MEA351

PROPULSION
CHAPTER 4: GENERAL AVIATION AND
UNINHABITED AERIAL VEHICLE
PROPULSION SYSTEM
 CONTENT
1. CYCLE ANALYSIS
2. POWER AND EFFICIENCY
3. ENGINE COMPONENTS AND
CLASSIFICATION
4. AIRCRAFT ENGINE SYSTEMS
5. ELECTRIC ENGINES
CYCLE ANALYSIS

Refer Chapter 5 Section 5.2 of the textbook

OTTO CYCLE Real engine cycles → fuel octane
number has to be increase
𝑇4 𝑇1 1 together with compression ratio
Air standard cycle that 𝜂𝑡ℎ =1− =1− =1− to prevent engine knocking (pre-
𝑇3 𝑇2 𝐶𝑅 𝑘−1
approximates operation of spark ignition & detonation)
CR = compression ratio
ignition engine
k = specific heat ratio
Ideal Otto cycle → constant – Current fuel available at airport
volume principle ➔ isentropic → 100LL (low lead) avgas
Cycle thermal efficiency
compression, constant-volume (aviation gasoline) ➔ limits the
increases with increased
heat addition, isentropic compression ratio of aircraft
compression ratio
expansion, constant-volume heat engines and prevents high level
rejection of supercharging

Thermal efficiency of air-cooled

aircraft engines ➔ ~30%
 REAL ENGINE CYCLES (four stroke cycle engines)
Aircraft reciprocating engine operation → four
Spark plug → Period of time (angular
stroke cycle ➔ Otto Cycle
generates hot spark rotation of crankshaft)
before top dead center when both valves are
(TDC) of compression open ➔ valve overlap
stroke
Explanation
for each
engine
stroke →
page 284-
286 of
textbook
 REAL ENGINE CYCLES (diesel engines)
Popular power plant for general Diesel engine – has low
aviation (GA) aircraft and specific fuel consumption (sfc)
uninhabited air vehicles (UAV) – able to use a variety of Cessna 172
➔ diesel engine available low cost fuels

Diesel engines able to run on Current diesel aircraft engines

jet fuel – ideal for civilian and → power output 100-400 hp –
military applications specific fuel consumption → 0.1
lb/hp-gr

Piper PA-28

Thielert
Centurion
Aircraft
Engines
 REAL ENGINE CYCLES (diesel engines)
ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL ENGINES
Desirable fuel type → low flammability and Electromagnetic noise elimination → absence
worldwide availability of Jet-A or diesel fuel of an ignition system – reduce interference
with navigational and communication
Fuel efficiency → bsfc (brake specific fuel systems – highly desirable for tactical
consumption) of diesel engine – lower than reasons (military application)
0.4 lb/hp-hr vs current avgas-powered
aviation engine (bsfc = 0.59 lb/hp-hr at 75% Durability → provide more lubricity – no
and above) electrical system (magnetos or electronic
ignition) is required
Lower fuel cost and higher fuel availability →
20-30% more range per gallon – cost per Less toxic emissions → no toxic substances
gallon of Jet-A < 100LL aviation fuel in USA -- such as lead, benzene or scavengers
no fuel availability problem worldwide
Dramatically reduced fire hazard → due to
Single-lever power operation → no mixture, lower flammability – exhaust manifold
no alternate air, no auxiliary fuel pump, no temperature lower than gasoline engines
magneto switches, no mandatory
temperature, boost or power restrictions Good reliability and low maintenance cost →
no carburetor icing, no magneto or spark-
plug problems & no vapor lock
 REAL ENGINE CYCLES (diesel engines)
Unreliable starting at low temperature
disadvantages OF
Higher weight
DIESEL ENGINES
Higher operating temperature

REAL ENGINE CYCLES (two stroke cycle engines)

1. Intake of charge to
crankcase
2. Transfer of charge from
crankcase to the
combustion cylinder
3. Compression
4. Ignition
5. Power
6. Exhaust
REAL ENGINE CYCLES (two stroke cycle engines)
advantages OF 2 stroke ENGINES Reduction of frontal area → elimination of
overhead valve mechanism
Mechanically simpler → fewer moving parts
Smoothness of operation → two stroke = one
Improved reliability and durability → two power stroke per cylinder per revolution
stroke piston-ported design reduces parts
count by eliminate valves, valve train and Very low vibration level → torque vibration
cam shaft – have no valve problems minimal – one power pulse per cylinder per
revolution
Weight reduction

disadvantages OF 2 stroke ENGINES

Less efficient → some fuel-air mixture is
diluted with burned gas, some fresh fuel-air
charge discharged through exhaust port

Difficult to lubricate

Difficult to cool
REAL ENGINE CYCLES (rotary (Wankel) engines)

Refer to
section 5.2.2.4
(page 290-293)
POWER AND EFFICIENCY

Refer Chapter 5 Section 5.3 of the textbook

 Indicated horsepower (IHP) ➔ Thrust horsepower (THP) ➔
actual power produced in the power delivered by the propeller
engine cylinders – calculated THP = BHP X propeller efficiency
based on cylinder pressure, RPM, 𝑇 × 𝑉∞
displacement volume 𝑇𝐻𝑃 =
325
V∞ = aircraft speed in knots
Brake horsepower (BHP) ➔
Denominator is 375 if aircraft
power output of engine – also
speed in mph, 550 if in fps (feet
called Shaft Horsepower
per second)
(2𝜋)(𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒)(𝑅𝑃𝑀)
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = Steady state flight
33000 Propeller thrust equals aircraft
Torque in ft-lbf
drag (T=D)
𝑇×𝐷
Friction horsepower (FHP) ➔ 𝑇𝐻𝑃 =
325
power loss due to friction,
accessories and superchargers
FHP = IHP - BHP

