NOTE

P H Y S I C S

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

What you already know What you will learn

• Mechanics • Physical quantity

• Thermodynamics • Dimensional analysis
• Waves • Significant figures

BOARDS
Physical Quantity

It is a quantity that can be measured by an instrument and by the means of which we describe the
laws of the physical world. Let us consider an arbitrary physical quantity PQ.
Physical quantity (PQ) = Numerical value (magnitude) × Unit
PQ = n × u
n = Numerical value
u = Unit
Example:
Velocity = 10 ms–1
n = 10
u = ms–1

Unit

The measurement of any physical quantity involves a comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily
chosen, and internationally accepted reference standard known as unit. There are different systems
of units.

Different systems of units

A system of units is a set of related units that are used for calculations. The system includes base
units that represent base dimensions and derived units that represent products of powers of base
dimensions. Some units exist in more than one system of units.

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System of units Unit of length Unit of mass Unit of time

CGS centimetre gram second

FPS foot pound second

MKS metre kilogram second

Types of Physical Quantities

Fundamental Derived Supplementary

quantities quantities quantities

Fundamental quantities

The quantities that are independent of all other quantities and do not require the help of any
other physical quantity for their definition are known as fundamental quantities. There are seven
fundamental quantities.

Fundamental Quantity Units (SI) Symbol

Length (L) metre m

Mass (M) kilogram kg

Time (T) second s

Electric current (I) ampere A

Temperature (K) kelvin K

Amount of substance (mol) mole mol

Luminous intensity (Cd) candela cd

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Derived quantities

The physical quantities that can be derived by suitable multiplication or division of different powers
of fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities.
Example:
Area = Length × Breadth = m × m = m2
Displacement
Velocity = ms −1
=
Time
Velocity
= = ms −2
Acceleration
Time

Supplementary quantities
Plane angle Solid angle

Quantity Unit Symbol

Plane Angle radian rad

Solid Angle steradian sr

Dimension

Dimensions are the powers to which the fundamental quantities are raised in order to express the
derived unit of a quantity.

Quantity Formula Dimensional formula Dimension

Area Length × Breadth [L2] L2

Displacement
Velocity [LT –1] LT –1
Time

Velocity
Acceleration [LT –2] LT –2
Time

In area, the dimension of length is 2.

In velocity, the dimension of length is 1 and the dimension of time is –1.
In acceleration, the dimension of length is 1 and the dimension of time is –2.
The dimension of any physical quantity can be found the same way.

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Dimensional Analysis

• D
 imensional analysis is the practice of checking relations between physical quantities by
identifying the dimensions of the physical quantities.
• T
 hese dimensions are independent of the numerical multiples and constants, and all the quantities
in the world can be expressed as functions of the fundamental dimensions.
• T
 o convert units of a physical quantity from one system of units into another, the following
condition can be used.
Numerical value × Unit = Constant
Therefore, changing units also changes the numerical value.

NEET
Applications of Dimensional Analysis

Checking the correctness To derive the relationship

Conversion of one system
of the given physical between various physical
of units into the other
relation quantities

Checking the correctness of the given physical relation

If a physical relation is said to be correct, then the dimensions of the fundamental quantities of
each term on both sides of the physical relation must be the same.

Principle of homogeneity
• T
 he magnitude of physical quantities may be added together or subtracted from one another
only if they have the same dimensions.
• W
 e can multiply or divide any physical quantity with the same or different dimensions.

Let us try to understand this with the help of an example.

2s+4m=? ×
Can we add time to distance? The answer is NO because they have different dimensions.
273 K – 5 A = ? ×
Can we subtract current from temperature? Again the answer is NO because they also have
different dimensions.

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Check the dimensional consistency or homogeneity of the given equation, where s, u, a, and
t are the displacement, initial velocity, acceleration, and time, respectively.
1
s ut + at 2
=
2
s = Displacement of the object in time t
u = Initial velocity of the object
a = Constant acceleration of the object

Solution

Let us find the dimensions of each term in the given physical relation.
s = [L]
ut = [LT –1][T] = [L]
at2 = [LT –2][T 2] = [L]
LHS = RHS
[L] = [L] + [L]
Hence, the given physical relation obeys the principle of homogeneity and is dimensionally correct.

