Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Faculty Of Mechanical Engineering

Aircraft Design 2

SMF 4325

Report (4)

Group Members:

Mohammed Abdulkarim Sulaiman AM070394

Mohammed Abdulrahman Mohammed AM070395

Kussain Azamat AM070408

Teleganov Kuat AM070407

Dr. SHIHABUDDAIN

22/4/2011
4.1 Engine

- Definition

An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful

mechanical motion. Motors that convert heat energy into motion are usually referred to
as engines in which it comes in many types.

A common type is a heat engine such as an internal combustion engine, which

typically burns a fuel and air mixture and uses the hot gases to generate power. Another
type is External combustion engines such as steam engines use heat to generate motion
via a separate working fluid.

Moreover a common type of motor is the electric motor. This takes electrical
energy and generates mechanical motion via varying electromagnetic fields. Other
motors include pneumatic motors that are driven by compressed air, and motors driven
by elastic energy, such as springs.

- Combustion engine

Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.

- Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel

(generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer, usually air, in a combustion chamber. In
an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure
gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of
the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a
distance, generates useful mechanical energy.
- External combustion engine

An external combustion engine is a heat engine where an internal working fluid

is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or a heat
exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine
produces motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused
which usually referred as closed cycle, or dumped, and cool fluid pulled in which called
open cycle air engine).

Combustion refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines
of similar configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources
such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion
however they are not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as
external thermal engines.

The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam

engine or an organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine Cycle. The fluid can
be of any composition; gas is by far the most common, although even single-phase liquid
is sometimes used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid changes phases between
liquid and gas.

- Gas turbine

A gas turbine is internal combustion is the sense that the combustion takes place
in the working fluid, but external combustion in the sense that the combustion is not
fully closed in and is outside the actual moving turbine section. internal combustion
usually excludes gas turbines, jets and rockets.

- Air-breathing combustion engines

Air-breathing engines are combustion engines that use the oxygen in

atmospheric air burn the fuel carried, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket.
Theoretically, this should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket engines.
 A continuous stream of air flows through the Air-breathing engine. This air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas. Thrust produced
by a typical air-breathing engine is about eight times greater than its weight. The
maximum velocity of Air-breathing engines is limited to (1–3) km/s, due to extreme
temperature and dissociation of the exhaust gas; however, the maximum velocity of a
hydrogen-breathing engine of the same design is about 4 times higher.

- Examples

Typical air-breathing engines include:

 Reciprocating engine
 Steam engine
 Gas turbine
 IRIS engine
 Pulse detonation engine
 Pulse jet
 Ramjet
 Scramjet
 Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines SABRE

4.2 Rotary Engine

The rotary engine was an early type of internal-combustion engine, usually

designed with an odd number of cylinders per row in a radial configuration, in which
the crankshaft remained stationary and the entire cylinder block rotated around it. Its
main application was in aviation, although it also saw use in a few early motorcycles and
cars.

This type of engine was widely used as an alternative to conventional in-line or V

engines during World War I and the years immediately preceding that conflict, and has
been described as a very efficient solution to the problems of power output, weight, and
reliability.
- Description of Rotary Engines

A rotary engine is essentially a standard Otto cycle engine, but instead of having
a fixed cylinder block with rotating crankshaft as with a conventional radial engine, the
crankshaft remains stationary and the entire cylinder block rotates around it. In the
most common form, the crankshaft was fixed solidly to an aircraft frame, and the
propeller simply bolted onto the front of the crankcase.

Three key factors contributed to the rotary engines success at the time:

 Smooth running: Rotaries delivered power very smoothly because (relative to

the engine mounting point) there are no reciprocating parts, and the relatively
large rotating mass of the cylinders acted as a flywheel.
 Weight advantage: many conventional engines had to have heavy flywheels
added to smooth out power impulses and reduce vibration. Rotary engines
gained a substantial power-to-weight ratio advantage by having no need for an
added flywheel.
 Improved cooling: when the engine was running the rotating cylinder block
created its own fast-moving cooling airflow, even with the aircraft at rest.

Most rotary engines were arranged with the cylinders pointing outwards from a single
crankshaft, in the same general form as a radial, but there were also rotary boxer
engines and even one-cylinder rotaries.

Like radial engines, rotaries were generally built with an odd number of cylinders
(usually either 7 or 9), so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order could be
maintained, to provide smooth running. Rotary engines with an even number of
cylinders were mostly of the "two row" type.
4.3 Possible UAV Engines

In order to pick up and engine for our UAV, we have to list some of the suitable
existing engines that can be used in the UAV and match its design requirement. some of
the possible engines are introduced below:

1- UAV engines . LTD.

Figure(1): AR801-50HP - ROTARY ENGINE

The AR801 is a highly optimized, light-weight, single rotor, liquid cooled

engine. It has the facility to mount alternators between 0.9 to 2.0KW. It has been
designed and developed specifically for existing and future UAVs requiring 35 to
60 bhp, with direct drive to propeller or vehicle gearbox.

Design features:

1. Exceptional high power to weight ratio

2. Economical fuel consumption
3. Low levels of vibration
4. Low cross sectional area
5. Long life
 Technical specification:

Engine type Wankel-type rotary, single rotor engine.

