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INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED
SCIENCE
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
➢ Explain the various interrelated branches of science and their importance to life.
➢ Apply the scientific method to arrive at scientific solutions to everyday problems in the laboratory.

INTRODUCTION
Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge through observation and experimentation to describe and explain
natural activities and phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained
using that system. Science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it.

There are two major fields of science:

- Pure or basic science, involves scientists working primarily at academic institutions to pursue research simply to
satisfy the thirst for knowledge.
- Applied science, involves scientists working on practical issues based on researches conducted.

Our discussions will focus mostly on the pure science, which includes:
Physics: Deals with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the
results produced by these forces. Branches under Physics include Mechanics, Electricity, Quantum Mechanics,
Nuclear Physics, High-Energy Physics, etc.

Chemistry: The study of the composition, structure, properties, and interactions of matter.

Some branches under Chemistry are Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry, inorganic Chemistry, Analytical
Chemistry, Physical Chemistry etc.

Biology: This is referred to as the science of life. It is the study of living organisms (i.e. how they live and interact with
each other). In studying living organisms (which are made up of plants and animals) biologists put them into groups
known as classification. Branches under Biology are Genetics, Ecology, Zoology, Taxonomy, Entomology etc.

Earth Science: The field of study concerned with the planet Earth or one or more of its parts. It includes the study of
the atmosphere, biosphere (i.e. the zone at or near Earth‘s surface that supports life), hydrosphere (i.e. the ice, water,
and water vapour at or near Earth‘s surface), lithosphere (i.e. the solid portion of Earth) and space beyond the
atmosphere. Branches under Earth Science include Environmental Science, Meteorology, Geography, Hydrology,
Oceanography, etc.

TECHNOLOGY
Technology is not only the application of sciences but also the ability to read and write about technological practices be
aware and recognize technological developments use technological knowledge to solve everyday problems.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE
1. Science educates us about things concerning us and the world as a whole.
2. Science offers reliable knowledge that can be used as basis to cure diseases, communicate across the world, make
our homes more comfortable, and produce more and better crops and many other things.
3. Science helps us to solve some problems.

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 THE CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED

As the name implies, Integrated Science as a subjects taught at the senior high school level combines the major areas of
science, which includes biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics and Agricultural Science. Gaining basic knowledge in
the above areas helps one to solve some basic problems.

For example, in controlling a malaria epidemic, the knowledge in Biology will help to know the cause of the
disease. The knowledge in Chemistry will be used in creating a vaccine. In making the vaccine presentable, the
knowledge in Physics is used, and then finally, coming out with a dosage involves the calculative knowledge in
Mathematics.
In Integrated Science, these areas collectively have been further grouped into five sections, namely:
1. Diversity of Matter
2. Cycles
3. Systems
4. Energy
5. Interactions in Nature

GROUP ACTIVITY:
Students to work in groups to design and draw diagrams to show the inter-
relationship branches between the various of Science and Technology.
Groups to display their work in discussion class.

CAREERS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Arguably, there are more career paths and specialties under science and
technology than there are in any other discipline. Some of the careers open to science and technology are as
follows:

Engineering
Aerospace Engineer, Electrical and
Electronic Engineer, Civil Engineer, Environmental
Engineer, Industrial Engineer, Marine Architect
Engineer, Material Scientist and Engineer, Nuclear
Engineer, Mechanical Engineer, Petroleum Engineer,
etc Fig 1.0: An engineer in a laboratory

Mathematics and Computer Science

Computer Hardware Engineer, Mathematician, Multimedia Artist, Network Systems and Data Communications Analyst,
Software Quality Assurance Engineer, Statistician, etc.

Life Science
Animal Breeder, Medical Doctor, Anthropologist, Biochemist, Biologist; Dietitian or Nutritionist, Natural Sciences
Epidemiologist, Health Educator, Physician, Microbiologist, Pharmacist, Physical Therapist, Nuclear Medicine
Technologist, Veterinarian, Zoologist, Wildlife Biologist, Plant Scientist, Nurse etc.

Physical Science
Astronomer; Audio and Video Equipment; Technician; Aviation Inspector; Chemist; Chemical Technician; Electrician;
Film and Video Editor; Food Science Technician; Pilot; Food Scientist or Technologist; Physicist; Forensic Science

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Technician; Nuclear Power Reactor Operator; Occupational Health and Safety Specialists; Power Distributors and
Dispatcher; Power Plant Operator; Ship and Boat Captain; Sound Engineering Technician

Earth & Environmental Science

Aquacultural Manager; Diver; Geographer Emergency Management Specialist; Hydrologist; Environmental Compliance
Inspector; Geoscientist; Industrial Health & Safety Engineer; Meteorologist; Park Range; Soil Scientist Soil and Water
Conservationist; Surveyor; etc.

SOME PROMINENT SCIENTISTS

In Ghana:
❖ Professor Nii Narku Quaynor: A scientist and engineer who has played an important role in the introduction
and development of the Internet throughout Africa.
❖ Professor Francis Kofi Ampenyin Allotey: Physicist, Mathematician. Pioneered the introduction of computer
science in Ghana. Worked as the chairman of Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and at the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA). Also chaired the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.

❖ Dr. Isaiah Blankson: Physicist; engineers of jet and rocket powered engines. Works at the National Aeronautic and
Space Administration (NASA).
❖ Prof. Kwesi Andam: Civil and Structural Engineer. Former Vice Chancellor of KNUST.
❖ Prof Ivan Addae-Mensah: former Vice Chancellor of the University of Ghana. He chaired the National Petroleum
Authority.

Prominent International Scientists

❖ Sir Isaac Newton: Discovered gravity and the law of gravitation. He also propounded the three famous laws of
motion and the laws of friction.
❖ Albert Einstein: He was responsible for the special and general theory of relativity, and his work on the photoelectric
effect. He also invented a few devices like Einstein calculator.
❖ Charles Babbage: He was an English mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer who came up
with the concept of a programmable computer and is said to have invented the first mechanical computer.
❖ Thomas Edison: An American inventor who developed several devices like the electric light bulb and the
phonograph.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a step by step experimentation process that is used to explore observations and answer
questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words,
they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.
The steps to the scientific method are:

i. State the problem: You cannot solve a problem until you know exactly what it is. For example My Problem is –
my back-pack is too heavy.
ii. Research the problem: What will it take to solve my problem? What do I know, and need to know, about my
problem? To solve my problem, "I have to examine the content of the bag".

iii. Form a hypothesis: A possible solution to my problem. The simplest solution is often the best
solution!
"the cause of the overweight is the extra books I bought today".

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iv. Test the hypothesis: Perform an experiment to see if your hypothesis works.
"remove the extra books from the bag".

v. Draw conclusions from the data:

Data are the results of an experiment. In its simplest form, there are only two possibilities:

If your hypothesis was correct, you will now have a lighter bag. PROBLEM SOLVED!
On the other hand, if your hypothesis was incorrect, the experiment failed.
DON'T GIVE UP! DO MORE RESEARCH!