Find the dimensions of α and β in equation, v = α + βt, where v is the velocity and t is the time.

(A) [α] = [LT –1] and [β] = [LT –2] (B) [α] = [LT –2] and [β] = [LT –1]

(C) [α] = [L2T –1] and [β] = [LT –1] (D) [α] = [LT –1] and [β] = [L2T –2]

Solution

v = α + βt
v – α – βt = 0
Using the principle of homogeneity,
Dimension of v = Dimension of α = Dimension of βt
⇒ Dimension of α = Dimension of v
[α] = [LT –1]
Dimension of βt = Dimension of v
[β][T] = [LT –1]
[β] = [LT –2]
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

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2
Find the dimensional formula of α in equation, P = P0 e − α t , where P and P0 are the pressures
and t is the time.

(A) [α] = [ML2T –1] (B) [α] = [LT –1] (C) [α] = [ML2T 2] (D) [α] = [T –2]

Solution

2
P = P0 e − α t
Note: Powers are dimensionless.
Therefore, the dimension of αt2 is,
[αt2] = [M0L0T 0]
[α][T 2] = [M0L0T 0]
∴ [α] = [T –2]
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.

Find the dimensional formula of a, b, and c in equation, y = a sin(bt – cx), where y is the
displacement, t is the time, and x is the distance.

(A) [a] = [L], [b] = [LT –1], and [c] = [L–1T] (B) [a] = [L], [b] = [T –1], and [c] = [L–1]

(C) [a] = [L], [b] = [LT 2], and [c] = [L–1] (D) [a] = [L], [b] = [T –1], and [c] = [L]

Solution

y = a sin(bt – cx)
(bt – cx) is the angle. Therefore, it is dimensionless but has a unit.
Using the principle of homogeneity,
Dimension of a = Dimension of y
⇒ [a] = [L] (Since y denotes the displacement)
Dimension of (bt – cx) = [M0L0T 0]
Dimension of bt = Dimension of cx = [M0L0T 0]
[b][T] = [c][L] = [M0L0T 0]
[b] = [T –1] and [c] = [L–1]
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.

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Unit conversion

Let n1 and n2 be the numerical values of a physical quantity and u1 and u2 be the units, respectively,
in two different systems of units. Then,
nu = Constant
⇒ n1u1 = n2u2
n1[M1aL1bT1c] = n2[M2aL2bT2c]
a b c
 M   L  T 
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M2   L2   T2 

Young’s modulus of steel is 19 × 1010 Nm–2. Express it in dyne cm–2. Here, dyne is the CGS unit
of force.

(A) 19 × 1012 (B) 19 × 1011 (C) 19 × 1010 (D) 19 × 109

Solution

As we know, 1 Nm−2 = (1 kg )(1 m )

−1
(1 s )
−2

Stress
Y=
1 dyne cm−2 = (1 g )(1 cm ) (1 s )
−1 −2
Strain
F  Let,
 A
Y=   n1u=
1 19 × 1010 Nm− 2
 ∆l 
 l  and n2u2 = n2 dyne cm− 2
 
We know that, n1u1 = n2u2
Since the strain is nothing but the ratio
Therefore,
of the lengths, it is a dimensionless
−1 −2
quantity.  1 kg   1 m  1 s 
n2 =19 × 10 × 
10
×  ×  
Therefore,  1 g   1 cm  1 s 
[F ] [Mass × Acceleration]
−1 −2
 1000 g   100 cm  1 s 
[=
Y] = ⇒ n2 = 19 × 10 × 10
×  ×  
[ A] [ Area]  1 g   1 cm  1 s 
 MLT − 2  1
⇒ n2 = 19 × 1010 × 1000 ×
⇒
= [Y ] =  ML− 1T − 2  100
 L 
2

⇒ n2 = 19 × 1011

a b c
 M   L  T  ∴ 19 × 1010 Nm−2 = 19 × 1011 dyne cm−2
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M2   L2   T2 
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.
The given unit of Young’s modulus is Nm . –2

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 08

Deriving the relationship between various physical quantities

• T
 o establish a relation between different physical quantities.
• If we know the various factors on which a physical quantity depends, then we can find a relation
among the factors by using the principle of homogeneity.