Capacity Single rotor – 294cc
Power output 40 bhp at 6,000 engine rpm. Alternatively 51 bhp at
8,000 rpm (carburetor); or 60 bhp at 8,000 rpm (ER).
Weight 43lb (19.5kg) as illustrated. Installed weight with
cooling system and generator is 53.7lb (24.4kg)
Direction of rotation Anti-clockwise (looking at face of prop flange)
Ignition system Electronic 28 volt duplicated CD system with magnetic
triggering firing twin spark plugs.
Fuel type Regular grade (min 92 RON) Mogas (with or without
lead) or Avgas 100LL
Specific Fuel 0.50lb/bhp hr at 70% cruise = typically 2.0 imp
Consumption gallon/hr (2.5.0 US) 0.56lb/bhp hr at maximum power.
Vibration Nominal zero (± 20cm gm) radial imbalance. Peak-to-
mean torque fluctuation is 4 approximations.

Table (1): Technical specification for AR801-50Hp

2- Global rotary engine.

Figure (2): GR-CC402A-Fi Twin-Rotor Aircraft Engine

Technical specification :

Engine Type twin rotor fuel injected engine, electronic ignition

Performance at speed 80 HP (59.66 Kw) @ 6500 RPM

75 HP (55.93 Kw) @ 6000 RPM
Ignition Unit Fuel injection with electronic engine management
system
Weight [Kg] 55.1 lb (25 kg)
Engine 77.16 (57.54)
Drive 14.33 (6.5)
Electric system 9.92 (4.5)
Fuel unleaded gasoline / Mogas (ROZ 92) or 100LL 1:80-
mixture (premix)
Electric starter 12 V / 900 W

BSFC 49 lbs/hp/hr

Table (2) : Technical specification for GR-CC402A-Fi Twin-Rotor Aircraft Engine

3- UAV engines . LTD.

Figure (3): AR801R - 51 BHP - ROTARY ENGINE

 The AR801R is a tested and proven, light-weight, single rotor, liquid cooled
engine with integrated reduction drive. It has been designed and developed specifically
for existing and future UAVs requiring 35 to 55 bhp.

Design Features:

 Exceptionally high power to weight ratio.

 Reduction drive giving high propellor efficiency.
 Low levels of vibration.
 Economical fuel consumption.

Technical Specification:

Engine Type Single rotor Wankel-type rotary engine

Capacity Single rotor 294 CC
Power Output 40 BHP at 6000 rpm, Alternatively 51 BHP at 8000 rpm.
Weight 56 lb (25.4 kg) as illustrated, including 2kw generator. Installed
weight with cooling system is around 65 lb (29.5 kg).
Direction of Rotation Anti-clockwise (looking at face of prop flange)
Ignition System Electronic CD type with magnetic triggering. 12 or 28 volt option.
Fully duplicated system firing spark plugs.
Fuel Type Regular grade (min 92 RON) Mogas (lead or unleaded) or AVGAS
100LL
Specific Fuel 0.52 lb/bhp/hr at 70% cruise = typically 2.0 imp gallon/hr (2.4 US
Consumption gall or 9.1 litres)
Vibration Nominally zero (+-20cm gm) radial imbalance. Peek-to-mean
instantaneous torque fluctuation is 4 approx.
Reduction Drive Integrated lightweight belt reduction drive. Standard ratio = 1.93
with alternative ratios in range 1.6 to 2.2
Table (3) : Technical specification for AR801R
4- BERNARD HOOPER ENGINEERING .LTD.

Figure (4): SPV580 Stepped Piston Charged UAV engine

Designed and developed under Ministry of Defence of the USA. The stepped
piston engine offers a high durability two stroke engine solution overcoming the
drawbacks of conventional crankcase scavenged engine types.

Technical specification:

Table (4): Technical specification

- Engine Selection

In order to select the most appropriate engine for the UAV, one should satisfy the
design requirements of the UAV in which will be demonstrated as follow:

Note: This information are used from Design (1) report (2).
- Design Mission Profile

DESIGN MISSION PROFILE

Warm up and taxi for 5 minutes, sea level (SL), Standard atmosphere (SA)
Take-off within a ground roll of x ft.
Climb at best rate of climb to the best cruising altitude
Cruise at best cruise speed (about 80 knot) for x nm
Descend to sea level
Land with domestic fuel reserves within ground roll of x ft
Taxi for 3 minutes

Table (5): UAV design mission profile

- Design Requirement

The mission requirement can be illustrate in table 6 below:

PARAMETER VALUE
Flight endurance 6 hours of flight
Flight range 300 nm or 555.6 km with reserve
Maximum cruising speed 100 knot
Loiter speed 60 knot
Maximum service ceiling 16404.2 feet or 5000 m above sea level
Launch method Conventional wheeled takeoff
Landing/recovery method Conventional wheeled landing
Airfield Malaysia-Indonesia border (Malacca Straits site)
Navigation GPS

Table (6): Mission requirements for the UAV

By considering the design requirements in which a low cruising speed is
required with maximum of 100 knots in an altitude of 16404.2 feet. Moreover,
considering the two possible engines that suits the mission of the UAV and its design
will lead as to choose the most appropriate engine for the UAV.
4.4 Actuator

An actuator in its broadest definition is a device that produces linear or rotary

motion from a source of power under the action of a source of control.
Actuators take fluid, electric or some other source of power and convert it through a
motor, piston or other device to perform work. Basic actuators are used to move valves
to either fully opened or fully closed positions. Actuators for control or position
regulating valves are given a positioning signal to move to any intermediate position
with a high degree of accuracy. Although the most common and important use of an
actuator is to open and close valves, current actuator designs go far beyond the basic
open and close function. The valve actuator can be packaged together with position
sensing equipment, torque sensing, motor protection, logic control, digital
communication capacity and even PID control all in a compact environmentally
protected enclosure.