What was wrong with your original hypothesis?

Did you make a poor selection?
Was your experiment flawed?
Form another hypothesis based on additional research. Test your new hypothesis.
Continue this process until the problem is solved.
Fig. 1.1: The scientific method

Problem
Application of scientific method

Research ❖ State the problem: People get sick from drinking

from the well.
❖ Research the problem: Is it really the water from
Form Hypothesis the well that is making them sick? Test the water
from the well.
❖ Form a hypothesis: The cause of the disease is the
Test Hypothesis water from the well.
❖ Test the hypothesis: Get a sample of the water
from the well, treat it and distribute it.
Draw Conclusion ❖ Draw conclusion: The disease stopped after the
people had drunk the treated water. Therefore, the
hypothesis is correct – the water from the well is
not well treated to be drunk.

If after treating the water sample and given it out to the people the disease still persists, another hypothesis has to be
drawn. The scientific method has been used over the years by scientists in coming out with great inventions and
discoveries.

The discovery of penicillin

The research of Alexander Fleming in 1928 led to the discovery of penicillin, an important antibiotic derived from the
mould Penicillum notatum.
Alexander Fleming used the scientific method in discovering penicillin. His
observation that the mould contaminating one of his culture plates had destroyed
the bacteria laid the basis for the development of penicillin therapy.
Penicillin is effective against a wide range of disease-causing
bacteria. Penicillin acts by killing bacteria directly or by inhibiting their
growth.

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 The discovery of radioactivity
The discovery of radioactivity was another breakthrough in science. The phenomenon was
discovered in 1896 by the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel when he observed that the
element uranium can blacken a photographic plate, although separated from it by glass or black
paper. He also observed that the rays that produce the darkening are capable of discharging an
electroscope, indicating that the rays possess an electric charge.

In 1898 the French chemists Marie Curie and Pierre Curie deduced that radioactivity is a phenomenon associated
with atoms, independent of their physical or chemical state. They also deduced that because the
uranium-containing ore pitchblende is more intensely radioactive than the uranium salts that were
used by Becquerel, other radioactive elements must be in the ore. They carried through a series of
chemical treatments of the pitchblende that resulted in the discovery of two new radioactive
elements, polonium and radium. Marie Curie also discovered that the element thorium
is radioactive, and in 1899 the radioactive element actinium was discovered by the French
chemist André Louis Debierne

In that same year the discovery of the radioactive gas radon was made by the British physicists
Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy, who observed it in association with thorium, actinium, and radium.

The discovery of flotation

Archimedes, a Greek mathematician and inventor, live around 287-212 B.C. The era when science was not very popular.
Archimedes is credited with important contributions to the development of physics. He is known for applying science
to everyday life, developing practical inventions such as the lever and the screw. These simple machines have found
uses as diverse as warfare and irrigation. Archimedes is said to have discovered the principle of water displacement
while taking a bath, shouting ―Eureka! when he realized why his body caused the level of the water to rise.

PROJECT WORK

Students to form small groups to investigate a common problem in the community e.g. frequent method to arrive at a
solution to the problem. flooding, and apply scientific Students can also select problems of interest to them and
investigate.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE LABORATORY

For an experiment to be successful, one needs a well equipped laboratory. Even though they cannot be done without;
nevertheless, equipment’s, structures and chemicals in the laboratory may be hazardous to humans.Therefore care should
be taken at the laboratory.

The following guidelines give some precautions to be taken at the laboratory:

1) Wear protective clothing: laboratory coat, shoes and goggles are to be worn to protect the skin, feet and eyes
respectively.

2) Do not eat or drink in the laboratory: food samples in the laboratory may be treated with poisonous substances
which when eaten may harm the body.

3) Do not smell an unknown gas: some gases are very poisonous or choking and if smelled may cause some discomfort
to the body.
4) Point the mouth and opening of test tubes and bottles away from yourself or other people: this is to prevent spilling
chemicals and other substances on people.

5) Do not touch chemicals with bare hands: some chemicals are corrosive and if they come in contact with the body
may burn the skin.

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 6) Do not touch hot substances with bare hands: a test tube holder, tong or cloth is the best apparatus for holding hot
thing at the laboratory. This will prevent burns.

7) Wipe off any spilled substance: if a substance spills on the floor, make sure to wipe it dry in order to prevent slippage
and falling.

8) Rinse off any chemical which comes in contact with your skin: If a chemical is accidentally spilled on you, or you
accidentally touch a chemical, make sure that it is rinsed off with plenty of water.

9) Study and read all safety signs, warning and precautions at the laboratory before using it.

10) Follow every instruction to the latter: always listen to the teacher or instructor before doing or touching anything.

SAFETY SYMBOLS
These are signs that may be fixed to doors, benches, tables, cupboards and other spots to give information to those
around the vicinity. However these signs are subject to regulations which may differ from those requiring hazard warning
symbols on equipment or bottles, although in some cases the same basic symbol may be used. Such safety symbols
include the following:

Warning Signs:

These are enclosed in a triangle and are on a yellow background. They usually give warnings of a hazard. Examples are
given below:

Flammable Electrical Hazard Harmful/Irritant Explosive

Containers of Hazardous Chemical:

These normally bear a hazard warning symbol and certain approved risk phrase. For vehicles the symbol is
contained within a square.

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PROJECT WORK
Carry out demonstrations on safety precautions in the use of the Laboratory;
laboratory equipment, chemicals etc.

TEST QUESTIONS
1. State five precautions to be taken at the laboratory.

2. (a) What is the scientific method?

(b) Mention the steps in the scientific method.
(c) Discuss how you will use the scientific method in controlling congestion in our streets.

3. Discuss the concept of integrated science.

4. Give one reason why each of the following precautions should be taken in the laboratory:
(a) Do not eat or drink in the laboratory.
(b) Do not smell an unknown gas.
(c) Do not touch chemicals with bare hands.
(d) Wipe off any spilled substance.
(e) Point the mouth and opening of test tubes and bottles away from yourself or
other people.
(f) Rinse off any chemical which comes in contact with your skin

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 2
MEASUREMENT
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
➢ Use the SI unit in all measurements.
➢ Use scientific measuring instruments accurately.
➢ Measure density and relative density.

INTRODUCTION
If all the countries in the world are ever going to speak one language then that will be promoted by measurement.

Measurement is the process of calculating the size, rate, effect etc. of something by comparing their quantity to a fixed
quantity.

Quantities which can be measured include length, mass, temperature, time, etc. These are known as physical quantities.
Knowing the correct measurements of some quantities was a global problem until the introduction and adoption of a new
system of units measurement known in French as the Le Systēme International d’Unitēs (International System of
Units), abbreviated to SI.

SI units are described as standard units. A standard unit is a unit that is understood and accepted globally.

BASIC AND DERIVED UNITS

In the S.I system, there are two main units of measurements – the basic and the derived units.

