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CHAPTER 1

LESSON 1 - MATTER AND IT’S PROPERTIES

MATTER AND IT’S PROPERTIES
I. What is matter?

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass.

Mass is a measure of an object's inertia. It is proportional to weight: the more mass an object has, the more weight it has. However, mass is not the same as weight. Weight is a force created
by the action of gravity on a substance while mass is a measure of an object's resistance to change in motion.
Volume is a measure of the amount of space occupied by an object. Volume can be measured directly with equipment designed using graduations marks or indirectly using length
measurements depending on the state (gas, liquid, or solid) of the material.

II. States of Matter

Matter is classified into pure substance and impure substances or mixture. Pure substances is either an element or a compound. An element as you learned in your early chemistry course, is
the simplest form of matter and cannot be further subdivided by ordinary chemical means. It is further classified as metal, shiny appearance, malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets) and
ductile (can be drawn into wires) and good conductor of electricity. Non-metal, dull appearance, brittle and poor conductor of electricity and the lastly metalloid, has the characteristic of both
metal and non-metal. A compound is a chemical combination of two or more elements, in definite proportions. A compound is acid, base, or salt. Mixture, a mechanical combination of two or
more substances can be homogeneous, a combination of two or more substances whose components are equally distributed, thus only one phase is seen. A homogeneous mixture is either a
solution or a colloid. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances whose composition can be varied within definite limits while a colloid is a homogeneous mixture consisting
of large molecules or ultramicroscopic particles of one substance dispersed through another substance. Secondly, heterogeneous mixture is a combination of two or more substances whose
components are not equally distributed and can be easily separated by mechanical means, thus two or more phases are present. A suspension is heterogeneous mixture containing solid
particles that are sufficiently large enough for sedimentation.
Figure 1.1: Classification of Matter

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Source : https://www.tes.com/lessons/mDv6t5ZJD8X38A/sci9-understanding-matter

Solid and liquid are often referred to as condensed phases since the particle are every close together. The movement is impossible especially the solid particles while those of the liquid particles
are loosely packed, thus they have the ability to flow.
The particles of these three states of matter are characterized as follows:

Solid particles are tightly packed in a regular pattern and vibrate but do not move from one place to another.
Liquid particles are loosely packed with no regular arrangement and have the ability to move or past each other.
Gas particles are widely separated with no regular arrangement and have the ability to vibrate and freely move at very high speed.

Table 1.1 Summarizes properties of solids, liquids, and gases and distinguishes the microscopic behavior responsible for every property.

Characteristics and the Microscopic Explanation of Solids, Liquids and Gases’ Behavior

Solid Liquid Gas

No definite shape, assumes the shape of the container but No definite shape and volume, thus assumes the shape of
Has definite shape and definite volume
has definite volume the container

*Rigid or inelastic particles locked not place *Can move/slide past one another *Can move at very high speed past one another

Particles are difficult to compress Particles are not easy to compress Particles are highly compressible

*Very minimal space between particles *Very small space between particles *Large space between particles

Particles do not easily flow Particles have the ability to flow Particles move/flow easily at high speed

*The rigid particles do not move nor slide one another *The particles move or flow past one another *The particles move past one another

(*means the explanation of the microscopic behavior)

III. Physical and Chemical Properties

We are all surrounded by matter on a daily basis. Anything that we use, touch, eat, etc. is an example of matter. Matter can be defined or described as anything that takes up space, and it is
composed of miniscule particles called atoms. It must display the two properties of mass and volume.
The different types of matter can be distinguished through two components: composition and properties. The composition of matter refers to the different components of matter along with their
relative proportions. The properties of matter refer to the qualities/attributes that distinguish one sample of matter from another. These properties are generally grouped into two categories:
physical or chemical

Figure 1.2: Organizational breakdown of chemical and physical properties of matter.

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Source:https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Chemical_Reactions/Properties_of_Matter

Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe matter. Physical properties of materials
and systems are often described as intensive and extensive properties. This classification relates to the dependency of the properties upon the size or extent of the system or object in question.
Chemical properties of matter describe its "potential" to undergo some chemical change or reaction by virtue of its composition. What elements, electrons, and bonding are present to give
the potential for chemical change? It is quite difficult to define a chemical property without using the word "change". Eventually you should be able to look at the formula of a compound and
state some chemical property. At this time this is very difficult to do and you are not expected to be able to do it. For example hydrogen has the potential to ignite and explode given the right
conditions. This is a chemical property. Metals in general have they chemical property of reacting with an acid. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. This is a chemical
property.
Chemical change results in one or more substances of entirely different composition from the original substances. The elements and/or compounds at the start of the reaction are rearranged
into new product compounds or elements. A chemical change alters the composition of the original matter. Different elements or compounds are present at the end of the chemical change.
The atoms in compounds are rearranged to make new and different compounds.
Corrosion is the unwanted oxidation of metals resulting in metal oxides.
2Mg+O2→2MgO