Find an expression for the time period (t) of a simple pendulum. The time period (t) may
depend upon: (i) mass m of the bob of the pendulum, (ii) length l of pendulum, and (iii)
acceleration due to gravity g at the place where the bob is suspended. (Take K as the constant
of proportionality.)

l
(A) t = K (B) t = K lg (C) t = Kl 2 g (D) t = Klg2
g

Solution

Let t ∝ mx 1
y− = 0
t ∝ l and
y 2
1
t ∝ gz I.e., y =
2
Combining all the three factors, we get, 1 −1
x y z
x 0,
Therefore,= = y =,z
t ∝m l g 2 2
1 −1
t = K mx l y g z So, t = K l 2 g 2
z
 M 0 L0T  = [ M ] [ L]  LT −2 
x y
l
⇒t =K
⇒  M 0 L0T  =  M x Ly LzT −2z  g

⇒  M 0 L0T  =
 M x Ly + zT −2z  Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

Comparing dimensions on both sides, we get,

x = 0 ........ ( i )
0 ....... ( ii )
y+z=
1 ........ ( iii )
−2z =
−1
⇒z=
2

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Limitations of dimensional analysis

 dimension does not depend on the magnitude. Therefore, equation x = ut + at2 is also
• A
dimensionally correct. Thus, a dimensionally correct equation need not be physically correct.
• T
 he constant of proportionality of any equation cannot be deduced by the method of dimensions.
• T
 his method is applicable only if the relation is of the product/ratio type. It fails in the case of
addition, subtraction, power, exponential, and trigonometric relations.

Significant Figures

• S
 ignificant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity denote the number of digits in
which we have confidence.
• L
 arger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of
the measurement. The reverse is also true.

Rules for counting the number of significant figures

• A ll non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 24.123 – 5 significant digits
• A ll zeroes become significant if they appear between two non-zero digits.
Example: 4.004 – 4 significant digits
• L
 eading zeroes or the zeroes placed to the left of the first non-zero digit are insignificant.
Example: 0.006 – 1 significant digit
• Z eroes placed to the right of the number after a decimal place are significant.
Example: 343.000 – 6 significant digits
• In an exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant figures.
Example: 1.321 ×103 – 4 significant digits

Rules for rounding off

• If the digit to be dropped is less than five, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Examples: 7.82 3.94 (Round off to 1 decimal place)
7.8 3.9
• If the digit to be dropped is more than five, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Examples: 6.87 12.78 (Round off to 1 decimal place)
6.9 12.8

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• If the digit to be dropped is five, followed by digits other than zeroes, then the preceding digit is
raised by one.
Examples: 16.351 6.758
16.4 6.8
• If the digit to be dropped is five or five followed by zeroes, then the preceding digit is left
unchanged if it is even.
Examples: 3.250 12.650
3.2 12.6
• If the digit to be dropped is five or five followed by zeroes, then the preceding digit is raised by
one if it is odd.
Examples: 3.750 16.150
3.8 16.2

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 NOTE
P H Y S I C S

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

ERRORS AND MEASUREMENT

What you already know What you will learn

• Physical quantity • Significant figures in calculation

• Dimensional analysis • Accuracy and precision
• Significant figures • Types of errors

Significant Figures in Calculation

Case 1: Addition/Subtraction Case 2: Multiplication/Division

The final result should retain as many decimal The final result should retain as many
places as the number involved in the operation significant figures as the number involved
with the least number of decimal places. in the operation with the least number of
Example: significant figures.
33.3 Example:
+ 3.11 4.237 g
+ 0.313 Density = = 1.69 g cm–3
2.51 cm3
36.723
Answer: 36.7 Three significant figures

Calculate the velocity of an object if displacement of the object is 3.43 m and the time taken
is 1.3 s.

(A) 2.63 ms–1 (B) 2.6 ms–1 (C) 2.638 ms–1 (D) 2.64 ms–1

Solution

Displacement 3.43
=
Velocity = = 2.638= 2.6 ms −1
Time 1.3
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.

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 02

If an object covers 2.81 m in the first 10 minutes and 5.3 m in the next 5 minutes, find the total
distance covered by the object in 15 minutes.