Basic units of the SI system Derived units are units which are obtained from the
Basic units are the units from which other units can base units.
be obtained.
They are also known as the fundamental units. In the It is a combination of two or more base units or a base
SI system, there are seven basic units. unit and a derived unit.
Each of the basic unit has a symbol and an SI unit in
which it is measured.
Table 1.0: Base quantities, their corresponding SI
units, and their symbols Table 1.1: Derived quantities and their SI units
Base quantity SI unit SI unit Quantity SI unit Symbol Expressed
symbol in SI unit
Length metre m Force Newton N N = kg.m.s-2
mass kilogram kg Work and joule J J= N.m
energy
time second s
Electric current ampere A Power watt W W = J.s-1
Thermodynamic kelvin K Quantity of coulom C C = A.s
temperature electricity b
Luminous intensity candela cd Electric volt V V = W.A-1
potential
Amount of mole mol
substance Electric ohm Ω W = V. A-1
resistance
Volume cubic m3 V = m.m.m
Derived units metre
Apart from the base units, there are other units which
are derived from the base units. These are called the
derived units.

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 Using measuring instruments
Different quantities have different instruments with which they are measured.
The instruments used to measure length are the metre rule, the surveyor ‘s tape, measuring tape, ruler etc.
The vernier calliper measure short distances, internal and external diameters of hollow objects. It measures to the precision
of 0.1 mm.
The micrometer screw gauge on the other hand is used to measure extremely short distances to the precision of 0.01 mm.
It can therefore be used to measure the thickness of paper, cloth, etc. The vernier calliper and the micrometer screw gauge
are known as the precision instruments.

Thermometers are used to know the temperature of an object.

Hydrometers measure the densities of liquids.

Balances are used to measure the mass of an object. Some examples of balances are beam balance, top pan balance,
electronic balance.
The volumes of liquids are measured with measuring cylinder, pipette, burette, volumetric flask, beaker etc.

Table 1.2: Some quantities and the instruments used to measure them
Quantity Measuring Unit Sub-unit
instruments
Length Metre rule,surveyor’s metre (m) centimetre (cm)
tape Vernier calliper millimetre (mm)
micrometre screw
gauge
Mass Beam balance kilogram (kg) gram (g)
Electronic balance
Lever balance
Time Stop clocks second (s) millisecond (ms)
watches Wrist
watch Wall clock
Volume Pipette cubic centimetre (cm3) cubic millimetre (mm3)
burette or milliliter (ml)
Measuring cylinder
Temperature Absolute thermometer Kelvin (K) degrees
Celsius thermometer celsius (C)
Clinical thermometer
Atmospheric pressure Mercury barometer pascal (Pa)
Aneroid barometer
Electric potential voltmeter volt (V) millivolt (mV)
Electric current ammeter ampere (A) milliampere (mA)
Luminous intensity photometer Candela (cd)
Amount of substance mole (mol)

Concept of replication of results

It is very important for experiments to be repeated by various scientists. This is because a mistake or miscalculation by
one scientist will hardly be repeated by others. Therefore replication of result is necessary to:
❖ Make better predictions
❖ Add to scientific knowledge
❖ Ensure accurate and consistent result
❖ Arrive at hypothesis

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Human values that are of importance to science 1. Honesty
2. Integrity
3. Truthfulness
4. Resourcefulness
5. Patience
6. Amicability

Beam balance electric balance lever balance

Barometer Stop watch Ammeter Voltmeter

vernier calliper micrometre screw gauge surveyor’s tape

Fig. 1.3: Basic measuring instruments

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 How to obtain the unit of some
quantities

Volume of a: Where, ρ = density, M = mass, and V

Rectangular block = l x b x h = m x m x m=m3 = Volume.

Cylinder = πr2h = m x m x m = m3 Density is measured in kilogram per cubic

metre (kg/m3 or kgm-3).
Sphere Remember that the SI unit of mass is kg, and
that of volume is m3, Therefore mass per
Cone h = m3 volume (mass/volume) is kg/m3.

Measuring the Density of Liquid

Work (J) =force x distance = Nm
❖ Measure the mass of a clean
Potential difference (V) measuring cylinder as M1
❖ Pour a known volume of liquid into the
Quantity of electricity (C) = Current x Time= As measuring cylinder.
Electrical resistance (Ω) ❖ Record that as V.
❖ Measure the mass of both beaker and
liquid. Record it as M2 Hence:
Mass of liquid (M) = Mass of beaker and liquid
Power (W) (M2) – Mass of beaker (M1)
i.e. M = M2 – M1
Force (N)= mass x acceleration = kg x ms-2
Volume of liquid = V
Area = length x breadth = l x b = m 2 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Therefore, density of liquid (ρ) =

Velocity ρ =

PROJECT WORK
Use a ruler, balances, stopwatches, Density of regular objects
thermometer, ammeter, measuring A regular object is an object which has uniform
cylinder, callipers, pipettes, burette,
hydrometer etc. to measure quantities in dimensions that can be determined with a
various units. ruler.

To find the density of a regular object, example

DENSITY a book,
❖ Find its volume by multiplying its
The density of a substance is it mass per unit length, breadth and height.
volume.
❖ With the aid of a balance, measure the
mass of the book.
Density is expressed mathematically as: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 𝑕 𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘
Hence, density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 𝑕 𝑒 𝑏𝑜 𝑜𝑘
Density or

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Density of Irregular Objects Alternative Method
Irregular objects are objects which do not have ❖ Measure and record the mass of the
definite dimensions. Examples are stone, irregular object as M.
fragment of glass or metal, a piece of coal, etc. ❖ Fill a Eureka can with water till it
overflows.
Procedure:
❖ Place an empty measuring cylinder
❖ Measure and record the mass of the below the sprout of the Eureka can.
object as M
❖ Tie a string around the irregular object
❖ Pour water into a measuring cylinder
and record the volume as V1 and lower it gently into the Eureka can.
❖ Tie a string around the irregular object ❖ Record the volume of water that
and lower it gently into the measuring overflows into the measuring cylinder as V.
cylinder.
❖ Record the level of water as V2. Calculation
Density (ρ) of the irregular object
Calculation
Mass of the object = M
Volume of the object = V2 – V1
Density (ρ) of the irregular object =
Mass (M) of the object/ Volume (V2 – V1)

Fig. 1.5: The Eureka can method

Density of a Soil Sample

❖ Measure and record the mass of an
Fig. 1.4: Determining density of irregular objects empty rectangular box as M1.
❖ Fill up the rectangular box with the soil
sample.
❖ Measure and record the mass of the
box containing the soil sample as M2.
❖ Hence, the mass (M) of the soil sample
= M2 – M1

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The volume is determined by measuring the
length, breath and height of the inside of the Alternative method
rectangular box. This is done because the box is ❖ Measure and record the mass of the
filled up with the soil sample. Hence, the soil sample as M.
volume (V) of the soil sample = Lx B x H of the
❖ Pour water into a measuring cylinder.
inside of the rectangular box.
❖ Record the volume of water as V1.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ❖ Pour the soil sample into the water and
Density of soils sample = record the new volume as V2.
❖ The volume, V, of the soil sample
ρ=
= V2 –V1

Fig. 1.6: Determining density of soil sample 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

Density of the soil sample = Volume
𝑀
ρ=
𝑉2 − 𝑉 1

NB: To find the mass of a substance, make mass the subject of the relation ρ = M/V by multiplying through by V. i.e. M
= ρV To make volume the subject, multiply through the relation by V and divide through by ρ; i.e. V = M / ρ

Solved questions
1. Find the density of a piece of rock which measures 70 g, and when put into a measuring cylinder containing 32
cm3 of water, the water level rose to 67 cm3.