Figure (5): Basic electric actuator components

As automation is adopted in more facilities, physical work is being replaced by

machines and their automatic controls. The need for valve actuators to provide the
interface between the control intelligence and the physical movement of a valve has
grown. There is an important need for the increased working safety and the
environmental protection that valve actuators can provide. Some areas are hazardous
or hostile to human beings. In these circumstances an automated actuation device can
reduce the risk to the individuals. Certain critical valves need to be opened or closed
rapidly in the event of emergency circumstances. The valve actuator can prevent serious
environmental catastrophes as well as minimize damage to facilities in such
circumstances. With some processes requiring high pressures and large line sizes, the
amount of power required to open or close a valve can be significant. In these
circumstances the enhanced mechanical advantage and application of high output
motors can facilitate easy operation of large valves.

- Valves and automation

In order to successfully automate a process it is essential to make sure that the

valve itself is appropriate to handle the special demands of the process and the product
in the pipeline. It is the process or product that should dictate the type of the valve, the
closure element of the valve, trim requirements and material of construction.
Once a valve has been selected the next step is to consider the application’s automation
requirements. These can be simplified by examining the two basic types of valve
operation from an actuator’s perspective.

1. Rotary or quarter-turn operation. This group would include plug valves, ball
valves, butterfly valves as well as quarter-turn dampers. A simple 90° of
movement at the prescribed torque demand is required.
2. The other group of valves can be classified as multi-turn. These are valves that
have rising non-rotating stems or non-rising rotating stems. In other words they
require multiple turns to move the valve closure element from open to close.
This group would include globe valves, gate valves, knife gates, sluice gates, etc.
Alternatively, linear, pneumatic or hydraulic piston operators or diaphragm
pneumatic actuators could be used.
 Figure (6): Multi turn & quarter turn actuators

There are four fundamental types of actuators. These are a combination of the
type of power applied and the type of movement required at the valve.

1. Electric multi-turn actuators –The electrically powered multi-turn actuators are

one of the most common and dependable configurations of actuators. A single or
three-phased electric motor drives a combination of spurs and/or level gears,
which in turn drive a stem nut. The stem nut engages the stem of the valve to
open or close it, frequently via an Acme threaded shaft. Electric multi-turn
actuators are capable of quickly operating very large valves. To protect the valve,
the limit switch turns off the motor at the ends of travel. The torque sensing
mechanism of the actuator switches off the electric motor when a safe torque
level is exceeded. Position indicating switches are utilized to indicate the open
and closed position of the valve.
2. Typically a declutching mechanism and hand wheel are included so that the
valve can be operated manually should a power failure occur.

The main advantage of this type of actuator is that all of the accessories
are incorporated in the package and are physically and environmentally
 protected. It has all the basic and advance functions incorporated in a compact
housing which can be water tight, explosion proof and in some circumstances,
submersible. The primary disadvantage of an electric multi-turn actuator is that,
should a power failure occur, the valve remains in the last position and the fail-
safe position cannot be obtained easily unless there is a convenient source of
stored electrical energy.

3. Electric quarter-turn actuators –These units are very similar to an electric multi-
turn actuator. The main difference is that the final drive element is usually in one
quadrant that puts out a 90° motion. The newer generation of quarter-turn
actuators incorporates many of the features found in most sophisticated multi-
turn actuators. For example, a non-intrusive, infrared, human machine interface
for set up, diagnostics, etc. Quarter-turn electric actuators are compact and can
be used on smaller valves. They are typically rated to around 1,500 foot pounds.
An added advantage of a smaller quarter-turn actuators is that, because of their
lower power requirements, they can be fitted with an emergency power source
such as a battery to provide failsafe operation.

4. Fluid power quarter-turn actuators –Pneumatic and hydraulic quarter-turn

actuators are extremely versatile. They can be used where there is no readily
available electric power or where simplicity and reliability are essential. They
can also withstand considerable mechanical abuse. Their range of applications is
enormous. For example, the smallest can deliver a few inch pounds of torque
where the largest are capable of producing in excess of a million inch pounds of
torque. Almost all fluid power actuators utilize a cylinder and a mechanism to
covert the linear motion generated in the cylinder to a quarter-turn motion. The
main types of mechanism are scotch yoke, lever and link and the rack and pinion.
The rack and pinion type gives constant torque output throughout the stroke so,
they are useful for smaller valves. The scotch yoke is effective for larger valves
where a higher torque requirement is needed at the beginning of the stroke.
 Pneumatic actuators are usually controlled by solenoid control valves that are
mounted on the actuator, sometimes in combination with position indicating
switches. A positive failure mode can easily be affected with a pneumatic or fluid
power actuator by the addition of an opposing spring to provide a positive shut
down in an emergency.

