0.025 0.041 15
6 45 22.5 0.022 0.044 15

Average focal length of the mirror f = 14.99 cm

Precautions :
Principle axis of the mirror should be horizontal
The upright s should be vertical
Readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:
Focal length of the mirror from infinite object distance method f = 15 cm
Focal length of mirror from f = 14.99 cm
Focal length from u-v graph f = 15cm
1 1
Focal length from − graph f =15.15 cm
u v
 CONVEX LENS EXP 13/S1

FORMULA:
uv
Focal length of convex lens from u – v method f = cm
u+v

Where u - object distance in cm

V - Image distance in cm

l2 − d 2
Focal length of convex lens from lens displacement method f = cm
4l
Where l - distance between object and screen in cm
d – difference between position of lens in cm
Focal length of lens from infinite distance method f = 20 cm
Table 1:

Sl no Object distance Image distance 1 1 uv

U cm V cm cm −1 cm −1 f = cm
u v u+v
1 30 60 0.033 0.016 20
2 35 46.7 0.028 0.021 20
3 40 40 0.025 0.025 20
4 45 36 0.022 0.027 20
5 50 33.3 0.020 0.030 19.98
6 55 31.4 0.018 0.032 19.98

Average focal length of the lens f = 19.99 cm

Table 2:
Distance between Position of convex lens Difference Focal length
Sl no Object and screen between the
1st position of lens 2ndposition of lens l2 − d 2
l cm positions f = cm
d1 cm d 2 cm d = d1 – d2 cm 4l
1 82 32 46 14 19.9
2 84 31 49 18 20
3 86 30 50 22 20
4 88 29.5 55.5 26 20
5 90 29 59 30 20
6 92 28.5 61.5 33 20
Average focal length of the lens from lens displacement method f = 19.98 cm
Precautions :
Principle axis of the lens should be horizontal
The upright s should be vertical
Readings should be taken without parallax error

Result : Focal length of lens from infinite distance method f = 20 cm

Focal length of the lens from u –v method f = 19.99 cm
Focal length of the lens from lens displacement method f = 19.98 cm
Focal length from u-v graph f = 20cm
1 1
Focal length from − graph f =20cm
u v
 PRISM
EXP 15 / S1
Formula :-
 A + Dm    Dm  
sin    sin  2  
Refractive index of the prism µ =  2  Angle of the prism A = 2 tan 
−1   
 A D
 µ − cos  m  
sin     
2   2 
Where A – angle of the prism in degree
Dm – angle of minimum deviation in degree

Table :- To determine the angle of minimum deviation

Sl.No Angle of incidence Angle of deviation

i in degree d in degree
1 30 53
2 35 47
3 40 41
4 45 38
5 50 40
6 55 45

Angle of minimum deviation Dm is = 38 0

 A + Dm   60 + 38 
sin  sin 
2   sin 49
  2 
Refractive index of the prism µ = >µ=
= = 1.509
=
 A  60  sin 30
sin   sin  
2  2 
Angle of the prism
  Dm     38  
 sin  2    sin  2    sin19 
2 tan −1 
A =    2 tan −1
> A=
=    = 2 tan −1  
  Dm    1.5 − cos  38    1.5 − cos19 
 µ − cos  2     
     2 

A = 60.60

Precautions :
 Prism must be fixed vertically
 Same prism must be used for all observations and it should not be disturbed during
the experiment
Result :-
 Refractive index of the prism = 1.509
 Angle of the prism = 60.6 0
 Angle of minimum deviation from graph = 38 0
 TANGENT GALVANOMETER

Formula :- Exp : 16/S1

Strength of electric current flowing in the circuit i = k Tanθ A

10rH
Where k is reduction factor k =
2π n
r = radius of the coil = 51/2π = 8.11 cm
H = horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field = 0.38 Oersted
n = number of turns = 2
θ = Average deflection of T .G in degree

Table Determine the strength of electric current in the circuit

S.No Ammeter Deflections in T.G Mean θ Tan θ i = k Tanθ
reading i A degree
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

30 30 36 36
1 1.6 33 0.649 1.59
37 37 41 41
2 2.0 39 0.809 1.98
42 42 48 48
3 2.4 45 1 2.45
47 47 51 51
4 2.8 49 1.15 2.81
52 52 54 54
5 3.2 53 1.32 3.23
54 54 54 54
6 3.4 54 1.376 3.372

10 r H 10 x 8.11 x 0.38
=k = = 2.45
2π n 2 x 3.14 x 2

Precautions :-

1 The compass is gently tapped on the glass top and then the deglections are noted
2 After adjusting the TG it should not be distrubed through out the experiment
3 The deflections must be taken between 30o to 60o
Result :-
Strength of electric current is calculated and verified using ammeter
Reduction factor of TG k = 2.45 A
 OHMS LAW

Formula :- Exp: 17/s1

To verify the Ohms law ( R+B+G ) Tan θ = constant
Where R = resistance in resistance box in Ω
B = resistance of battery in Ω
G = resistance of tangent galvanometer in Ω
Θ = Average deflection in T G in degree

From graph value of (B+G ) = 10 Ω

Table: verification of ohms law

S.No Resistance Deflections in T G degree Mean θ Tanθ Cotθ (R+B+G)Tanθ

in resistance θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 = const
box R Ω
1 2 55 55 60 60 57.5 1.569 0.637 18.82