Solution:
Mass of the rock = 70 g
Volume of water without rock = 32 cm 3
(V1)
Volume of water with rock = 67 cm 3 (V2)
Volume of stone = V2 – V1
= 67 - 32 = 35 cm3

Hence, the density of the rock = Substituting:

Density (ρ) = = 2 gcm-3

2. The mass of a ball bearing is 2.0 kg, its volume is recorded as 1.6 m 3. Calculate its density.

Solution:
Mass of the ball bearing = 2.0 kg
Volume of ball bearing = 1.6 m3
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Therefore, density of the ball berry

or ρ = 𝑀
𝑉

= 1.25 kgm-3

3. A sphere of diameter 0.8 m, has a mass of 16 kg. Determine its density.

(Volume of sphere =

Solution:
Half of a diameter is a radius. Therefore, to find the radius of the sphere, divide its diameter by 2.
Thus, = 0.4 m
Hence, volume of the sphere
x 0.43 = 0.268 m3

Density =

= 59.70 kg/m3

4.The bulb of a simple pendulum has a volume and a mass of 38 cm3 and 19 g.
Find its density in gcm-3 and kgm-3.

Solution:
Density = = 0.5 gcm-3

To convert gcm-3 to kgm-3, multiply by 1000.

Thus 0.5 gcm-3 to kgm-3 will be

0.5 x 1000 = 500

Therefore density in kgm-3 = 500 kgm-3

Alternative method Density in kgm-3.

Mass = 19 g = = 19 X 10-3

Volume = = 30 X 10-6

⸫Density = = 500 kgm-3

38 X10−6

5. The density of a bag of cement which has a mass of 50 kg is 3.2 kg/m3. Find the volume of the
bag of cement.

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Solution:
Mass = 50 kg Volume = ?
Density = 3.2 kg/m3

Density(ρ) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

We have to find the volume so we make V the subject of the relation.

⸫Volume

V = 15.625 m3

RELATIVE DENSITY

Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of equal volume of water.

Relative density of a substance is the comparison of the density of the substance

to the density of water. Mathematically,

Relative density

Given the volume of a substance and water only, relative density can be expressed as:

Relative density

Since volume substance is the same as volume of water, it can be expressed as:

Relative density =

Hence,
Relative density can be defined as ratio of mass of a substance to the mass of equal volume of
water.

Mass of a body is proportional to its weight, therefore, with that it can be said that:
Relative density is the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of equal volume of water.

Relative density

Relative density has no units.

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Measuring relative density of an irregular NB: To ensure accurate measurements,
object the relative density bottle must always be
Procedure: wiped clean of any liquid, and must not be
❖ Measure and record the mass of handled with warm hands to avoid the lost of
the irregular object as M1. liquid through expansion. Get rid of air
❖ Measure and record the mass of an bubbles by shaking, tapping or rotating the
empty beaker as M2. bottle gently.
❖ Fill a Eureka can to overflow.
Measuring Relative Density of a Liquid
❖ Place the empty beaker below the
❖ Weigh and record the mass of an
spout of a Eureka can.
empty relative density bottle as M1.
❖ Tie the irregular object with a
❖ Fill the bottle with the liquid, put the
thread and lower it gently into the
stopper in place and wipe the bottle dry.
Eureka can.
Measure and record the mass of both
❖ Measure the mass of the beaker liquid and bottle as M2.
and the overflowed water as M3. ❖ Pour out the liquid from the bottle,
rinse it with water, fill it with water, put
Calculation:
the stopper on and wipe it dry.
Relative density
❖ Measure and record the mass of
the bottle with water as M3.
RD =
Calculation:
Some substances, such as liquids and ❖ Relative density of liquid = mass of
powdered substances, do not have definite liquid / mass of water
shapes, therefore, the relative density bottle is
❖ But, mass of empty bottle = M1
used to measure their relative densities.
❖ mass of bottle and liquid = M2
❖ The relative density bottle has a stopper
with a fine hole through it which enables ❖ mass of bottle and water = M3
excess liquids to run through it when the Therefore, mass of liquid = M2 – M1
stopper is inserted. Mass of water = M3 – M1
If the density bottle is used with the same ❖ Hence, Relative density =
liquid level at the top of the hole, the volume
will be the same no matter the liquid that is put
in, provided there is a constant temperature.

Fig. 1.7: RD Bottle

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Measuring the Relative Density of
Powdered Solid or Granule Solved questions
1. A relative density bottle which usually
❖ Measure and record the mass of a measures 2000 g was found to measure
empty relative density bottle as M1. 5000 g when filled with alcohol. It was
❖ Fill the bottle about 1/3 full with the later found to measure 7000 g when filled
powdered solid, measure and record with water. Find the density of alcohol in
the mass as M2. kilograms? (Density of water = 1000 kgm-
3
❖ Add water to the content of the )
bottle to the full; measure the bottle
Solution
with its contents and record the mass as
Relative density of alcohol
M3.
❖ Empty the bottle of its contents,
rinse with water, fill it with water,
Mass of alcohol = 7000 – 2000 = 5000g
measure and record the mass as M4.
Mass of water = 5000 – 2000 = 3000g
Calculation:
❖ Relative density = RD of alcohol

Since relative density =

❖ Mass of powdered solid = M2 –M1
❖ Mass of water = M4 – M1
❖ Mass of water = M3 – M2 Density of alcohol = relative density x
❖ Mass of equal volume of water = density of water
(M4 – M1) – (M3 – M2) = 1.67 x 1000
= 1670 gcm-3
Relative density of powdered solid = Converting 1670 g into kilograms,

= 1.67 kg

NB: Density of water is usually expressed as Therefore the density of alcohol

1 gcm-3. = 1.67 kgm-3
1 gcm-3 = 1000 kgm-3 = 1.0x 103 kgm-3

2. The weight of an empty relative density bottle is 15 N. if the weight increases to 32 N when filled
with pure water, and 37 N when filled with kerosene. Determine the:
i. Volume of the bottle filled with water
ii. Density of the kerosene.
(Density of water = 1000 kgm-3; g = 10m-2)

Solution:
Weight of pure water = 32 – 15 = 17 N
17
Weight of kerosene = 37 – 15 = 22 N

i. Density

Volume

Since we do not know the mass of the liquid we will use the following
formula to find it
Weight = mass x gravity
Weight of liquid = 17 N;
gravity = 10 ms-1

Mass =

M = 1.7 kg
Now back to the formula:
Volume

V
V = 0.0017 m3 or 1.7 x 10 -3
ii. Density of kerosene
Relative density =

However, since we have weight instead:

Relative density

RD ; RD = 0.772

Back to the formula:

18
Relative density =

Density of substance (DS) = RD x DW

DS = 0.772 x 1000
Density of the kerosene = 772. 72 kg/m3

Table 1.3: Differences between density and relative density

Density Relative density

Has a unit (kgm-3) Has no unit
A measured quantity Comparison between
two measured quantities

Mass per unit volume of a substance Mass of substance compared to

that of equal volume of water

Involves only one substance Involves two substances

Calculations may contain errors Calculations are often accurate

TEST QUESTIONS

1.(a) Distinguish between basic and derived units.