(A) 8.11 m (B) 8 m (C) 8.1 m (D) 8.0 m

Solution

Total distance = 2.81 m + 5.3 m = 8.11 = 8.1 m (upto one decimal place)
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

BOARDS
Errors

Whenever an experiment is performed, two kinds of errors can occur in the measured quantity.
Those are as follows:
(i) Random errors
(ii) Systematic errors

Random errors

• R
 andom errors occur randomly because of the users, fluctuations in the external conditions, and
some variations in the measuring instruments.
• They do not have any fixed signs.
• T
 he effect of random errors can be somewhat reduced by taking the average of measured
values.

Systematic errors

• S
 ystematic errors occur due to errors in the procedure or miscalibrations of the measuring
instruments.
• They have the same size or sign for all measurements.
• These errors can be determined.

Error in Measurement

The measuring process is essentially a process of comparison in spite of our best efforts.
• The measured value of quantity is always slightly different from its actual value or true value.
• T
 he difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the
error of measurement.

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Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy

• It is the ability of the instrument to measure as close as possible

to the true value.
• It can be defined as the level of correctness of a measurement to
its true value.
• It represents how closely the results agree with the standard
value.

Precision

• It can be defined as the sharp exactness of the measurement.

• T
 he closeness of two or more measurements to each other is
known as the precision of a substance.
• It represents how closely the results agree with one another.

NEET
Types of Errors

Absolute error

An absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity is the magnitude of the difference
between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.
Let the physical quantity be measured n times.
Let the measured value be a1, a2, a3, a4,….an.
The arithmetic mean of these values is as follows:
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ...... + an
am =
n
Usually, am is taken as the true value of the quantity.
The absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are as follows:
∆a1 = |a1 – am|
∆a2 = |a2 – am|
∆a3 = |a3 – am|
∆an = |an – am|

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Mean absolute error

It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements of the
quantity.
∆a + ∆a2 + ∆a3 + ...... + ∆an
∆a = 1
n
Hence, the final result of the measurement is written as follows:
a= am ± ∆a

Relative error or fractional error

The relative error or fractional error of measurement is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute
error to the mean value of the quantity measured.
Mean absolute error ∆a
=
Relative error =
Mean value am

Percentage error

It is the relative error or fractional error expressed in percentage.

Mean absolute error ∆a
Percentage error = × 100 =Relative error × 100 = × 100
Mean value am

In a series of successive measurements in an experiment, the readings of the length of a rod

are found to be 10.3 m, 10.6 m, 9.4 m, 9.7 m, 10.2 m, and 9.8 m. Find the true value, absolute
error, mean absolute error, relative error, and percentage error.

Solution

Let the measurements be a1 = 10.3 m, a2 = 10.6 m, a3 = 9.4 m, a4 = 9.7 m, a5 = 10.2 m, a6 = 9.8 m, and
n = 6.

(a) True value

a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ...... + an
am =
n
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6
am =
6
10.3 + 10.6 + 9.4 + 9.7 + 10.2 + 9.8
am =
6
am = 10 m

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 05

(b) Absolute errors in each measurement

∆a1 = |a1 – am| = |10.3 – 10| = 0.3
∆a2 = |a2 – am| = |10.6 – 10| = 0.6
∆a3 = |a3 – am| = |9.4 – 10| = 0.6
∆a4 = |a4 – am| = |9.7 – 10| = 0.3
∆a5 = |a5 – am| = |10.2 – 10| = 0.2
∆a6 = |a6 – am| = |9.8 – 10| = 0.2

(c) Mean absolute error

∆a + ∆a2 + ∆a3 + ...... + ∆an
∆a = 1
n
∆a + ∆a2 + ∆a3 + ∆a4 + ∆a5 + ∆a6
∆a = 1
6
0.3 + 0.6 + 0.6 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.2
∆a = 0.366
6
∆a =0.4 m

(d) Relative error

Mean absolute error ∆a
=
Relative error =
Mean value am
∆a 0.4
=
Relative error = = 0.04
am 10

(e) Percentage error

Mean absolute error ∆a
Percentage error = × 100 =Relative error × 100 = × 100
Mean value am
∆a
Percentage error = × 100 =0.04 × 100 = 4 %
am

In a series of successive measurements in an experiment, the readings of the period of

oscillation of a simple pendulum were found to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71 s, and 2.80 s. Find
the time period of the simple pendulum.