Figure (7): Gas driven

actuator

Figure (8): Hydraulic spring return fluid power actuator

5. Fluid Power multi-turn actuators –These types of actuators are frequently used
when multi-turn output is required to operate a linear type valve such as a gate
or globe valve. Frequently electric actuators are used for this type of valve.
However, if there is no electric power supply readily available, then pneumatic
or hydraulic motors can be used to operate multi-turn actuators.
- Selection criteria

When selecting a valve actuator the correct type and size can be found utilizing
the following selection criteria:

1. Power source –The common sources of power for automated valves are
electricity or fluid power. If electric power is selected, a three-phase supply is
usually required for large valves; however, small valves can be operated on a
single-phase supply. Usually an electric valve actuator can accommodate any of
the common voltages. Sometimes a DC supply is available. This is often an
emergency back-up power supply.
Variations of fluid power are much greater. First there is a variety of fluid media
such as compressed air, nitrogen, hydraulic fluid or natural gas. Then, there are
the variations in the available pressures of those media. With a variety of
cylinder sizes, most of the variations can be accommodated for a particular valve
size.

2. The type of valve –Whenever sizing an actuator for a valve, the type of valve has
to be known, so that the correct type of actuator can be selected. There are some
valves that need multi-turn input, where as others need quarter-turn. This has a
great impact on the type of actuator that is required. When combined with the
available power supply, then the size and type of actuator quickly comes into
focus.
Generally multi-turn fluid power actuators are more expensive than multi-turn
electric actuators. However, for rising non-rotating stem valves a linear fluid
power actuator may be less expensive. A definitive selection cannot be made
until the power requirements of the valve are determined. After that decision has
been made, then the torque requirement of the valve is the next selection
criterion.
3. Calculating the torque required by the valve –For a quarter-turn valve, the best
way of determining the torque required is by obtaining the valve maker’s torque
data.

Most valve makers have measured the torque required to operate their valves
over the range of operating line pressures. They make this information available
for customers.
The situation is different for multi-turn valves.

These can be subdivided into several groups: the rising rotating, rising non-
rotating, and non-rising rotating valves. In each of these cases the measurement
of the stem diameter together with the lead and pitch of the valve stem thread is
required in order to size the automation for the valve. This information coupled
with the size of the valve and the differential pressure across the valve can be
used to calculate torque demand.
The type and size of the actuator can be determined after the power supply, the
type of valve, and the torque demand of that valve have been defined.

4. Sizing the actuator –Once the actuator type has been selected and the torque
requirement of the valve has been determined, then the actuator can be sized
using one of the actuator manufacturer’s sizing programs or tables. A further
consideration in sizing the actuator is the required speed of operation of the
valve. As speed has a direct relationship to the power required from the actuator,
more horsepower would be needed to operate a valve at a faster speed.

Fluid power actuators can adjust speed of operation using fluid control
valves. However, electric motor operators of the three-phase type have a fixed
speed of operation. Smaller, quarter-turn actuators utilize DC motors, and may
have adjustable speed of operation.
- Controls

The great advantage of having an automated valve is that it can be remotely

controlled. This means that operators can sit in a control room and control a process
without having to physically go to the valve and give it an open or close command, the
most basic type of control for an automated valve. The ability to remotely control a
valve is easily achieved by running a pair of wires out to the actuator from the control
room. Applying power across the wires can energize a coil, initiating motion in an
electric or fluid power actuator. Positioning a valve in an intermediate position can be
done using this type of control. However, feedback would be needed to verify the
actuator is at the desired position. A more common method of positioning an actuator is
to feed a proportional signal to the actuator such as 4-20 mA, so that the actuator, using
a comparator device, can position itself in direct portion to the received signal.

- Aircraft electric system and aerospace actuators  

Aerospace electric motors come in many forms and closely allied to actuation.
Aircraft electric motors are used where motive force is needed to drive a valve or an
aerospace actuator from one position to another depending upon the requirements of
the appropriate aircraft system. Typical uses for electric motors are:

• Linear actuation: for aerospace actuators such as electrical position actuators for
engine control; aircraft trim actuators for flight control systems.

• Rotary actuation: electrical position actuators via screw jacks for aircraft flap/slat
operation.

• Control valve operation:  electrical operation of fuel control valves; hydraulic control
valves, air control valves; control valves for ancillary systems.
• Starter motors: provision of starting for engine, APU and other systems that require
assistance to reach self-sustaining operation.

• Pumps: provision of motive force for fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps; pumping for
auxiliary systems.

• Gyroscope motors: provision of power to run gyroscopes for flight instruments and
autopilots.

•  Fan motors: provision of power to run cooling fans for the provision of air to
passengers or equipment.

Many of the applications for which aircraft electric motors are used are not
continuously rated; that is, the motor can only be expected to run for a small proportion
of the time.

Others such as the gyroscope and cooling fan motors may be run continuously
throughout the period of operation of the aircraft and the sizing/rating of the motor has
to be chosen accordingly. It is possible to categorizes the characteristics of the DC and
AC motor types commonly used for aircraft applications.

- Electro-hydrostatic system
 Figure (9): EHAs

Emerging industry trends demand compact, accurate, electric actuation for

turbine fuel and steam control. Electrohydrostatic actuation (EHA) provides these
benefits for applications where high force requirements dictate the use of hydraulic
power.

Young & Franklin's patents-pending Electrohydrostatic Actuators and

Electrohydrostatic Actuators with a Failsafe System combine the accuracy of electronic
control with the high-force capability of hydraulics in a compact package.

The principle behind the technology consists of using a bi-directional pump with
both ports connected to each side of a linear or rotary actuator. The pump positions the
actuator when driven in either direction by a motor. The motor in turn is controlled by a
servo controller. A position sensor located on the actuator provides the controller with
the necessary feedback for position control.

