MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ENG 104: POWER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPALS

Dr. Amr Hassaan
CHAPTER 5

Hydrostatics
This chapter describes fluid pressure, together with buoyancy and hydrostatic stability. The
chapter also defines Archimedes’ principle, which is used to determine the buoyancy of
boats, yachts, ships, etc. The chapter also describes metacentric height, which is used to
determine the hydrostatic stability of the aforementioned vessels, and the explanation of this
topic is aided with a number of simple worked examples. The chapters also describe gauges
used in fluid mechanics, such as barometers, manometers, and the Bourdon pressure and
vacuum gauges.

These gauges are used to determine the properties and behaviour of fluids when they are
met in practice. Calculations are given of simple floating structures and reference is made to
the mid-ordinate rule, which can be used for determining the areas and volumes of complex
shapes, such as those often met in naval architecture and civil engineering and many other
branches of engineering.
5.1 Pressure
The pressure acting on a surface is defined as the perpendicular force per unit area of surface.
The unit of pressure is the pascal, Pa, where 1 pascal is equal to 1 newton per square metre.
Thus pressure,
p = pascals
where F is the force in newtons acting at right angles to a surface of area A square metres.
When a force of 20 N acts uniformly over, and perpendicular to, an area of 4 m2, then the
pressure on the area, p, is given by:
p= = 5 Pa

It should be noted that for irregular shaped flat surfaces, such as the water planes of ships,
their areas can be calculated using the mid-ordinate rule.
Problem 1.
A table loaded with books has a force of 250 N acting in each of its legs. If the contact area
between each leg and the floor is 50 mm, find the pressure each leg exerts on the floor.
From above, pressure p =
Hence, p = = = 5 × 106 N/m2 = 5 MPa
∗
That is, the pressure exerted by each leg onthe floor is 5 MPa
Problem 2. Calculate the force exerted by the atmosphere on a pool of water that is 30 m
long by 10 m wide, when the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
1
 From above, pressure p =
hence, force = pressure × area.
The area of the pool is 30 m × 10 m = 300 m
Thus, force on pool, F = pressure × area = 100 kPa × 300 m
and since 1 Pa = 1 N/m, F = (100 × 103) N/m2 × 300 m2 = 3× 107 N = 30 MN
Problem 3. A circular piston exerts a pressureof 80 kPa on a fluid, when the force applied to
the piston is 0.2 kN. Find the diameter of the piston.
From above, pressure p =
hence area =
Force in newtons = 0.2 kN = 0.2 ×103 N= 200 N, and
pressure in pascals = 80 kPa = 80000 Pa = 80000 N/m2
area = 0.0025 m2
Since the piston is circular, its area is given by π d2/4 where d is the diameter of the piston.
i.e. d = 0.0564 m = 56.4 mm
Hence, the diameter of the piston is 56.4 mm

5.2 Fluid Pressure

A fluid is either a liquid or a gas and there are four basic factors governing the pressure
within fluids.

Figure 5.1

(a) The pressure at a given depth in a fluid is equal in all directions; see Figure 22.1(a).
(b) The pressure at a given depth in a fluid is independent of the shape of the container in
which the fluid is held. In Figure 5.1(b), the pressure at X is the same as the pressure at Y.
(c) Pressure acts at right angles to the surface containing the fluid. In Figure5.1(c), the
pressures at points A to F all act at right angles to the container.
(d) When a pressure is applied to a fluid, this pressure is transmitted equally in all directions.
In Figure 5.1(d), if the mass of the fluid is neglected, the pressures at points A to D are all the
same.
The pressure, p, at any point in a fluid depends on three factors:
(a) the density of the fluid, ρ, in kg/m3
(b) the gravitational acceleration, g, taken as approximately 9.8 m/s2 and
(c) the height of fluid vertically above the point, h metres.
The relationship connecting these quantities is:
p = ρgh pascals
When the container shown in Figure 5.2 is filled with water of density 1000 kg/m3, the
pressure due to the water at a depth of 0.03 m below the surface is given by:

2
p = ρgh = (1000 * 9.8* 0.03)Pa = 294 Pa Figure 5.2

Problem 4. A vertical tube is partly filled with mercury of density

13600 kg/m3. Find the height, in millimetres, of the column of
mercury, when the pressure at the base of the tube is 101 kPa. Take the
gravitational field force as 9.8 m/s2.
From above, pressure p = ρgh, hence vertical height h is given by:
h=
Pressure p = 101 kPa = 101000 Pa,
thus, h= = 0.758 m
∗ .
That is, the height of the column of mercury is 758 mm

5.3 Atmospheric Pressure22.3 Atmospheric pressure

The air above the Earth’s surface is a fluid, having a density, ρ, which varies from
approximately 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level to zero in outer space. Since p = ρgh, where height h
is several thousands of metres, the air exerts a pressure on all points on the earth’s surface.
This pressure, called atmospheric pressurehas a value of approximately 100 kilopascals (or
1bar). Two terms are commonly used when measuring pressures:
(a) absolute pressure, meaning the pressure above that of an absolute vacuum (i.e. zero
pressure),and
(b) gauge pressure, meaning the pressure above that normally present due to the
atmosphere.
Thus, absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure.
Thus, a gauge pressure of 50 kPa is equivalent to an absolute pressure of (100 + 50) kPa, i.e.
150 kPa, since the atmospheric pressure is approximately 100 kPa.
Problem 5.
Calculate the absolute pressure at a point on a submarine, at a depth of 30 m below the
surface of the sea, when the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa. Take the density of sea water
as 1030 kg/m3 and the gravitational acceleration as 9.8 m/s2.
From Section 5.2, the pressure due to the sea, that is, the gauge pressure (pg) is given by:
pg = ρgh pascals
i.e. pg = 1030 x 9.8 x 30 = 302820 Pa = 302.82 kPa
From above, absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
= (101 + 302.82) kPa = 403.82 kPa
That is, the absolute pressure at a depth of 30 m is 403.82 kPa

5.4 Archimedes’ Principle 2

Archimedes’ principle states that:
If a solid body floats, or is submerged, in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upthrust on the body
equal to the gravitational force on the liquid displaced by the body.
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In other words, if a solid body is immersed in a liquid, the apparent loss of weight is equal to
the weight of liquid displaced.
If V is the volume of the body below the surface of the liquid, then the apparent loss of
weight W is given by:
W = Vω = Vρg
where ω is the specific weight (i.e. weight per unit volume) and ρ is the density.
If a body floats on the surface of a liquid all of its weight appears to have been lost. The
weight of liquid displaced is equal to the weight of the floating body.
Problem 6. A body weighs 2.760 N in air and 1.925 N when completely immersed in water
of density 1000 kg/m3. Calculate (a) the volume of the body (b) the density of the body and
(c) the relative density of the body. Take the gravitational acceleration as 9.81 m/s2.
(a) The apparent loss of weight is 2.760 N – 1.925 N = 0.835 N. This is the weight of water
displaced, i.e. Vρg, where V is the volume of the body and ρ is the density of water,
i.e. 0.835 N = V X1000 kg/m3 X 9.81 m/s2 = V X 9.81 kN/m3
.
Hence, V= = 8.512 X 10-5 m3= 8.512 X 104 mm3
. ∗
.
(b) The density of the body = = = = 3305 kg/m3
∗ . . ∗

(c) Relative density =

/
Hence, the relative density of the body = = 3.305
/
Problem 7. A rectangular watertight box is 560 mm long, 420 mm wide and 210 mm deep.
It weighs 223 N. (a) If it floats with its sides and ends vertical in water of density 1030
kg/m3, what depth of the box will be submerged? (b) If the box is held completely submerged
in water of density 1030 kg/m3, by a vertical chain attached to the underside of the box, what
is the force in the chain?