(A) 2.62 ± 4 % (B) 2.52 ± 4 % (C) 3.62 ± 4 % (D) 5.62 ± 4 %

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Solution

True or mean value, Tm

a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ...... + an
am =
n
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80
Tm =
5 5
Tm = 2.62 s
Absolute errors in each measurement, Time period Time
∆Tn = |Tn – Tm|
T1 2.63 s
∆T1 = |T1 – Tm| = |2.63 – 2.62| = 0.01 s
T2 2.56 s
∆T2 = |T2 – Tm| = |2.56 – 2.62| = 0.06 s
T3 2.42 s
∆T3 = |T3 – Tm| = |2.42 – 2.62| = 0.20 s
T4 2.71 s
∆T4 = |T4 – Tm| = |2.71 – 2.62| = 0.09 s
T5 2.80 s
∆T5 = |T5 – Tm| = |2.80 – 2.62| = 0.18 s

Mean absolute error of ∆Tm

∆T + ∆T2 + ∆T3 + ∆T4 + ∆T5
∆Tm = 1
5
0.01 + 0.06 + 0.20 + 0.09 + 0.18 0.54
∆Tm= = = 0.108 s
5 5
∆Tm =0.11 s
Percentage error of ∆Tm
∆Tm 0.11
Percentage error = × 100 = × 100
Tm 2.62
T= 0.042 × 100= 4 %
Time period of simple pendulum
=T 2.62 ± 4 %
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

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 NOTE
P H Y S I C S

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

What you already know What you will learn

• Errors • Propagation of errors

• Types of errors • Vernier caliper
• Accuracy and precision • Screw gauge

Propagation of Errors

Error in the sum of quantities

Suppose that a physical quantity x is, x = a + b

Δa = Absolute error in measurement of a
Δb = Absolute error in measurement of b
Δx = Absolute error in measurement of x
Only absolute errors can be added in additions and subtractions.
Then, the maximum absolute error in x is, ∆x = (∆a + ∆b)
The percentage error in the value of x is,
(∆a + ∆b)
× 100 %
a+b

Error in the difference of quantities

Suppose that a physical quantity x is, x = a – b

Δa = Absolute error in measurement of a
Δb = Absolute error in measurement of b
Δx = Absolute error in measurement of x
As we know, only absolute errors can be added in additions and subtractions.
Then, the maximum absolute error in x is, ∆x = (∆a + ∆b)
The percentage error in the value of x is,
(∆a + ∆b)
× 100 %
a−b
Note:
An error in measurements always gets added up irrespective of the mathematical operations.

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 02

Error in the product of quantities

Suppose that a physical quantity x is, x = ab

Δa = Absolute error in measurement of a
Δb = Absolute error in measurement of b
Δx = Absolute error in measurement of x
Only relative error or percentage error can be added in multiplications and divisions.
Then, the maximum fractional error in x is,
∆x  ∆a ∆b 
=  +
x  a b 
∆x  ∆a ∆
Irrespective ofbthe
 product or division, the rules of propagation do not change.
=  +
x the
So, b 
 apercentage error in x is given by,
∆x   ∆a   ∆b 
× 100 =   × 100  +  × 100  
x  a   b 
=
% x ( % a + % b)

Error in the division of quantities

a
Suppose that a physical quantity x is, x =
b
Δa = Absolute error in measurement of a
Δb = Absolute error in measurement of b
Δx = Absolute error in measurement of x
As we know, only relative error or percentage error can be added in multiplications and divisions.
Then, the maximum fractional error in x is,
∆x  ∆a ∆b 
=  +
x  a b 
∆x  ∆a of
Irrespective ∆bthe
 product or division, the rules of propagation do not change.
=  +
x the
So, a b  error in x is given by,
 percentage
∆x   ∆a   ∆b 
× 100 =   × 100  +  × 100  
x  a   b 
=
% x ( % a + % b)