EHA actuators do not use valves for control as typically found in electrohydraulic
actuation (where a servo valve is located between the pump and the actuator). Instead,
the pump is accurately rotated back and forth to position the actuator using the
feedback and servo controller. The pump draws fluid from a pressurized reservoir, or
accumulator via a set of valves.
 Figure (10): The basic electrohydrostatic principle

- Advantages of using EHA Technology

Several advantages to using EHA actuation instead of conventional hydraulic

control are outlined below:

 High force: Over 25,000 lbf obtainable

 Low hysteresis (< 1%)
 Reduced pressure losses (no control valves)
 Efficiency: flow is controlled on demand and pressure can be controlled
electronically
 Less loss of heat (no relief valves)
 Compact: pump, motor, actuator, sensors and controller in one small package
 Enhanced reliability: fewer components
 Integrated diagnostic capability
 No hydraulic system requirement
- Electro-hydrostatic actuator in aircraft

Electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHAs), are an emerging aerospace technology that

aims at replacing hydraulic systems with self-contained actuators operated solely by
electrical power.

EHAs would eliminate the need for separate hydraulic pumps and tubing,
simplifying aircraft layout and improving safety and reliability.

Aircraft were originally controlled by small aerodynamic surfaces operated by

cables, attached to levers that magnified the pilot's mechanical advantage. As aircraft
grew in size and performance, the aerodynamic forces on these surfaces grew to the
point where it was no longer possible for the pilot to manually control them across a
wide range of speeds - controls with enough advantage to control the aircraft at high
speed left the aircraft with significant overcontrol at lower speeds when the
aerodynamic forces were reduced. Numerous aircraft in the early stages of World War II
suffered from these problems, notably the Mitsubishi Zero and P-38 Lightning.

Starting in the 1940s, hydraulics were introduced to address these problems. In

their early incarnations, hydraulic pumps attached to the engines would feed high-
pressure oil through tubes to the various control surfaces. Here, small valves were
attached to the original control cables, controlling the flow of oil into an associated
actuator connected to the control surface. One of the earliest fittings of a hydraulic boost
system was to ailerons late-war models of the P-38L, curing the need for great human
strength in order to achieve a higher rate of roll.

Over time, the systems evolved to replace the mechanical linkages to the valves
with electrical controls, producing the "fly-by-wire" design, and more recently, optical
networking systems in what is known as "fly-by-light". All of these systems require
three separate components, the hydraulic supply system, the valves and associated
control network, and the actuators. Since any one of these systems could fail and render
the aircraft inoperable, redundancies are needed that greatly increase the complexity of
the system. Additionally, keeping the hydraulic oil pressurized is a constant power
drain.
 The primary development that leads to the possibility of EHAs are accurate
feedback controlled conventional motors, or high-power stepper motors.

Stepper motors are designed to move a fixed angle with every application of
energy, and do so repeatedly in an extremely accurate fashion. Both types of motor
drives have been in use for years, powering the controls on motion control rigs and
numeric control machine tools for instance.

With an EHA, high-power versions of these motors are used to drive a reversible
pump, which is tied to a hydraulic cylinder. The pump pressurizes a working fluid,
typically hydraulic oil, directly raising the pressure in the cylinder, and causing it to
move. The entire system, consisting of the pump, the cylinder and a reservoir of
hydraulic fluid, is packaged into a single self-contained unit.

Instead of the energy needed to move the controls being supplied by an external
hydraulic supply, it is supplied over normal electrical wiring, albeit larger wiring than
what would be found in a fly-by-wire system. The speed of the motion is controlled
through the use of pulse-code modulation. The result is a "power-by-wire" system,
where both the control and energy are sent through a single set of wires.

Redundancy can thus be provided by using two such units per surface, and two
sets of electrical wires. This is far simpler than the corresponding systems using an
external hydraulic supply. Additionally, the EHA has the advantage that it only draws
power when it is being moved, the pressure is maintained internally when the motor
stops. This can reduce power use on the aircraft by eliminating the constant draw of the
hydraulic pumps. EHAs also reduce weight, allow better streamlining due to reduced
internal routing of piping, and lower overall weight of the control system.
4.5 Autopilot system

- Background

Famous inventor and engineer Elmer Sperry patented the gyrocompass in 1908,
but it was his son, Lawrence Burst Sperry, who first flight-tested such a device in an
aircraft. The younger Sperry's autopilot used four gyroscopes to stabilize the airplane
and led to many flying firsts, including the first night flight in the history of aviation. In
1932, the Sperry Gyroscope Company developed the automatic pilot that Wiley Post
would use in his first solo flight around the world.

- Definition

An autopilot defined as a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to

guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being. An autopilot can refer
specifically to aircraft, self-steering gear for boats, or auto guidance of space craft and
missiles.

- Autopilot, Instrumentation and Avionics

Automatic pilots are devices used to control spacecraft, aircraft, watercraft,

missiles and vehicles without constant human intervention. Most people associate
autopilots with aircraft, so that's what we'll emphasize in this article. The same
principles, however, apply to autopilots that control any kind of vessel.

In aviation, the autopilot is more accurately described as the automatic flight

control system (AFCS). An AFCS is part of an aircraft's avionics system (the electronic
systems), equipment and devices used to control key systems of the plane and its flight.