(b). State four basic and four derived units with their corresponding SI units.
2. Mention the uses of the measuring instruments in the table below
Measuring Instrument Uses
Micrometer screw gauge
Stop clock
Metre rule
Thermometer
Barometer
Hydrometer
Beam balance
Ammeter

19
 Newtonmetre
Voltmeter
Photometer
Measuring cylinder
Vernier caliper

3. (a) Mention two differences between density and relative density.

(b) Describe briefly how you will determine the density of a stone.
4. A piece of rock with mass 15 g was placed in a measuring cylinder containing 62 cm3 of water.
Supposing the water level increased to 85cm3, what is the density of the stone:
(a) In gram
(b) In kilogram

2. A clean and empty relative density bottle of mass 26.0 g weighs 42 g when filled with and
unknown liquid of density 6.3 g/cm3.
(a) Calculate the volume of the bottle.
(b) If another liquid of density 3.6 g/cm3 is used to fill the bottle, find the mass of the liquid
that will fill the bottle.

3. State the S.I unit and an instrument you will use to measure the following quantities:

(a) length

(b) volume
(c) mass
(d) temperature
(e) electric current
(f) luminous intensity
(g) voltage
(h) electric resistance

4. Describe how you will:

(a) Determine the density of an irregular object using a eureka bottle;

(b) Calculate the relative density of an unknown liquid

20
 3
DIVERSITY OF LIVING AND
NON-LIVING THINGS
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
➢ differentiate between living and non-living things
➢ classify living and non-living things

INTRODUCTION
Everything in the world falls under either of the two categories – living and nonliving things, based on their
characteristics. All objects which fall into the category of living things must have life in them.
In other words, they must be able to go through basic life processes like respiration, nutrition, excretion, etc.
Examples of living thing are: man, lion, chicken, cat, goat, dog, etc
On the other hand, all objects which fall under the non-living things category are referred to as inanimate (not
living). Example of non-living things are: rock, table, car, shoe, etc.
Table 1.4: Differences between living
LIFE PROCESSES and non-living things

Living things go through seven basic life

processes or activities. They are: Living things Non-Living things
Respires to release
energy Do not respire
Respiration: The process by which living
organisms break down food substances in the Feed Do not feed
body to release energy with or without oxygen. Cannot move on
Move on their own their own
Nutrition: The process by which an organism
Get rid of metabolic
gets and uses food. Do not excrete
waste products
Excretion: The process by which an organism Respond to external Do not respond to
removes metabolic waste products from the stimuli. stimuli
body. Grow Cannot grow
Give rise to young ones
Movement: The ability of an organism to of the same kind. Do not reproduce
leave one place to another or to change
position of its body or parts of the body.
Differences between plants and
Irritability/ Sensitivity: The ability of living
organisms to react to physical changes around animals
them. When we talk of living organisms, we are talking
mainly of plants and animals. Despite their similarities,
Growth: The irreversible increase in size and plants and animals have differences.
weight of living organisms.
Table 1.5: Differences between plants and
Reproduction: The ability of organisms to animals
give rise to young ones of the same kind.
Plants Animals
Take in carbon dioxide Take in oxygen, and
during the day and give out carbon
give out oxygen dioxide at all time
Prepare their own Get their food from
food through plants and other
photosynthesis animals
21
Only some parts can Can move freely from React slowly to React quickly to
move place to place stimuli stimuli
Do not have special Have special No uniform growth All the parts grow
excretory organs excretory organs for
excretion

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
In general, the term classification is the process of sorting out things and putting them into groups based on their common
characteristics.
Biological classification, on the other hand, is the process of sorting out living organisms into groups based on their
common characteristics.

Importance of classification
1. Allows things to be described using a few words.
2. Helps to easily identify and study organisms.
3. Brings order in naming and identifying organisms.
4. Helps to differentiate one organism from the other.
5. Allows new organisms to be identified.
6. Helps to know the relationship between organisms both within the same or different groups.
7. Allows easy communication among biologists.
8. Brings out potential uses of living and non-living things.

CLASSIFICATION IN BIOLOGY
There are different methods of classifying biological information. Modern systems of biological classification descend
from the thought presented by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who was the first scientist to put organisms into groups.
Aristotle classified organisms based on their physical characteristics such as shape, size, colour etc. He also grouped
animals according to their modes of movement. That is, he placed all land animals (such as man, dog, rabbit, lion etc.) in
one group and flying animals (such birds, bats, insects etc into another.
The most commonly used system of classification today is the Linnaeus' classification system called the natural system
of classification, which was developed by Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish biologist.

His system is based on natural relationship and brought together organisms according to the things they have in common.
Organisms are grouped on the basis of their body structure.
According to Linnaeus' system, every organism has got its own two-part Latin name called the Binomial System of
nomenclature (naming). The first part of the name is the genus to which the organism belongs; and it always begins with
a capital letter. The second part of the name is the species to which the organism belongs. It begins with a small letter.
Table 1.6 gives examples of the two-part Latin name.
Tiger Panthera tigris
African Loxodota cyclotis /
elephant africana
Table 1.6: Examples of the binomial system
Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes/
Common Genus Species
paniscus
Name
Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius
Man Homo sapiens
Domestic dog Carnies familiaris
House fowl Gallus domesticus Under the natural system of classification, all
Lion Panthera loo organisms belong to seven ranks. The ranks
Mango Magnifera indica are arranged in increasing order of similarities
Maize Zea mays among organisms as it descends. The

22
organisms at the top level (kingdom) have low
resemblance whiles organisms at the bottom General characteristics in Biological
level (species) have high resemblance. classification
Another system of classification puts
kingdom
organisms into seven groups:
phylum 1.kingdom
2. Phylum
class 3. Class
4. Order
order 5. Family
6. Genus
family Fig.1.8 7. Species
Order of
classification
genus

species

Fig. 1.9: Classification of organisms

Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera) 2. They are microscopic (Very tiny)