(a) The apparent weight of a floating body is zero. That is, the weight of the body is equal to
the weight of liquid displaced. This is given by: Vρg
where V is the volume of liquid displaced, and ρ is the density of the liquid.
Here, 223 N = V X 1030 kg/m3 X 9.81 m/s2 = V X 10.104 kN/m3
Hence, V= = 22.07 X 10-3 m3
. /
This volume is also given by Lbd, where L = length of box, b = breadth of box, and
d = depth of box submerged,
i.e. 22.07 X 10-3 m3 = L X b X d = 0.56 m X 0.42 m X d
Hence, depth submerged, d = 0.09384 m = 93.84 mm
(b) The volume of water displaced is the total volume of the box. The upthrust or buoyancy
of the water, i.e. the ‘apparent loss of weight’, is greater than the weight of the box. The force
in the chain accounts for the difference.
Volume of water displaced, V = 0.56 m X 0.42 m X 0.21 m = 4.9392 X 10-2
Weight of water displaced = Vρg = 4.9392 X 10-2 m3 X 1030 kg/m3 X 9.81 m/s2 = 499.1 N
The force in the chain = weight of water displaced – weight of box = 499.1 N – 223 N = 276.1 N

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 5.5 Measurment of Pressure
As stated earlier, pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. A fluid (i.e. liquid,
vapour or gas) has a negligible resistance to a shear force, so that the force it exerts always
acts at right angles to its containing surface.
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, Pa, which is unit force per unit area, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The pascal is a very small unit and a commonly used larger unit is the bar, where 1 bar = 105 Pa
Atmospheric pressure is due to the mass of the air above the Earth’s surface being attracted
by Earth’s gravity. Atmospheric pressure changes continuously. A standard value of
atmospheric pressure, called ‘standard atmospheric pressure’, is often used, having a value of
101325 Pa or 1.01325 bars or 1013.25 millibars. This latter unit, the millibar, is usually used
in the measurement of meteorological pressures. (Note that when atmospheric pressure varies
from 101325 Pa it is no longer standard.)
Pressure indicating instruments are made in a wide variety of forms because of their many
different applications. Apart from the obvious criteria such as pressure range, accuracy and
response, many measurements also require special attention to material, sealing and
temperature effects. The fluid whose pressure is being measured may be corrosive or may be
at high temperatures.
Pressure indicating devices used in science and industry include:
(i) barometers (see Section 5.6),
(ii) manometers (see Section 5.8),
(iii) Bourdon pressure gauge (see Section 5.9), and
(iv) McLeod and Pirani gauges (see Section 5.10).
5.6 Barometers
A barometer is an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. It is affected by seasonal
changes of temperature. Barometers are therefore also used for the measurement of altitude
and also as one of the aids in weather forecasting. The value of atmospheric pressure will
thus vary with climatic conditions, although not usually by more than about 10% of standard
atmospheric pressure.
Construction and principle of operation
A simple barometer consists of a glass tube, just less than 1 m in length, sealed at one
end, filled with mercury and then inverted into a trough containing more mercury. Care
must be taken to ensure that no air enters the tube during this latter process. Such a
barometer is shown in Figure 5.3(a) and it is seen that the level of the mercury column
falls, leaving an empty space, called a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure acts on the surface
Part Four

of the mercury in the trough as shown and this pressure is equal to the pressure at the
base of the column of mercury in the inverted tube, i.e. the pressure of the atmosphere is
supporting the column of mercury. If the atmospheric pressure falls the barometer height
h decreases. Similarly, if the atmospheric pressure rises, then h increases. Thus
atmospheric pressure can be measured in terms of the height of the mercury column. It
may be shown that for mercury the height h is 760 mm at standard atmospheric pressure,