In addition to flight control systems, avionics include electronics for

communications, navigation, collision avoidance and weather. The original use of an
AFCS was to provide pilot relief during tedious stages of flight, such as high-altitude
cruising. Advanced autopilots can do much more, carrying out even highly precise
maneuvers, such as landing an aircraft in conditions of zero visibility.
 Although there is great diversity in autopilot systems, most can be classified
according to the number of parts, or surfaces, they control. To understand this
discussion, it helps to be familiar with the three basic control surfaces that affect an
airplane's attitude.

The first are the elevators, which are devices on the tail of a plane that control
pitch (the swaying of an aircraft around a horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction
of motion). The rudder is also located on the tail of a plane. When the rudder is tilted to
starboard (right), the aircraft yaws which is twists on a vertical axis in that direction.
When the rudder is tilted to port (left), the craft yaws in the opposite direction. Finally,
ailerons on the rear edge of each wing roll the plane from side to side.

Autopilots can control any or all of these surfaces. A single-axis autopilot

manages just one set of controls, usually the ailerons. This simple type of autopilot is
known as a "wing leveler" because, by controlling roll, it keeps the aircraft wings on an
even keel. A two-axis autopilot manages elevators and ailerons. Finally, a three-axis
autopilot manages all three basic control systems: ailerons, elevators and rudder.
Figure (11): Aircraft control surfaces and respective motion
- Autopilot parts

The heart of a modern automatic flight control system is a computer with several
high-speed processors. To gather the intelligence required to control the plane, the
processors communicate with sensors located on the major control surfaces. They can
also collect data from other airplane systems and equipment, including gyroscopes,
accelerometers, altimeters, compasses and airspeed indicators.

The processors in the AFCS then take the input data and, using complex
calculations, compare it to a set of control modes. A control mode is a setting entered by
the pilot that defines a specific detail of the flight. For example, there is a control mode
that defines how an aircraft's altitude will be maintained. There are also control modes
that maintain airspeed, heading and flight path.

These calculations determine if the plane is obeying the commands set up in the
control modes. The processors then send signals to various servomechanism units. A
servomechanism, or servo for short, is a device that provides mechanical control at a
distance. One servo exists for each control surface included in the autopilot system. The
servos take the computer's instructions and use motors or hydraulics to move the
craft's control surfaces, making sure the plane maintains its proper course and attitude.

Figure (12): autopilot control mode

The above illustration shows how the basic elements of an autopilot system are
related. For simplicity, only one control surface, the rudder, is shown, although each
control surface would have a similar arrangement.
 Notice that the basic schematic of an autopilot looks like a loop, with sensors
sending data to the autopilot computer, which processes the information and transmits
signals to the servo, which moves the control surface, which changes the attitude of the
plane, which creates a new data set in the sensors, which starts the whole process again.
This type of feedback loop is central to the operation of autopilot systems. It's so
important that we're going to examine how feedback loops work in the next section.

- Autopilot control system

An autopilot is an example of a control system. Control systems apply an action

based on a measurement and almost always have an impact on the value they are
measuring. A classic example of a control system is the negative feedback loop that
controls the thermostat in your home. Such a loop works like this:

1. It's summertime, and a homeowner sets his thermostat to a desired room

temperature -- say 78°F.
2. The thermostat measures the air temperature and compares it to the preset
value.
3. Over time, the hot air outside the house will elevate the temperature inside the
house. When the temperature inside exceeds 78°F, the thermostat sends a signal
to the air conditioning unit.
4. The air conditioning unit clicks on and cools the room.
5. When the temperature in the room returns to 78°F, another signal is sent to the
air conditioner, which shuts off.

It's called a negative feedback loop because the result of a certain action (the air
conditioning unit clicking on) inhibits further performance of that action. All negative
feedback loops require a receptor, a control center and an effector. In the example
above, the receptor is the thermometer that measures air temperature. The control
center is the processor inside the thermostat. And the effector is the air conditioning
unit.
 Figure (13): Feedback loop

Automated flight control systems work the same way. Let's consider the example
of a pilot who has activated a single-axis autopilot -- the so-called wing leveler we
mentioned earlier.

1. The pilot sets a control mode to maintain the wings in a level position.
2. However, even in the smoothest air, a wing will eventually dip.
3. Position sensors on the wing detect this deflection and send a signal to the
autopilot computer.
4. The autopilot computer processes the input data and determines that the wings
are no longer level.
5. The autopilot computer sends a signal to the servos that control the aircraft's
ailerons. The signal is a very specific command telling the servo to make a
precise adjustment.
6. Each servo has a small electric motor fitted with a slip clutch that, through a
bridle cable, grips the aileron cable. When the cable moves, the control surfaces
move accordingly.
7. As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input data, the wings move back
toward level.
8. The autopilot computer removes the command when the position sensor on the
wing detects that the wings are once again level.
9. The servos cease to apply pressure on the aileron cables.

This loop, shown above in the block diagram, works continuously, many times a
second, much more quickly and smoothly than a human pilot could. Two- and three-axis
autopilots obey the same principles, employing multiple processors that control
multiple surfaces.
 Some airplanes even have autothrust computers to control engine thrust.
Autopilot and autothrust systems can work together to perform very complex
maneuvers.

- Modern autopilot system

Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and
smaller general aviation aircraft especially are still hand-flown, while small airliners
with fewer than twenty seats may also be without an autopilot as they are used on
short-duration flights with two pilots.