2 4 53 53 54 54 53.5 1.351 0.739 18.91

3 6 48 48 52 52 50 1.191 0.839 19.05

4 8 45 45 46 46 46.5 1.05 0.948 18.9

5 10 43 43 44 44 43.5 0.94 1.051 18.8

6 12 40 40 40 40 40 0.839 1.19 18.45

Precautions :-
1.The TG must not be disturbed during the experiment
2. Select the resistance so that the deflections are between 30o to 60o
3. the magnetic materials must be kept away from the TG

Result :-
Ohms law is verified
Value of (B+G) from R-Cotθ graph is 10 Ω
 METER BRIDGE EXP 18/S1

l  π r2
Formula :- Resistance of the given wire
= x R  1 Ω =
specific resistance of the wire ρ x Ω cm
 l2  l
X - resistance of the unknown wire Ω X – resistance of the given wire Ω
R – Resistance in the right gap Ω
l1 - Balancing length from left in cm r – radius of the wire in cm
l2 - Balancing length from right in cm l – length of the wire in cm
Rs + Rs2 − 4 Rs R p Rs − Rs2 − 4 Rs R p
Individual resistance=
of wire R1
1st Ω 2nd
wire R2
= Ω
2 2

Where Rs – effective resistance when R1 , R2 are connected in series in Ω

Rp – effective resistance when R1 , R2 are connected in parallel in Ω

Dis tan ce moved on pitch sca le 5mm

pitch of the screw
= = = 1mm
No. of rotations 5
Pitch of the screw 1mm
Least count
= = = 0.01 mm
No. of divisions on head scale 100

Table 1 To determine the radius of given wire

Error : -2 Correction : +2

Sl No Pitch scale Head scale reading Fraction Total

reading Observed Correction n b = n X L.C mm a+b mm
a mm
1 1 3 5 0.05 1.05
2 1 2 4 0.04 1.04
3 1 3 5 0.05 1.05

Average diameter of the wire d = 1.046 mm = 0.104 cm

Radius of the wire r = 0.0523 cm
Table 2 : Determination of resistance of the wire

Sl.no Resistance in the gaps Balancing lengths Resistance of the wire

Left X Ω Right R Ω From left l1 cm From right l2 cm l 
=x R  1 Ω
 l2 
1 X 4 58.6 41.4 5.66
2 X 6 49.5 51.5 5.76
3 X 8 41.2 58.8 5.60

Average resistance of the wire x=5.673 Ω

πr 2
Ω cm= 5.673 x 3.141 x ( 0.0523)
2
ρ
Specific resistance = x
l
= 0.0004873 Ω cm.

Table 3 Determination of individual resistances of each wire

Sl.no Combination Resistances in gaps Balancing lengths Resistance of

of wires Left X Ω Right R Ω combination
Left l1 cm Right l2 cm
l1
= R Ω
l2
1 X 10 55.3 44.7 12.3
2 Series X 12 49.9 51.1 11.71
3 X 14 46 54 11.92

4 X 2 58.5 41.5 2.819

5 Parallel X 4 43.5 56.5 3.079
6 X 6 32 68 2.823
Average resistance in series combination Rs = 11.97 Ω
Average resistance in parallel combination Rp = 2.907 Ω

Rs + Rs2 − 4 Rs R p Rs − Rs2 − 4 Rs R p
Resistance
= of 1st wire R1 Ω =
Resistance of 2nd wire R2 Ω
2 2
11.97 + 11.97 2 − 4 x 11.97 x 2.907 11.97 − 11.97 2 − 4 x 11.97 x 2.907
= =
2 2
= 6.997 Ω =4.973 Ω
Precautions :- 1 . Jockey should not be dragged
2. Only small currents must be passed through the wire
3. The resistance in the gaps are to be nearly equal

Result :- Resistance of the given wire X = 5.673 Ω

Specific Resistance of the given wire s = 0.0004873 Ω cm
Individual resistances of two wires R1 = 6.997 Ω
R2 = 4.973 Ω
 JUNCTION DIODE

CIRCUITS :- EXP 19/S1

TABLE: Forward Bias Reverse Bias

S.No Voltage across Current through S.No Voltage across Current through
diode V volt diode i m A diode V volt diode i µA
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0.1 0 2 5 20
3 0.2 0 3 10 34
4 0.3 0 4 15 56
5 0.4 0 5 20 84
6 0.5 0.5 6 25 122
7 0.6 1.4 7 30 170
8 0.62 2.4 8 35 220
9 0.64 3.4

Precautions :-
1. Diode should not be connected directly to the battery without resistance
2. In reverse bias care must be taken so that the reverse bias voltage is well below the break down
voltage

Result :-
V- i Characteristics are drawn by using junction diode
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERSTICS EXP 20 / S1

Table 1: INPUT CHARACTERSTICS :

Current through Base IB µA

Slno Voltage across
base and emitter
VCE = 0V VCE = 1V
VBE volt
1 0 0 0
2 100 0 0
3 200 0 0
4 300 0 0
5 400 0 0
6 500 15 0
7 600 130 20
8 700 170

Table 2: OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS :

Sl.No Voltage across Current through collector Ic m A
Collector and emitter IB = 10 µA IB = 20 µA
VCE volt
1 0 0 0
2 1 3 4
3 2 3 4
4 3 4 5
5 4 4 5
6 5 5 7
7 6 5 7
8 7 6 8

Table 3 : TRANSFER CHARACTERSTICS: VCE = 1V

Sl no IB µA IC mA
1 0 0
2 10 1.5
3 20 3.5
4 30 5.5
5 40 7
6 50 9
7 60 11

Result: Input and Output characteristics of a P-N-P /N-P-N transistor are drawn
Input resistance 833.3Ω
Output resistance 2000Ω
Current gain β = 187.5