Error in quantity raised to a power

an
Suppose that a physical quantity x is, x =
bm
Δa = Absolute error in measurement of a
Δb = Absolute error in measurement of b

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 03

Δx = Absolute error in measurement of x

As we know, only relative error or percentage error can be added in multiplications and divisions.
Then, the maximum fractional error in x is,
∆x  ∆a ∆b 
∆xx  n ∆aa + m ∆bb 
=
=  n + m 
x the
So, a
 percentage b  error in x is given by,
∆x   ∆a   ∆b 
× 100=   n × 100  +  m × 100  
x  a   b 
% x (n % a + m % b )
=

If the error in the measurement of the radius of a sphere is 2%, then find the error in the
determination of the volume of the sphere.

(A) 4% (B) 6% (C) 8% (D) 2%

Solution

To solve this problem, we use the formula for the volume of a sphere and percentage error.
∆r
Given, × 100 =2%
r
4
V = π r3
3
Except radius, other terms are constant.
∴ %V =× 3 % r =× 3 2% = 6%
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.

In an experiment, four quantities a, b, c, and d are measured with percentage errors 1%, 2%,
3%, and 4%, respectively. Quantity P is calculated as, P = a3b2/cd. Find the percentage error
in P.

(A) 14% (B) 10% (C) 7% (D) 4%

Solution

a3b2
Given, P =
cd
As we know, only relative error or percentage error can be added in multiplications and divisions,
∆P  ∆a   ∆b   ∆c   ∆d 
× 100 = 3 × 100  + 2 × 100  +  × 100  +  × 100 
P  a   b   c   d 
∆P
∴ × 100 = (3 × 1 %) + (2 × 2%) + (3%) + ( 4 %) =14 %
P
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 04

a3b2
Given, P =
cd
As we know, only relative error or percentage error can be added in multiplications and divisions,
∆P  ∆a   ∆b   ∆c   ∆d 
× 100 = 3 × 100  + 2 × 100  +  × 100  +  × 100 
P  a   b   c   d 
∆P
∴ × 100 = (3 × 1 %) + (2 × 2%) + (3%) + ( 4 %) =14 %
P
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

Measuring with a Normal Scale

To measure the length of an object, we usually use a normal scale in

which the markings are in cm.
The scale has generally fifteen divisions of 1 cm each. The smallest 0 1 2
measurement is 0.1 cm or 1 mm.

It is also known as the least count of the scale. The shown scale will not give a precise measurement
to the second decimal place.

NEET
Vernier Caliper

A Vernier caliper is a mechanical tool that measures the length or thickness of an object with great
accuracy. It was invented by Pierre Vernier. It can measure a length less than 1 mm, and it can
measure accurately up to 0.1 mm.

Working

It is mainly used to measure length and external diameter. It consists of a main scale over which a
Vernier scale can slide along with the main scale length.
Upper jaw Lock screw Main scale

Lower jaw Vernier Thumb

scale screw

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 05

Vernier principle
Main scale
A Vernier caliper works on the principle of n – 1 Scale A
alignment of line segments to determine a more n Scale B
accurate reading.
n – 1 divisions of scale A = n divisions of scale B Vernier scale
n – 1 (scale A) = n (scale B) Main scale
n−1
1 division of scale B = (scale A) 9 mm
n
In the Vernier caliper, let the main scale be scale
A and the Vernier scale be scale B.
9 divisions of main scale (MSD) = 10 divisions of
Vernier scale (VSD)
9 (MSD) = 10 (VSD) Vernier scale
9
1 (VSD) = (MSD)
10
Therefore,
= 1 MSD − 1 VSD
Least count
 9 
⇒ Least count = 1 MSD −   MSD
 10 
 9 
∴=LC MSD  1 −
 10 
⇒ LC= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm ( 1 MSD = 1 mm )
In general, suppose n VSD coincides with m MSD. Then, the same can be written as,
n VSD = m MSD
m
1 VSD =   MSD
n
= 1 MSD − 1 VSD
Least count
m
1 MSD −   MSD
⇒ Least count =
n
 m
LC MSD  1 − 
∴=
 n 

Reading of Vernier caliper

For a cylinder, the reading of the Vernier caliper is as shown in the figure.
It is clearly seen that 0 of the Vernier scale is in between 11 and 12. Therefore, the complete main
scale reading will be 11.0 mm.