ENGINE POWER DEFINITIONS

 Mean effective pressure (MEP) ➔ constant For four stroke cycle engines
pressure which would have to act upon piston (𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃)×𝐿×𝐴×𝑁×𝐾
B𝐻𝑃 =
for one stroke to equal actual work output of 33000
one complete cycle BMEP = brake mean effective
pressure
MEP ➔ average pressure inside cylinders of L = cylinder stroke in ft
an ICE during power stroke A = piston head (top surface) area
in in2
N = RPM/2 (for four stroke cycle
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
engines)
Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)
K = number of cylinders
Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP)
For four stroke cycle engines
Thrust horsepower (THP) ➔ power delivered (𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃) × 𝐿 × 𝐴 × 𝑁 × 𝐾
by the propeller I𝐻𝑃 =
33000
(𝐹𝑀𝐸𝑃) × 𝐿 × 𝐴 × 𝑁 × 𝐾
F𝐻𝑃 =
33000

ENGINE POWER DEFINITIONS

FACTORS AFFECTING PISTON ENGINE POWER 𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 =
(𝒃𝒉𝒑)
(𝒊𝒉𝒑)
mechanical efficiency
Approximate value ≈ 90%
1. Manifold absolute pressure
2. RPM Volumetric efficiency 𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 =
3. Fuel-to-air ratio [𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ]
4. Air density (𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕)
5. Carburetor air intake ram pressure Approximate value ≈ 75% → Could be greater than
6. Compression ratio 100% for supercharged engines → volumetric
7. Exhaust back pressure efficiency decrease as RPM increases
8. Carburetor air temperature (CAT)
(𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) 𝑇𝐻𝑃
Propeller efficiency 𝜂𝑝𝑟 = =
OTHER ENGINE DEFINITIONS (𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
Approximate value ≈80%
𝐵𝐻𝑃

Engine weight to power ratio ≈ 1.0 to 2.0 lbs/bhp

Brake thermal efficiency 𝜂𝑡ℎ =
Compression ratio 𝑪𝑹 = (𝐵𝐻𝑃×33000)
(𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝑫𝑪) 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒)×(ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙)×778
=
𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝑻𝑫𝑪 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 Approximate value ≈ 30% → max heat loss is through
SI engines CR ≈ 7:1 to 11:1 exhaust gases
CI engines CR ≈ 14:1 to 21:1
Specific fuel consumption sfc → pounds per fuel
Heat value aviation gasoline (avgas) ≈ 20000 Btu/lb burned per horsepower per hour lbs/bhp-hr ➔ FAA
certified aircraft engines – bsfc ≈ 0.4 – 0.5 lbs/bhp-hr
Specific weight of avgas ≈ 6 lbs/gal
ENGINE COMPONENTS
AND CLASSIFICATION

Refer Chapter 5 Section 5.4 of the textbook

ENGINE COMPONENTS
Major components:
1. Piston
2. Cylinder
3. Connecting rod
4. crankshaft
RECIPROCATING ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATION BY CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT
Opposed
Engine example ➔ Teledyne
Continental GTSIO-520

Integration of
Lycoming IO-540
opposed engine
with Cessna 182
RECIPROCATING ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATION
BY CYLINDER
ARRANGEMENT
Inline
Engine example ➔
LOM PRAHA M-337b

LOM PRAHA M-
337b (1958-1992)
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATION BY CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

Radial
Engine example ➔ Pratt
Whitney R-4360 Pratt Whitney R-4360 “Wasp Major”
(WWII aircraft)
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATION BY CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT
Rotary-Radial
Cylinders spin around
crankshaft – mounted rigidly
on the airframe

Le Rhone 9C (WWI aircraft)

 Radial engine

Inline engine

Rotary engine

Opposed engine
RECIPROCATING ENGINE
CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATION BY COOLING ARRANGEMENT
Lycoming O-320
Cooling arrangement
air-cooled engine
1. air-cooled on Cessna 172
2. Liquid-cooled

Air-Cooled Engines ➔ Most current

aircraft cooling arrangement → have
cooling fans around cylinders to
increase contact surface with air

Liquid-Cooled Engines ➔ liquid cooling

reduce overcooling in descents from
altitude – reduced thermal variance in
operation reduced engine component
fatigue – have water passages around
crankcase and cylinders for cooling
purposes
Thielert Centurion liquid-cooled engine
RECIPROCATING ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
CLASSIFICATION BY operating cycle
Operating cycle
1. Four stroke cycle engines
2. Two stroke cycle engines

CLASSIFICATION BY ignition type

1. Spark ignition engines
2. Compression ignition (diesel)
engines
 EXTRAS

Independent reading
Section 5.5 Textbook ➔ Scaling of aircraft reciprocating engines
Section 5.8 Textbook ➔ Propellers and reduction gears