Figure 1.3: Chemical Change: A burning magnesium ribbon with very short exposure to obtain oxidation detail. from Capt. John Yossarian (Wikipedia)

IV. Extensive and Intensive Properties

An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a physical property of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system. Examples of
intensive properties include temperature, refractive index, density, and hardness of an object. When a diamond is cut, the pieces maintain their intrinsic hardness (until their size reaches a few
atoms thick). In contrast, an extensive property is additive for independent, non-interacting subsystems. The property is proportional to the amount of material in the system.
Intensive properties: A physical property that will be the same regardless of the amount of matter.

density: ρ=m/v
color: The pigment or shade
conductivity: electricity to flow through the substance
malleability: if a substance can be flattened
luster: how shiny the substance looks

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Extensive Properties: A physical property that will change if the amount of matter changes.

mass: how much matter in the sample

volume: How much space the sample takes up
length: How long the sample is

A physical change takes place without any changes in molecular composition. The same element or compound is present before and after the change. The same molecule is present
throughout the changes. Physical changes are related to physical properties since some measurements require that changes be made. The three main states of matter are: Solid, Liquid, Gas.

Solid is distinguished by a fixed structure. Its shape and volume do not change. In a solid, atoms are tightly packed together in a fixed arrangement.
Liquid is distinguished by its malleable shape (is able to form into the shape of its container), but constant volume. In a liquid, atoms are close together but not in a fixed arrangement.
Gas is made up of atoms that are separate. However, unlike solid & liquid, a gas has no fixed shape and volume.

Example 1: Physical Change

When liquid water (H2O) freezes into a solid state (ice), it appears changed; However, this change is only physical as the composition of the constituent molecules is the same: 11.19%
hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass.

Figure 1.4: Physical Change: Ice Melting is a physical change. from Wikipedia.

V. Ways of Classifying Matter

Substanceis a sample of matter whose physical and chemical properties are the same throughout the sample because the matter has a constant composition. It is common to see substances
changing from one state of matter to another. To differentiate the states of matter at least at a particle level, we look at the behavior of the particles within the substance. When substances
change state, it is because the spacing between the particles of the substances is changing due to a gain or loss of energy. For example, we all have probably observed that water can exist in
three forms with different characteristic ways of behaving: the solid state (ice), liquid state (water), and gaseous state (water vapor and steam). Due to water's prevalence, we use it to exemplify
and describe the three different states of matter. As ice is heated and the particles of matter that make up water gain energy, eventually the ice melts in to water that eventually boils and turns
into steam. Elements can be arranged into what is called the periodic table of elements based on observed similarities in chemical and physical properties among the different elements. When
atoms of two or more elements come together and bond, a compound is formed. The compound formed can later be broken down into the pure substances that originally reacted to form it.
Compounds such as water are composed of smaller units of bonded atoms called molecules. Molecules of a compound are composed of the same proportion of elements as the compound as a
whole since they are the smallest units of that compound. For example, every portion of a sample of water is composed of water molecules. Each water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom, and so water as a whole has, in a combined state, twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.
Water can still consist of the same molecules, but its physical properties may change. For instance, water at a temperature below 0° Celsius is ice, whereas water above the temperature of 100° C
is a gas, water vapor. When matter changes from one state to another, temperature and pressure may be involved in the process and the density and other physical properties change.

Mixture

Something that consists of diverse, non-bonded elements or molecules.

Element

A chemical substance that is made up of particular kind of atom and cannot be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction.

Substance

A form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It is composed of one type of atom or molecule.

Homogeneous

Since the properties of compounds and elements are uniform, they are classified as substances. When two or more substances are mixed together, the result is called a mixture. Mixtures can be
classified into two main categories: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture is one in which the composition of its constituents are uniformly mixed throughout. A

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homogeneous mixture in which on substance, the solute, dissolves completely in another substance, the solvent may also be called a solution. Usually the solvent is a liquid, however the solute
can be either a liquid, solid, or a gas. In a homogeneous solution, the particles of solute are spread evenly among the solvent particles and the extremely small particles of solute cannot be
separated from the solvent by filtration through filter paper because the spaces between paper fibres are much greater than the size of the solute and solvent particles. Other examples of
homogeneous mixtures include sugar water, which is the mixture of sucrose and water, and gasoline, which is a mixture of dozens of compounds.