L.C = 0.1 mm

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 06

I.e., Main scale reading (MSR) = 11 mm = 1.1 cm

The sixth division of the Vernier scale coincides with the main scale.
Therefore, Vernier scale reading (VSR) = 6 × LC = 6 × 0.1 = 0.6 mm = 0.06 cm
So,
Total reading = MSR + VSR = 1.1 + 0.06 = 1.16 cm
The formula for the total reading is,
Total reading = Reading on the main scale just before 0 of Vernier scale + LC × Coinciding
division of Vernier scale

Zero error

After closing the jaws of Vernier, if the zero of the main scale does not coincide with the zero of the
Vernier scale, then zero error arises.

The first diagram represents the zero error, while in the second diagram, both the divisions coincide.
Thus, there is no zero error in the second case.
• When the zero of the Vernier scale is on the right of the zero of the main scale, it is said to
have a positive zero error.
Positive zero error = LC × Coinciding division of the Vernier scale
I.e., Correct reading = Total reading – Positive zero error
• When the zero of the Vernier scale is on the left of the zero of the main scale, it is said to have
a negative zero error.
Negative zero error = LC × Coinciding division of the Vernier scale
I.e., Correct reading = Total reading + Negative zero error

A Vernier caliper has 1 mm marks on the main scale. It has 20 equal divisions on the Vernier
scale that match with 16 divisions of the main scale. Find the least count of the Vernier caliper.

(A) 0.02 mm (B) 0.05 mm (C) 0.1 mm (D) 0.2 mm

Solution

1 MSD = 1 mm
20 VSD = 16 MSD
 16 
⇒ 1 VSD = 20  MSD = 0.8 mm
 
LC =1 MSD − 1 VSD = 1 mm − 0.8 mm =0.2 mm

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 07

1 MSD = 1 mm
20 VSD = 16 MSD
 16 
⇒ 1 VSD =  20  MSD = 0.8 mm
 
LC =1 MSD − 1 VSD = 1 mm − 0.8 mm =0.2 mm
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.

NEET
Screw Gauge

A screw gauge is a mechanical tool that

measures the thickness or radius of thin
objects like thin wires, thin metal sheets,
etc., with an accuracy up to 0.01 mm.

Principle of screw gauge

Stud Screw Pitch scale Thimble

A screw gauge works on the principle of

screw. By rotating the screw hand, we
get the linear movement of the circular
scale.

Frame Circular scale Ratchet

Pitch

The pitch of a screw gauge is the distance moved by the screw due to one complete rotation.
Distance moved by the screw
Pitch of the screw =
Number of complete rotations

Least count

The least count of a screw gauge is defined as the distance moved by the tip of the screw when
turned through one division of the circular scale.
In other words,
Pitch
Least count =
Number of circular scale divisions
Total reading = Main scale reading (MSR) + Circular scale (CS) reading
Or,
T.R. = Reading on main scale just before 0 of CS + LC × Coinciding division of CS with baseline

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Zero error Types of zero error

If the zero of the circular scale does not coincide

with the baseline, then there is a zero error in the Positive zero error Negative zero error
screw gauge.
• If the zero of the circular scale is below the
baseline, then it is a positive zero error. So, we 20
have to subtract this from the measured value. 10
0
Positive error = LC × Coinciding division of CS with 0
baseline 90
Correct reading = Reading – Positive zero error
• If the zero of the circular scale is above the
baseline, then it is a negative zero error. So, we
10
have to add this to the measured value.
0
Negative error = LC × Coinciding division of CS 0 90
with baseline
80
Correct reading = Reading + Negative zero error

If a screw moves by 1 mm in two rotations and its circular scale has 500 divisions, then find
the least count of the screw gauge.

(A) 0.01 mm (B) 0.001 mm (C) 0.0001 mm (D) 1 mm

Solution

2 rotations = 1 mm
1
∴ 1 rotation = =0.5 mm
2
Pitch = 0.5 mm
Pitch 0.5
LC
So ,= = = 0.001 mm
Number of divisions on circular scale 500
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.

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