5
i.e. a vertical column of mercury 760 mm high exerts a pressure equal to the standard
value of atmospheric pressure rises, then h increases.
Thus atmospheric pressure can be measured in terms of the height of the mercury
column. It may be shown that for mercury the height h is 760 mm at standard
atmospheric pressure, i.e. a vertical column of mercury
760 mm high exerts a pressure equal to the standard value
of atmospheric pressure.
There are thus several ways in which atmospheric pres- sure
can be expressed:
Standard atmospheric pressure
= 101325 Pa or 101.325 kPa
= 101325 N/m2 or 101.325 kN/m2
= 1.01325 bars or 1013.25 mbars
= 760 mm of mercury
Another arrangement of a typical barometer is shown in
Figure 5.3
Figure 22.3(b) where a U-tube is used instead of an inverted
tube and trough, the principle being similar.
If, instead of mercury, water was used as the liquid in a
barometer, then the barometric height h at standard
atmospheric pressure would be 13.6 times more than for mercury, i.e. about 10.4 m high,
which is not very practicable. This is because the relative density of mercury is 13.6.
Types of barometer
The Fortin barometer is an example of a mercury barometer that enables barometric
heights to be measured to a high degree of accuracy (in the order of one-tenth of a millimetre
or less). Its construction is merely a more sophisticated arrangement of the inverted tube and
trough shown in Figure 5.3(a), with the addition of a vernier scale to measure the barometric
height with great accuracy. A disadvantage of this type of barometer is that it is not
portable.
A Fortin barometer is shown in Figure 5.4. Mercury is contained in a leather bag at the
base of the mercury reservoir, and height, H, of the mercury in the reservoir can be adjusted
using the screw at the base of the barometer to depress or release the leather bag. To
measure the atmospheric pressure the screw is adjusted until the pointer at H is just
touching the surface of the mercury and the height of the mercury column is then read using
the main and vernier scales. The measurement of atmospheric pressure using a Fortin
barometer is achieved much more accurately than by using a simple barometer.
A portable type often used is the aneroid barometer. Such a barometer consists basically of
a circular, hollow, sealed vessel, S, usually made from thin flexible metal. The air pressure in
the vessel is reduced to nearly zero before sealing, so that a change in atmospheric pressure
will cause the shape of the vessel to expand or contract. These small changes can be
magnified by means of a lever and be made to move a pointer over a calibrated scale. Figure
5.5 shows a typical arrangement of an aneroid barometer. The scale is usually circular and

6
calibrated in millimetres of mercury. These instruments require frequent calibration.

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

5.7 Absolute pressure and Gauge Pressure

A barometer measures the true or absolute pressure of the atmosphere. The term absolute
pressure means the pressure above that of an absolute vacuum (which is zero pressure), as
stated earlier. In Figure 22.6 a pressure scale is shown with the line AB representing absolute
zero pressure (i.e. a vacuum) and line CD representing atmospheric pressure. With most
practical pressure-measuring instruments the part of the instrument that is subjected to the
pressure being measured is also subjected to atmospheric pressure. Thus practical
instruments actually determine the difference between the pressure being measured and
atmospheric pressure. The pressure that the instrument is measuring is then termed the gauge
pressure. In Figure 5.6, the line EF represents an absolute pressure which has a value greater
than atmospheric pressure, i.e. the ‘gauge’ pressure is positive.

Thus, absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric

pressure.
Hence a gauge pressure of, say, 60 kPa recorded on
an indicating instrument when the atmospheric
pressure is 101 kPa is equivalent to an absolute
pressure of 60 kPa + 101 kPa, or 161 kPa.
Pressure-measuring indicating instruments are
referred to generally as pressure gauges (which
acts as a reminder that they measure ‘gauge’
pressure). Figure 5.6
It is possible, of course, for the pressure indicated on a pressure gauge to be below
atmospheric pressure, i.e. the gauge pressure is negative. Such a gauge pressure is often
referred to as a vacuum, even though it does not necessarily represent a complete vacuum at
absolute zero pressure.
Such a pressure is shown by the line GH in Figure 5.6. An indicating instrument used for
measuring such pressures is called a vacuum gauge.
A vacuum gauge indication of, say, 0.4 bar, means that the pressure is 0.4 bar less than
atmospheric pressure. If atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, then the absolute pressure is 1 – 0.4 or
0.6 bar.
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5.8 The Manometer
A manometer is a device for measuring or comparing fluid pressures, and is the simplest
method of indicating such pressures.
U-tube manometer
A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent into
a U shape and containing a liquid such as mercury. A
U-tube manometer is shown in Figure 5.7(a). If limb
A is connected to a container of gas whose pressure is
above atmospheric, then the pressure of the gas will
cause the levels of mercury to move as shown in Figure
5.7(b), such that the difference in height is h1. The
measuring scale can be calibrated to give the gauge
pressure of the gas as h1 mm of mercury.
If limb A is connected to a container of gas whose
pressure is below atmospheric then the levels of mercury
will move as shown in Figure 5.7(c), such that their
pressure difference is h2 mm of mercury.
It is also possible merely to compare two pressures, say,
PA and PB, using a U-tube manometer.
Figure 5.7(d) shows such an arrangement with (PB– PA) Figure 5.7
equivalent to h mm of mercury. One application of this differential pressure-measuring
device is in determining the velocity of fluid flow in pipes. For the measurement of lower
pressures, water or paraffin may be used instead of mercury in the U-tube to give larger
values of h and thus greater sensitivity.
Inclined manometers
For the measurement of very low pressures, greater
sensitivity is achieved by using an inclined
manometer, a typical arrangement of which is shown
in Figure 5.8.With the inclined manometer the liquid
used is water and the scale attached to the inclined
tube is calibrated in terms of the vertical height h.
Figure 5.8
Thus when a vessel containing gas under pressure is connected to the reservoir, movement of
the liquid levels of the manometer occurs. Since small-bore tubing is used the movement of
the liquid in the reservoir is very small compared with the movement in the inclined tube and
is thus neglected. Hence the scale on the manometer is usually used in the range 0.2 mbar to
2 mbar.
The pressure of a gas that a manometer is capable of measuring is naturally limited by the
length of tube used. Most manometer tubes are less than 2 m in length and this restricts
measurement to a maximum pressure of about 2.5 bar (or 250 kPa) when mercury is used.