Heterogeneous

A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture in which the components separate and the composition varies. Unlike the homogeneous mixture, heterogeneous mixtures can be separated
through physical processes. An example of a physical process used is filtration, which can easily separate the sand from the water in a sand-water mixture by using a filter paper. Some more
examples of heterogeneous mixtures include salad dressing, rocks, and oil and water mixtures. Heterogeneous mixtures involving at least one fluid are also called suspension mixtures and
separate if they are left standing long enough. Consider the idea of mixing oil and water together. Regardless of the amount of time spent shaking the two together, eventually oil and water
mixtures will separate with the oil rising to the top of the mixture due to its lower density.

Colloidal Mixtures. Mixtures that fall between a solution and a heterogeneous mixture are called colloidal suspensions (or just colloids). A mixture is considered colloidal if it typically does not
spontaneously separate or settle out as time passes and cannot be completely separated by filtering through a typical filter paper. It turns out that a mixture is colloidal in its behaviour if one or
more of its dimensions of length, width, or thickness is in the range of 1-1000 nm. A colloidal mixture can also be recognized by shining a beam of light through the mixture. If the mixture is
colloidal, the beam of light will be partially scattered by the suspended nanometre sized particles and can be observed by the viewer. This is known as the Tyndall effect. In the case of the Tyndall
effect, some of the light is scattered since the wavelengths of light in the visible range, about 400 nm to 700 nm, are encountering suspended colloidal sized particles of about the same size. In
contrast, if the beam of light were passed through a solution, the observer standing at right angles to the direction of the beam would see no light being reflected from either the solute or solvent
formula units that make up the solution because the particles of solute and solvent are so much smaller than the wavelength of the visible light being directed through the solution.

Solutions: molecules ~0.1-2 nm in size

Colloids: molecules ~ 2-1000 nm in size
Suspensions: molecules greater than ~ 1000 nm in size

Elements

A chemical element is a pure substance that consists of one type of atom. Each atom has an atomic number, which represents the number of protons that are in the nucleus of a single atom of
that element. The periodic table of elements is ordered by ascending atomic number.

The chemical elements are divided into the metals, the metalloids, and the non-metals. Metals, typically found on the left side of the periodic table, are:

often conductive to electricity

malleable
shiny
sometimes magnetic
Aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury and lead are metals.

In contrast, non-metals, found on the right side of the periodic table (to the right of the staircase), are:

typically not conductive

not malleable
dull (not shiny)
not magnetic.

VI. Examples of elemental non-metals include carbon and oxygen.

Metalloids have some characteristics of metals and some characteristics of non-metals. Silicon and arsenic are metalloids.
Figure 1.5: The Periodic Table of Elements

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Source: https://www.futurity.org/periodic-table-new-elements-1087782-2/

As of November 2011, 118 elements have been identified (the most recently identified was ununseptium, in 2010). Of these 118 known elements, only the first 98 are known to occur naturally
on Earth. The elements that do not occur naturally on Earth are the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions. 80 of the 98 naturally-occurring elements are stable; the rest are
radioactive, which means they decay into lighter elements over timescales ranging from fractions of a second to billions of years.
The periodic table shows 118 elements, including metals (blue), non-metals (red), and metalloids (green).
Hydrogen and helium are by far the most abundant elements in the universe. However, iron is the most abundant element (by mass) in the composition of the Earth, and oxygen is the most
common element in the layer that is the Earth’s crust.

Although all known chemical matter is composed of these elements, chemical matter itself constitutes only about 15% of the matter in the universe. The remainder is dark matter, a mysterious
substance that is not composed of chemical elements. Dark matter lacks protons, neutrons, or electrons.

Compounds
Pure samples of isolated elements are uncommon in nature. While the 98 naturally occurring elements have all been identified in mineral samples from the Earth’s crust, only a small minority of
them can be found as recognizable, relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such “native elements” are copper, silver, gold, and sulfur. Carbon is also commonly found in the form
of coal, graphite, and diamonds. The noble gases (e.g., neon) and noble metals (e.g., mercury) can also be found in their pure, non-bonded forms in nature. Still, most of these elements are
found in mixtures.
When two distinct elements are chemically combined—i.e., chemical bonds form between their atoms—the result is called a chemical compound. Most elements on Earth bond with other
elements to form chemical compounds, such as sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl), which combine to form table salt (NaCl). Water is another example of a chemical compound. The two or more
component elements of a compound can be separated through chemical reactions.
Chemical compounds have a unique and defined structure, which consists of a fixed ratio of atoms held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Chemical compounds
can be:

molecular compounds held together by covalent bonds

salts held together by ionic bonds
intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds
complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds.