Examples are bacterial, blue-green algae. 3. Have no definite nucleus
4. Cytoplasm is surrounded by membrane
Characteristics of organisms in 5. Have no membrane around the nucleus
Kingdom Prokaryotae
1. They are unicellular (single celled)
23
Kingdom Protoctista (Protista)
Examples are Amoeba, Paramecium,
plasmodium, Spirogyra, Euglena, green
algae, slime mould, Trypanosoma.
Fig. 2.0: Amoeba

Fig. 2.1: Mushroom

Kingdom Plantae
Characteristics of organisms in
Examples of organisms in Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Protoctista
are: flowering plants, ferns, shrubs, mosses
1. Mostly unicellular (few
etc.
are multicellular)
2. Have membrane around
Characteristics of organisms in
nucleus
Kingdom Plantae
(Eukaryotic)
1. They are multicellular (have many
3. Have normal cells, but no tissue or
cells)
organs.
2. Have chlorophyll
3. Have definite nucleus
Kingdom Fungi
4. Cell wall made of cellulose
Examples are fungus, moulds, mushrooms,
5. They are photosynthetic (prepare their
rhizopus, penicillium, mucor, yeast.
own food through photosynthesis)
Characteristics of organisms in Kingdom
Kingdom Animalia
Fungi
Examples of organisms in Kingdom
1. They are multicellular
Animalia are: man, birds, fish, snakes
2. They have no roots, stem or leaves
3. Have no chlorophyll
Characteristics of organisms in
4. Are not photosynthetic (cannot
Kingdom Animalia
produce their own food).
1. They are multicellular
5. Reproduce by mean of spore formation
2. Are not photosynthetic
6. Vegetative part, called mycelium
3. Have no cell wall
consist of hyphae.
4. Have nucleus bound by a membrane
5. Do not have chlorophyll

24
 Fig. 1.9: Classification of organisms
VIRUSES

Viruses are tiny organisms that exhibit the Characteristics of viruses

characteristics of both living and nonliving 1. They reproduce when they are within
things. They are so small that only other living cells.
microscopes can be used to see them. 2. They are made up of protein and either
Viruses do not fall into any of the kingdoms DNA or RNA.
above, because they are not entirely living 3. They cannot grow or reproduce on their
organisms. own.
A virus is made up of a strand of 4. They crystallize when outside a living
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic host or cell.
acid (RNA), contained in a sheath of protein. 5. They lack definite nucleus.

All known viruses cause diseases in both

plants and animals; examples include
poliomyelitis, yellow fever, ebola, foot and
mouth disease in cattle, mosaic disease in
cassava and tobacco.

Fig. 2.0: Structure of a virus

Classification in chemistry
In chemistry the system of classification of elements is called the periodic system. The elements are
arranged in a table called the periodic table. The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number. Elements with similar properties are place in vertical columns (called groups) and horizontal
rows (called periods). Elements have been classified as metal, non-metals and semi-metals.

Classification of social groups A group of humans may also be classified into social groups.
Human societies can be grouped as family, clan, ethnic group, class, etc.

Family: A social group which consist of a husband a wife and child or children.

25
Clan: A number of families who believe to have come from a common ancestor.

Ethnic group/Tribe: A collection of clans. Member in an ethnic group may live in the same area,
speak the same language, have the same culture, etc.

Class: A collection of people who have a common characteristics like education, wealth, job,
power, etc.

Fig. 2.1: Periodic table of elements

The importance of other organisms to humans

Humans rely mostly on other organisms to satisfy their living in the following areas:
1. Food
2. Shelter
3. Fuel
4. Drugs
5. Clothing
6. Industrial raw materials
7. Jewellery
8. Furniture

26
 TEST QUESTIONS

1. (a) Define biological classification.

(b) State four importance of classification.

2. (a) Mention four similarities between plants and animals.

(b) State seven differences between living and non-living things.

3. Itemize the five kingdoms in the natural system of classification and give one example of
organisms found in each kingdom.
4. Mention two differences between Kingdom Animalia and Kingdom
Plantae.

5. State and explain the seven ranks of living organisms.

6.(a) What are viruses?

(b) Mention three characteristics of viruses.

7. Itemize the following under living and non-living things:

man, rock, mosquito, tomato, neem tree, sock, clock, eel, fan, computer

8.Classify the following organisms under the appropriate kingdoms:

maize, octopus, mould, euglena, centipede, sparrow, bacteria,

27
 4
CELLS AND CELL DIVISIONS
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter you will be able to;
❖ Describe the structure and function of plant and animal cell.
❖ Explain the process of cell division.

INTRODUCTION
Every living organism is made up of units of life called cells.
A cell is therefore defined as the basic unit of life.
OR
A cell is the structural or functional unit of a living organism.
Each cell is independent of the other cells in the organism, and can undergo all the life activities such
as reproduction, excretion, respiration, growth, etc. Some living things are made up of one cell and
are called unicellular organisms. e.g. bacterial, amoeba,. Trypanosome, etc. Other organisms on the
other hand are made up of many cells known as multicellular organisms. Eg. Plants and animals.

STRUCTURE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Fig. 3.6: Structure of plant and animal cells

Cell membrane: Also called plasma membrane, is a thin flexible semipermeable membrane that
encloses the contents of the cell.
Functions
❖ Keeps the contents of the cell in place
❖ Controls the movements of materials in and out of the cell.

Cellulose cell wall: It is found only in plant cells, and is made up of cellulose, which is a non-living
material. Functions
❖ Supports and protects the cell

28
 ❖ Gives shape to the cell
❖ It is permeable, and allows materials to pass in and out of the cell.

Centrioles: They are found only in plant cells. They are a pair of small rod-like structures in the
cytoplasm near the nucleus. Centrioles can only be seen under high-power microscopes.
Functions
❖ Responsible for the formation of spindle in cell division.
❖ Aids in the formation of cilia and flagella.

Chloroplast: They are found only in plant cells. They are large organelles bounded by a double
membrane and contain a green pigment called chloroplast.
Function
❖ Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis

Chromosomes: They are hereditary materials in the form of DNA. They can be seen only under
high-power microscopes.
Functions
❖ Determines the characteristics of the organism.
❖ Controls inheritance

Fig. 3.7: A typical plant cell Fig. 3.8: A typical animal cell

Cytoplasm: Transparent watery fluid which contains various organelles and chemical substances.
Functions
❖ Site for most chemical reactions
❖ Carries the organelles in the cell.

29
 Endoplasmic reticulum: They are small interconnected channels surrounded by a membrane.
There are two types – smooth endospermic reticulum and rough endospermic reticulum. They are only
visible under high-power microscopes.
Functions
❖ Connects the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane.
❖ Gives mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
❖ Serves as a pathway for the transport of materials in and out of the cell.
❖ Rough endospermic reticulum supports the ribosomes and transports proteins produced by the
ribosomes.
❖ Provide rooms for chemical reaction in the cell.