The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally
made mandatory by international aviation regulations. There are three levels of control
in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the roll
axis only; such autopilots are also known colloquially as wing levellers, reflecting their
limitations. A two-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the pitch axis as well as roll, and
may be little more than a wing leveller with limited pitch-oscillation-correcting ability;
or it may receive inputs from on-board radio navigation systems to provide true
automatic flight guidance once the aircraft has taken off until shortly before landing; or
its capabilities may lie somewhere between these two extremes. A three-axis autopilot
adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small aircraft.

Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight
into taxi, takeoff, ascent, level, descent, approach and landing phases. Autopilots exist
that automate all of these flight phases except the taxiing. An autopilot-controlled
landing on a runway and controlling the aircraft on rollout (i.e. keeping it on the centre
of the runway) is known as a CAT IIIb landing or Autoland, available on many major
airports' runways today, especially at airports subject to adverse weather phenomena
such as fog. Landing, rollout and taxi control to the aircraft parking position is known as
CAT IIIc. This is not used to date but may be used in the future. An autopilot is often an
integral component of a Flight Management System.
 Modern autopilots use computer software to control the aircraft. The software
reads the aircraft's current position, and controls a Flight Control System to guide the
aircraft. In such a system, besides classic flight controls, many autopilots incorporate
thrust control capabilities that can control throttles to optimize the air-speed, and move
fuel to different tanks to balance the aircraft in an optimal attitude in the air. Although
autopilots handle new or dangerous situations inflexibly, they generally fly an aircraft
with a lower fuel-consumption than a human pilot.

The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically reads its position and the
aircraft's attitude from an inertial guidance system. Inertial guidance systems
accumulate errors over time. They will incorporate error reduction systems such as the
carousel system that rotates once a minute so that any errors are dissipated in different
directions and have an overall nulling effect. Error in gyroscopes is known as drift. This
is due to physical properties within the system, be it mechanical or laser guided, that
corrupt positional data. The disagreements between the two are resolved with digital
signal processing, most often a six-dimensional Kalman filter. The six dimensions are
usually roll, pitch, yaw, altitude, latitude and longitude. Aircraft may fly routes that have
a required performance factor, therefore the amount of error or actual performance
factor must be monitored in order to fly those particular routes. The longer the flight
the more error accumulates within the system. Radio aids such as DME, DME updates
and GPS may be used to correct the aircraft position.

- Computer system details

The hardware of an autopilot varies from implementation to implementation,

but is generally designed with redundancy and reliability as foremost considerations.
For example, the Rockwell Collins AFDS-770 Autopilot Flight Director System [3] used on
the Boeing 777, uses triplicated FCP-2002 microprocessors which have been formally
verified and are fabricated in a radiation resistant process.

Software and hardware in an autopilot is tightly controlled, and extensive test

procedures are put in place. Some autopilots also use design diversity.
 In this safety feature, critical software processes will not only run on separate
computers and possibly even using different architectures, but each computer will run
software created by different engineering teams, often being programmed in different
programming languages. It is generally considered unlikely that different engineering
teams will make the same mistakes. As the software becomes more expensive and
complex, design diversity is becoming less common because fewer engineering
companies can afford it. The flight control computers on the Space Shuttle uses this
design: there are five computers, four of which redundantly run identical software, and
a fifth backup running software that was developed independently. The software on the
fifth system provides only the basic functions needed to fly the Shuttle, further reducing
any possible commonality with the software running on the four primary systems.

4.6 Design Payload

To complete its tasks, our UAV needs to be equipped with state of the art
tools and technologies for its communication, control, camera, navigation and
radar. And for that, we have sought after several products that we would like to
equip to our flying machine.

- Communication

Communication is the link between the controller and the UAV. It is

the most essential part of the UAV which allows for the pilot to not be on
the plane itself to fly it.
Manufacturer IAI/ELTA Systems Ltd
Model EL/K-1865
Features *Range exceeds 360 km (200 nm), LOS *One-way
or full-duplex communications *Small size and low
weight *Backup Navigation : range &
azimuth *Fully remote controllable via RS-422
line *BIT: On-line and Off-line
*Carry one or a combination of the following:
Command or Telemetry data: Up to 200
Kbps,  Video: RS-170 or CCIR, B&W or Color,  Data:
From 64 Kbps up to 280 Mbps  Voice channel(s),
*Driver for directional antenna pedestal included
Optional Features *Spread spectrum modem, for protected
communication,  provides ECCM / LPI mode of
operation *Video
compression unit for video compression on
downlink *Digital data
modem for transmitting and receiving digital data
*Data encryption module for data security
*Directional Antenna - a planar antenna on a
pedestal, azimuth/elevation-controlled
Specfication RF Frequency : UHF, L, S, C, X, Ku Bands Span: Up to
1,500 MHz (Baseline: 600 MHz) Tuning Step: 1 MHz,
separate uplink and downlink
Antennas Omnidirectional:
Installation Weight: 2.5 to 8 kgs, depending on the configuration
Parameters of selected options. Power consumption:  100 to 250
Watt, depending mainly  on the selected power
amplifier. Source :  28 VDC per MIL-STD-704.
Environmental:  Comply with MIL-E-5400 and with
MIL-STD-810D
Physical Transceiver:  210mm (W) x 300mm (D) x160mm
Dimensions (H) Front End:  382mm (W) x
260mm (D) x160mm (H)

Table (7): Communication product

 - Camera

A camera is essential to capture the view of the area under surveillance

and report it to base of operations. A good camera allows for a higher altitude
which will make the UAV stealthier to a person on a boat.