5.9 The Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Pressures many times greater than atmospheric can be measured by the Bourdon
pressure gauge, which is the most extensively used of all pressure- indicating instruments.
8
It is a robust instrument. Its main component is a piece of metal tube (called the Bourdon
tube), usually made of phosphor bronze or alloy steel, of oval or elliptical cross-section,
sealed at one end and bent into an arc. In some forms the tube is bent into a spiral for
greater sensitivity. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 5.9(a). One end, E, of the
Bourdon tube is fixed and the fluid whose pressure is to be measured is connected to this
end. The pressure acts at right angles to the metal tube wall as shown in the cross-section
of the tube in Figure 5.9(b). Because of its elliptical shape it is clear that the sum of the
pressure components, i.e. the total force acting on the sides A and C, exceeds the sum of
the pressure components acting on ends B and D. The result is that sides A and C tend to
move outwards and B and D inwards tending to form a circular cross-section. As the
pressure in the tube is increased the tube tends to uncurl, or if the pressure is reduced the
tube curls up further. The movement of the free end of the tube is, for practical purposes,
proportional to the pressure applied to the tube, this pressure, of course, being the gauge
pressure (i.e. the difference between atmospheric pressure acting on the outside of the tube
and the applied pressure acting on the inside of the tube). By using a link, a pivot and a
toothed segment as shown in Figure 5.9(a), the movement can be converted into the
rotation of a pointer over a graduated calibrated scale.

Figure 5.10

Figure 5.9

The Bourdon tube pressure gauge is capable of measuring high pressures up to 104 bar
(i.e. 7600 m of mercury) with the addition of special safety features.
A pressure gauge must be calibrated, and this is done either by a manometer, for low
pressures, or by a piece of equipment called a ‘dead weight tester’. This tester consists of a
piston operating in an oil-filled cylinder of known bore, and carrying accurately known
weights as shown in Figure 5.10. The gauge under test is attached to the tester and a screwed
piston or ram applies the required pressure, until the weights are just lifted. While the gauge
is being read, the weights are turned to reduce friction effects.
5.10 Vacuum Gauges
Vacuum gauges are instruments for giving a visual indication, by means of a pointer, of the
9
amount by which the pressure of a fluid applied to the gauge is less than the pressure of
the surrounding atmosphere. Two examples of vacuum gauges are the McLeod gauge and
the Pirani gauge.
McLeod gauge
The McLeod gauge is normally regarded as a standard and is used to calibrate other forms of
vacuum gauges. The basic principle of this gauge is that it takes a known volume of gas at a
pressure so low that it cannot be measured, then compresses the gas in a known ratio until the
pressure becomes large enough to be measured by an ordinary manometer. This device is used
to measure low pressures, often in the range 10–6 to 1.0 mm of mercury. A
disadvantage of the McLeod gauge is that it does not give a continuous reading of
pressure and is not suitable for registering rapid variations in pressure.