Golgi body: They are strands of small flattened sacs surrounded by a membrane. They have a cluster
of small bodies containing secretory material called vesicle.
Functions
❖ Produce and repair cell membranes
❖ Involved in the packaging and secretion of proteins and complex carbohydrates.
❖ Synthesize complex carbohydrates

Lysosome: They are small, dark, spherical structures filled with fluid and surrounded by a single
membrane. They are more abundant in animal cells than plant cells. They are visible under highpower
microscopes.
Functions
❖ Contain enzymes involved in digestion of materials in the cell
❖ Produce enzymes which destroys old and worn-out cells as part of the cell replacement, growth
and repair of
tissues
❖ Produce enzymes which defends the cell against virus, bacterial and other poisonous
substances.

Mitochondrion: They are small spherical structures surrounded by two membranes. The number of
mitochondria in a cell depends on the cell's energy requirement; this is because mitochondria are the
site for the release of energy from respiration.
Functions
❖ Contains enzymes for respiration
❖ Energy released is used by the cell for life activities. For this reason, mitochondria are referred
to as the powerhouse of the cell.

Organelles: Small membrane bound structures in the cytoplasm. Each organelle performs a specific
function.

Ribosomes: They are small organelles found in large numbers in cells. They are made up of RNA
(ribonucleic acid).
Function
❖ Site for protein synthesis in the cell.

30
Vacuole: They are sacs filled with fluid and surrounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
Vacuoles are found mainly in plant cells where they occupy about 80% of the cell volume.
Functions
❖ Responsible for the control of waste content of the cell.
❖ provide turgidity in plant cells ❖ Temporary storage for food substances.

Table 2.8: Differences between plant and animal cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell wall present No cell wall
Contains chloroplast No chloroplast
Large and permanent vacuole present Small and temporary vacuole

Protoplasm is less dense Dense protoplasm

Stores starch as carbohydrate Stores glycogen as carbohydrate

Has a fixed shape Has no fixed shape

Similarities between plant and animal cells

1. Nucleus is present in both.
2. Both have cell membrane.
3. Both have cytoplasm.
4. They both possess mitochondrion.
5. Vacuole is present in both.
6. Both have endospermic reticulum.
7. Both possess ribosome.

SPECIALIZED CELLS
Different cells, both in plants and animals, have different structures and perform different functions.
Each cell is specialized to perform a specific task.

A specialized cell can be defined as a cell which is adapted to perform a particular function.

Examples of specialized cells are those listed below under types of plant and animal cell.

Types of plant cell

Leaf epidermal cells: Transport and allow light to enter the leaf to the photosynthetic tissue below
them.

Root tip cells: Have the ability to divide and give rise to different tissues.

Palisade cells: Have chloroplast with chlorophyll to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis.

31
 Fig. 3.9: Palisade (Left) cell and root cell (Right)

Types of animal cells

Red blood cells: Carry oxygen to other blood cells through the blood stream.

Muscle cells: Have the ability to contract because of the thin cylindrical or spindle shapes.

Sperm cells: Possess long tail to help them swim to the female egg to fertilize it.

Nerve cells: Have long and thin to help them transmit nerve impulses from one part of the body
another.

Phagocyte: Kind of white blood cell, or leukocyte that destroys foreign substances in the body, such
as bacteria.
Lymphocyte: A group of white blood cells which protect the body from diseases and infections

32
 CELL DIVISION

Cell division is the process whereby cells in living organisms break up to form new cells.

In cell division, the DNA of the parent cell is carried on to the newly created cells depending on the
type. There are two types of cell division – meiosis and mitosis.

Meiosis
Meiosis is the process of cell division in organisms that reproduce sexually.

In meiosis the nucleus divides into four nuclei, each of which contains half the usual number of
chromosomes.

Fig. 4.1: Meiosis

How meiosis occurs
❖ The cell now has a chromosome and a centriole at each end.
❖ The cell membrane pinches inwards and divides into two.
❖ Membrane forms around the two newly created nuclei which have half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
❖ The centrioles copy themselves again and move apart to the opposite ends of the cells
❖ The cell membranes pinch inwards and break up.
Meiosis ends with the creation of two more cells, making four, each with half the number of
parent chromosomes and each with a different combination of genetic information.

Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells each of which has
the same number of chromosomes as the original cell.

Mitosis results in two cells that are genetically similar. Mitosis is vital for growth; for repair and
replacement of damaged or worn out cells; and for asexual reproduction, or reproduction without eggs
and sperm.

33
 Fig. 4.2: Mitosis

How mitosis occurs

❖ The membrane surrounding the nucleus become less distinct and the chromosomes become
more distinct
❖ Centrioles position themselves at the opposite ends of the cell
❖ Chromatids separate from chromosomes and move to either of the centrioles
❖ The cell now has a chromosome and a centriole at each end.
❖ The cell membrane divides into two.
❖ New nuclei are formed in each division.
❖ That completes the formation of two new cells similar to the original cell.

Table 2.8: Differences between meiosis and mitosis

Meiosis Mitosis
Each cell has half the number of chromosomes Each cell has the same number of chromosomes
as the parent cell as the parent cell
Four dissimilar cells are created at the end Ends with he creation of two similar cells
Occurs in organisms that reproduce asexually Occurs in organisms that reproduce sexually
Nucleus divides into four Nucleus divides into two
No crossing over Crossing over occurs
No exchange or genes Genes are exchanged

Level of organization in living organisms

All multicellular organisms have five levels of organization. They are:
Cell

Tissue Cell is the basic unit of life.

There are two principal types of cell – animal cell and plant cell.
Organ
Tissue is a group of similar cells which perform the same function.
Organ system

Organism

Fig. 4.2: Level of organization

34
 Name of tissue Cells forming them Main function

Animal tissues

Nerve tissue Nerve cells (neurons) Co-ordinate and conduct nerve

impulses
Blood tissue Red blood cells Carries oxygen around the body.
Skeletal tissue Ostecytes Provide support

Muscle tissue Muscle cells Contract to bring about movement

Plant tissues
Epidermal tissue Epidermal cells Covers the surface of plants
Photosynthetic Palisade mesophyll cell Produce food
tissue
Vascular tissue Xylem vessels and phloem sieve Transports water and organic food
tube elements
Strengthening Sclerenchyma cells of the Provides mechanical support
tissue pericycle

Organ: A group of different tissues that perform the same functions.

Some organs perform one function whiles others perform two or more functions.
Table 3.0: Examples of organs in animals and plants
Name of organ Name of tissue forming Main function
organ
Animal organs

Heart Papillary muscles, cardiac Pumps food around the body

muscle
Kidneys Cortex, medulla Excretes metabolic waste substances

Plant organs

Leaf Epidermis, palisade mesophyll, prepares food, exchange gases, transpires

spongy mesophyll, vascular
bundles
Root Root hair, Absorbs
epidermis, cortex, xylem, water and mineral salt from the soil and
phloem, pericycle, piliferous supports the plant
layer

Stem Epidermis, vascular bundles, Transports water and mineral, supports the
parenchyma, collenchymas flowers, fruits and leaves

35
Organ system: It is a collection of two or more organs which work together.
Organs systems are structured to work in a co-ordinate manner that an organism can undergo all the
life activities and live independent of others.