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Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, even if they consist of diatomic or polyatomic molecules (molecules that contain only multiple atoms of a single element, such
as H2 or S8).

VII. Methods of Separating Components of Mixture

Not everyone is out searching for gold (and not many of those searchers is going to get much gold, either). In a chemical reaction, it is important to isolate the component(s) of interest from all
the other materials so they can be further characterized. Studies of biochemical systems, environmental analysis, pharmaceutical research – these and many other areas of research require
reliable separation methods.

Mixtures can be separated using a variety of techniques.

Chromatography involves solvent separation on a solid medium.
Distillation takes advantage of differences in boiling points.
Evaporation removes a liquid from a solution to leave a solid material.
Filtration separates solids of different sizes.

Chromatography. It is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which the components move at different rates.
Thin-layer chromatography is a special type of chromatography used for separating and identifying mixtures that are or can be colored, especially pigments.

There are three types of Chromatography, namely:

Adsorption chromatography is the oldest types and it utilizes a mobile phase of liquid or gaseous phase that is adsorbed by the stationary solid phase.
Partition chromatography is centered on a thin-film formed on the surface of a solid support by a liquid immovable or stationary phase.
Ion-exchange chromatography utilizes a resin (acting as stationary solid phase) covalently attached to ions (anion/cation) into it by electrostatic charge.

source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/chromatography

Distillationis an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure liquids. Distillation is a purification process where the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and
then condensed and isolated. In simple distillation, a mixture is heated and the most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The vapor passes through a cooled tube (a
condenser), where it condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is collected is called distillate.

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/315885361360588638/

In the Figure, we see several important pieces of equipment. There is a heat source, a test tube with a one-hole stopper attached to a glass elbow and rubber tubing. The rubber tubing
is placed into a collection tube which is submerged in cold water. There are other more complicated assemblies for distillation that can also be used, especially to separate mixtures,

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which are comprised of pure liquids with boiling points that are close to one another.

Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogenous mixtures where there is one or more dissolved solids. This method drives off the liquid components from the solid components. The
process typically involves heating the mixture until no more liquid remains, Prior to using this method, the mixture should only contain one liquid component, unless it is not important to isolate
the liquid components. This is because all liquid components will evaporate over time. This method is suitable to separate a soluble solid from a liquid.

Source: https://www.ck12.org/chemistry/evaporation/rwa/Salt-from-the-Sea/

In many parts of the world, table salt is obtained from the evaporation of sea water. The heat for the process comes from the sun. Once the sea water in these evaporation ponds has
evaporated, the salt can be harvested.

Filtration is a separation method used to separate out pure substances in mixtures comprised of particles some of which are large enough in size to be captured with a porous material. Particle
size can vary considerably, given the type of mixture. For instance, stream water is a mixture that contains naturally occurring biological organisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoans. Some
water filters can filter out bacteria, the length of which is on the order of 1 micron. Other mixtures, like soil, have relatively large particle sizes, which can be filtered through something like a
coffee filter.

Source: https://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/chemistry/atomic-structure/revise-it/separating-mixtures

Decantation is a process to separate mixturesby removing a liquid layer that is free of a precipitate, or the solids deposited from a solution. The purpose may be to obtain a decant (liquid free
from particulates) or to recover the precipitate.

Decantation relies on gravity to pull precipitate out of the solution, so there is always some loss of product, either from the precipitate not fully falling out of the solution or from liquid remaining
when separating it from the solid portion.

The Decanter

A piece of glassware called a decanter is used to perform decantation. There are several decanter designs. A simple version is a wine decanter, which has a wide body and a narrow neck. When
wine is poured, solids stay in the base of the decanter. In the case of wine, the solid is usually potassium bitartrate crystals. For chemistry separations, a decanter may have a stopcock or valve to
drain the precipitate or dense liquid, or it may have a partition to separate fractions.

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Source: https://byjus.com/chemistry/decantation/

Solvent Extraction. A process in which compounds are separated based on their relative solubility. This treatment method involves using a solvent - a fluid that has the ability to dissolve another
substance.

Solvent extraction is used across multiple industries, including during the processing of perfumes and vegetable oil. It’s also commonly used in petrochemical refining industries.

Solvent extraction is used to separate hazardous contaminants from sludge and sediments as well. This can be especially beneficial for hazardous waste generators since solvent extraction
ultimately reduces the amount of hazardous waste that must be treated. Solvent extraction does not destroy a compound. It instead separates it, a process that can provide several valuable
benefits depending on the industry in which the process is used.

ource:https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_Lab_Techniques_(Nichols)/04%3A_Extraction/4.02%3A_Overview_of_Extraction

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