Pirani gauge
The Pirani gauge measures the resistance and thus the temperature of a wire through which
current is flowing. The thermal conductivity decreases with the pressure in the range 10–1 to
10-4 mm of mercury so that the increase in resistance can be used to measure pressure in this
region. The Pirani gauge is calibrated by comparison with a McLeod gauge.

5.11 Hydrostatic Pressure on Submerged surfaces

From Section 5.2, it can be seen that hydrostatic pressure increases with depth according to
the formula: p = ρgh

Problem 8. The deepest part of the oceans is the Marianas Trench, where its depth is
approximately 11.52 km. What is the gauge pressure at this depth, assuming that ρ =
1020kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2?
Gauge pressure, p = ρgh = 1020 × 9.81×11.52 × 103 =11.52 × 107 N/m2
i.e. pressure, p = 1152.7 bar
Note that from the above calculation, it can be seen that a gauge pressure of 1 bar is
approximately equivalent to a depth of 10 m.

5.12 Hydrostatic Thrust on A Curved Surface

As hydrostatic pressure acts perpendicularly to a
surface, the integration of δF over the surface can be
complicated. One method of determining the thrust on
a curved surface is to project its area on flat vertical
and horizontal surfaces, as shown by AB and DE,
respectively, in Figure 5.11.
From equilibrium considerations, F = Fx and W = Fy
and these thrusts must act through the centre of
pressures of the respective vertical and horizontal Figure 5.11

planes. The resultant thrust can be obtained by adding

10
 Fx and FY vectorially, where W = weight of the fluid enclosed by the curved surface and
the vertical projection lines to the free surface, and G = centre of gravity of W.

5.13 Buoyancy
The upward force exerted by the fluid on a body that is wholly or partially immersed in it is
called the buoyancy of the body.

5.14 The Stability of Floating Body

For most ships and boats the centre of buoyancy (B) of the vessel is usually below the
vessels’ centre of gravity (G), as shown in Figure 5.12(a). When this vessel is subjected to a
small angle of keel (θ), as shown in
Figure 5.12(b), the centre of buoyancy
moves to the position B′, where BM =
the centre of curvature of the centre of
curvature of the centre of buoyancy = ,
(given without proof)
GM = the metacentric height,
M = the position of the metacentre,
I = the second moment of area of the
water plane about its centreline, and
V = displaced volume of the vessel. Figure 5.12

The metacentric height GM can be found by a

simple inclining experiment, where a weight P is
moved trans- versely a distance x, as shown in
Figure 5.13.
From rotational equilibrium considerations,

W(GM)tan θ = Px

Therefore, GM = cot θ Figure 5.13

where W = the weight of the vessel, and cot θ =

Problem 9. A naval architect has carried out hydrostatic calculations on a yacht, where he
has found the following:
M = mass of yacht = 100 tonnes,
KB = vertical distance of the centre of buoyancy
(B) above the keel (K) = 1.2 m (see Figure 5.14),
Part Four

BM = distance of the metacentre (M) above the centre of

buoyancy = 2.4 m.
He then carries out an inclining experiment, where he
moves a mass of 50 kg through a transverse distance of 10 Figure 5.14
m across the yacht’s deck. In doing this, he finds that the
resulting angle of keel, θ = 1°. What is the metacentric height (GM) and the posi- tion of
the centre of gravity of the yacht above the keel, namely KG? Assume g = 9.81 m/s2.
11
 P = 50 kg × 9.81 = 490.5 N,
W = 100 tonnes × 1000 × 9.81 = 981 kN,
x = 10 m, θ = 1° from which, tan θ = 0.017455 and cot θ =
. ∗ ∗ .
GM = cot θ =
∗
i.e. metacentric height, GM = 0.286 m
Now KM = KB + BM = 1.2 m + 2.4 m = 3.6 m
KG = KM – GM = 3.6 – 0.286 = 3.314 m
i.e. centre of gravity above the keel, KG = 3.314 m, (where ‘K’ is a point on the keel)
Problem 10. A barge of length 30 m and width 8 m floats on an even keel at a depth of 3 m.
What is the value of its buoyancy? Take density of water, ρ, as 1000 kg/m3 and g as 9.81 m/s2.
The displaced volume of the barge,
V = 30 m × 8 m × 3 m = 720 m3.
From Section 5.4, buoyancy = Vρg = 720 m3× 1000× 9.81 = 7.063 MN