Payload Compact dual imager UAV system

Manufacturer MicroSTAR
System Turrent Turrent Field of Slew rates Stabilization
Specifications size weight regard
22.9 x 34.3 10.8 kg 360º 0º to 50º both Fiber optic
cm continuous in axes gyros, two axes
Azimuth and
Elevation
Thermal Imager Sensor Fields of  
view
320 x 240 2.2º - 22º
InSb FPA 3- horizontal,
5μm 10:1
continuous
zoom
Daylight Imager Pixel Resolution Telescope Fields View CCD Sensitivity
768H x 470+ 18:1
494V Television continuous 2.7º to 48º
(NTSC) Lines zoom (4X horizontal
752H x digital zoom) continuous 3 lux @ f/1.4 or
582V (PAL) zoom 0.2 lux @ f/1.4
Electronic Size Weight Power Max Current Communications
Control Unit Requirements Requirement
s
24.21 x 10 18VDC to
x 20.32 cm) 4.13 kg 32VDC input 15 amps RS 232/422

Table (8): Camera Specification

 - Autopilot

Autopilot is used during loitering for long periods of time. This

allows the pilot to rest.

Autopilot Ezi-Nav Autopilot System

Manufacturer AUAV
Specification Altitude Maximum Autopilot: 5.5 Data Max.
hold : altitude: VDC 200 mA transmitter: 5.5 Airspeed:
+/- 20 17,999 ft MSL VDC 170 mA 100 Knots
ft TX  ( 20 mA RX)
Dimension 5.9 X 3 X 2 inches (72 MHz version) and 4 .75 X 3 X 2 inches (2.4 GHz DSS
version);
Weight (kg) 0.439kg

Table (9): Autopilot details

- RADAR

A radar detects objects surrounding the aircraft such as birds and other
aircraft. Essential to avoid midair collisions.

Types of NanoSAR
payload
Manufacture IMSAR
r
Specification Processin Output: Control Power: 10 Transmit Indicators data
g: Onboar : to 25 Frequenc (GMTI). link.
Onboard, d, real- RS232, Watts, y: X-Band Motion Onboar
Real-Time. time RS485 option compensatio d Flash
NTSC dependan n. Geo- drive
video. t. location. storage.
 802.11g Real-
time
pan and
zoom.
Dimension 82 x 5 x 3 inches to 5 in
Weight (kg) 0.907kg

Table (10): Radar specification

- GPS

A GPS system is important for navigation and finding the right path
to take for our UAV

Item Specifications

Weight (Without 60 grams Max.

Cable)

Housing Material ABS

Size 61.4 x 55.5 x 9.3 mm

Mounting Magnetic base

VSWR 2.0 Max.

Noise Figure 2 dB Max.

Gain (3.3v) 25dB @1573MHz, 26dB@1590MHz, 27dB@1610MHz

Min.

Table (11): GPS specification

The most important thing about these equipments is how much they
weigh. We need to know this in order to complete our weight estimation to find
 the suitable takeoff weight for our UAV. The following table lists all the weights
and dimensions of our components.

- Overall Payload

Overall payload Dimension Weight

NanoSAR Radar 82 x 5 x 3 inches to 5 in 0.907kg

IAI/ELTA Systems Transceiver:210mm (W) 2.5 to 8 kg

Ltd x 300mm (D) x160mm
(H) Front End:382mm
(W) x 260mm (D)
x160mm (H)

Glonass 61.4 x 55.5 x 9.3 mm 60g max

 Ezi-Nav Autopilot 5.9 X 3 X 2 inches (72 0.439kg
System MHz version) and 4 .75 X
3 X 2 inches (2.4 GHz DSS
version);

Compact dual 22.9 (d)x 34.3(h) cm 14.93kg

imager UAV system

Total   24.336kg

Max   25kg

Table (12): Components weights and dimensions

Sources :

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 http://www.uavm.com/uavsubsystems/uavengines.html
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http://www.aopa.org/special/microsoft/articles/bbb9510.html
 Encyclopedia Britannica 2005, s.v. "automatic pilot." CD-ROM, 2005.
 "How Things Work Today," edited by Michael Wright and Mukul Patel, Crown
Publishers, New York, 2000.
 McClellan, J. Mac. "Garmin Autopilots in New Cessnas." Flying Magazine, May
2007. http://www.flyingmag.com/article.asp?section_id=17&article_
id=805
 McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 5th edition, s.v.
"servomechanism."
 National Transportation Safety Board report NYC99MA178.
http://www.ntsb.gov/NTSB/brief2.asp?ev_id=20001212X19354&ntsbno=
NYC99MA178&akey=1
 World Book 2005, s.v. "automatic flight control system."
 World Book 2005, s.v. "Post, Wiley."
 http://users.breathe.com/prhooper/uav.htm
 http://www.moog.com/products/actuators-servoactuators/actuation-
technologies/electrohydrostatic/
 http://www.yf.com/actuation_electrohydrostatic.cfm
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system
 http://www.aviation-database.com/Technical_Aviation_Articles/aircraft-electric-
motors-and-aerospace-actuators.html
 http://www.valve-world.net/actuation/ShowPage.aspx?pageID=557
 Aircraft design Report(1) by our group.