Problem 11. If the vertical centre of gravity of the barge in Problem 10 is 2 m above the keel,
(i.e. KG = 2 m), what is the metacentric height of the barge?
Now KB = the distance of the centre of buoyancy of the barge from the keel =
i.e. KB = 1.5 m. BM = and for a rectangle, I =
where L = length of the waterplane = 30 m, and b = width of the waterplane = 8 m.
×
Hence, moment of inertia, I = = 1280 m4
From Problem 10, volume, V = 720 m3, hence, BM = = = 1.778 m
Now, KM = KB + BM = 1.5 m + 1.778 m = 3.278 m
i.e. the metacentre above the keel, KM = 3.278 m.
Since KG = 2 m (given), then
GM = KM – KG = 3.278 – 2 = 1.278 m,
i.e. the metacentric height of the barge, GM = 1.278 m
Problem 12. A circular cylindrical steel buoy, made from 10 mm thick steel plate, is of a
hollow box-like disc shape, as shown in Figure 5.15. It is sealed off at its top and bottom by
circular plates sothat it is watertight. (a) If the external diameter of the buoy, D, is 1 m and its
height, h, is 0.5 m, determine its weight, W, given that the density of steel, ρS = 7860 kg/m3.
(b) At what depth, H, will the buoy float if the density of water, ρW = 1020 kg/m3?
(c) What is its GM? Take g to be 9.81 m/s2

(a) Weight of two end plates,

W1 = πR2 ×t ×ρS ×g ×2 where radius R = D/2
= π (0.5)2 × (10 ×10−3) ×7860 ×9.81×2 = 1211.2 N
Weight of circular cylinder,
W2 = 2πRmean t ×h ×ρS ×g
Figure 5-15

12
Total weight of buoy, W= W1 + W2 = 1211 + 1199 = 2410 N
(b) Buoyancy, B = W = 2410 N = weight of water displaced (1)
Let H = draught of water of the buoy, so that:
B = πR2H ×ρW ×9.81 = π (0.5)2 ×H ×1020 ×9.81 = 7858.9 H (2)
Equating (1) and (2) gives: 7858.9 H = 2410
from which, depth, H = = 0.307 m
.
.
(c) KB = = = 0.1533 m
.
BM = = × = = =0.204 m
× .
KM = KB + BM = 0.153 + 0.204 = 0.357 m
.
GM = KM – KG = 0.357 – Hence, GM = 0.107 m
Problem 13. A submarine pressure hull is in the form of a watertight circular cylindrical shell,
of length 80 m, blocked off by flat ends, and of external diameter 10 m, and it descends to the
bottom of the Mariana Trench, which is 11.52 km deep. What will be the hydrostatic pressure
acting on it? If a double-decker London bus is of mass 7 tonnes what will be the equivalent
number of double-decker London buses acting on this hull? Density of water, ρW = 1020
kg/m3. Take g to be 9.81 m/s2.
Hydrostatic pressure,
p = ρgh = 1020×9.81 ×11520= 115.27 MPa = 1152.7 bar ≡ 1152.7 atmosphere
(since 105 pascals = 1 bar ≡ 14.5 psi)
Let A = area of the external surface of the pressure hull
assuming flat ends = πR2×2 2 πRL
where R = external cylinder radius =10/2 5 m and
L = length between its ends = 80 m
Hence, area A = π(5)2×2 2π×5 ×80 = 157.1 + 2513.3 = 2670.4 m2
Total hydrostatic head on the submarine hull = p A = 115.27 106 2670.4 = 307817 MN
Hence, W = 307817 MN = 31.378 ×106 tonnes
Number of double-decker London buses,
. ∗
N= = 4.48 ×106
Thus, N = 4.48 million equivalent weight of double-decker London buses
Because of the huge heads suffered by submarine pressure hulls, they are one of the
most difficult structures to design.

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