Table 3.1: Examples of organ systems

Name of system Main organ Main functions

In animals
Sensory system Eyes, skin, ear, nose, tongue Detects stimuli

Digestive system Stomach, Digests and absorbs food

liver,
intestines, pancreas

Circulatory system Heart, arteries, veins, Carries food and oxygen around the
capillaries body

Reproductive system Testis, uterus, ovaries Produces offspring

In plants
Shoot system Stems, laves, Makes and transports food, water, and
buds, flowers, minerals
fruits

Root system Roots and their Absorbs water and mineral, supports the
branches plant

Organism: Two or more organ systems come together to form an organism.

For example, the various systems such as the digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive
system, nervous system, excretory system etc. work together to form one organism, man. In plants,
the shoot and the root systems come together to form a particular plant.

Fig. 4.4: Shoot and root systems of a plant

36
 TEST QUESTIONS

1. (a) (i) What is a tissue?

(ii) List three types of tissues in plant and animals
(b) State one function of each of the tissues mentioned in (a) (ii) above.

2. (a) (i) Define the term cell.

(ii) draw and label an animal cell.
(iii) state three differences and two similarities between plant and animal cells.
(b) (i) What are specialized cells? (ii) Mention three plants and animal cells.

3. (a) Define the following and explain how they occur: (i) meiosis, (ii) mitosis.
(b) State three differences between meiosis and mitosis.

4. (a) State and explain the level organization in living organisms.

(b) Mention two organ systems each in plants and animals and state their functions.

5. (a) Explain the term cell division.

(b) What is the importance of cell division
(c) Describe the types of cell division.

6. (a) Sate one function of each of the following organelles:

(i) nucleus
(ii) mitochondrion
(iii) vacuole
(iv) chloroplast
(v) cell wall
(vi) endoplasmic reticulum
(vii) cytoplasm
(viii) Golgi body
(ix) cell membrane
(x) chromosome
(b) Which of the organelles in 6 (a) above are only found in plant cells?

37
 5
MATTER
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
➢ Describe the different building blocks of matter.
➢ Differentiate between elements, compounds and mixtures.
➢ Describe the formation of covalent and ionic compound.
➢ Relate atomic numbers, mass numbers, isotopes and relative atomic mass among each other.
➢ Perform calculations using the mole concept.
➢ Prepare solutions of given concentrations.

INTRODUCTION
Everything around us that has the attribute of gravity and inertia (weight) and the ability to occupy
space (volume) is said to be matter. Therefore by way of definition, matter is anything that has
weight and volume.
Some matter are visible while others such as air can only be felt but not seen.

STATES / TYPES OF MATTER

There are three states of matter. They are:

❖ Solid
❖ Liquid
❖ Gas

Characteristics of Solids
1. Solids have fixed shapes.
2. They have fixed volumes.
3. They are very difficult to compress.
4. They have very low rate of diffusion.
5. The molecules that make up solids have high attraction among them.
6. The molecules are very closely packed
7. The molecules spin and vibrate

Examples of solids are stones, wood, books, man etc.

Characteristics of Liquids
1. Liquids do not have fixed shapes but take the shape of the containing vessel
2. They have fixed volumes (this is because they have enough molecular attraction to resist force
tending to change their volumes.)
3. They have fast rate of diffusion 4. They are fairly easy to compress.
5. Molecules are less closely packed together.
6. They flow.

38
 7. Molecules move fast.
8. Molecules move at random.

Examples of liquids are water, fruit juice, urine, petrol, kerosene

Characteristics of Gases
1. Gases have no fixed shape.
2. They have no fixed volume.
3. They have very high rate of diffusion.
4. They are very easy to compress.
5. Molecules have no attraction between them.
6. Molecules move in all directions.
7. Molecules move very fast.

Examples of gases are oxygen, water vapour, hydrogen, smoke.

Fig. 2.5: Intermolecular distances between the states of matter

BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

All matter, weather living things or nonliving things are made up of three particles called the building
blocks or the basic units of matter. The particles are:
❖ Atom
❖ molecule
❖ Ion

ATOM
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that shows all the properties of the element and can
take part in a chemical reaction.

An atom is the tiniest and the most basic building block of all matter.

Fig. 2.6: Structure of an atom 39

An atom is made up of smaller particles, namely, electrons, protons, and neutrons, called the
subatomic particles. An atom consists of a cloud of electrons that surrounding a small dense nucleus
of protons and neutrons. The electrons and protons have a property called electric charge which
affects the way they interact with each other electrically charged particles.

Electrons and shells

Electrons are tiny negatively charged particle that form a cloud around the nucleus of an atom.
Properties of electrons include:
❖ They have negative charges (-1)
❖ They are found around the nucleus of an atom.
❖ They travel on an orbit or shell or energy level.
❖ They have mass of 1/1840

Electrons travel on shells or orbit, and each electron has its own shell; therefore, they do not crash as
they move around the nucleus. An atom can have one or more shells depending on the number of
electrons present. However, there is maximum number of electrons that each shell carries. For the
sake of clarity, the shells have been labelled (K, L, M, N). The shell closest to the nucleus is the K
shell; and it carries not more than 2 electrons. It is filled first. The next shell is the L shell which
carries a maximum of 8 electrons. The third shell, the M shell carries a maximum of 18 electrons.
The N shell carries a maximum of 32 electrons. The number of electrons per shell increases as the
number of shells increases.

Protons
Protons are found in the nucleus of an atom, and carry positive charges.
Properties of protons are:
❖ They have positive charges (+1)
❖ They are located in the nucleus
❖ They have a mass of 1.

Table 1.7: Differences between protons and

electrons
Similarities between protons
Protons Electrons and electrons
Located in the Located around the
nucleus nucleus
i. They are both charged.
ii. The number of protons in a neutral
Have positive Have negative charge
charge atom is equal to the number of electrons.
Have a mass of 1 Have a mass of However, they have different charges.
1/1840
Form mass numbers Do not form mass
with neutrons numbers

Neutrons
Neutrons are also found in the nucleus of an atom. Unlike protons and electrons, neutrons have no
charge, therefore they are said to be neutral. Properties of neutrons are:

40
 ❖ They are found in the nucleus of an atom
❖ They have no charge (0)
❖ They have a mass of 1

Fig. 2.7: Electronic structure of the first twenty elements

Characteristics / Properties of Atom

Atoms have special characteristic which help distinguish one atom from another and determine how
atoms change under certain conditions the characteristics are atomic number, mass number, isotope,
relative atomic mass, radioactivity.
Atomic number (proton number)
It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons is the same as the number
of electrons. The symbol for atomic number is Z. each element has a unique atomic number.

Mass number
Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. The symbol for mass number is A.
The protons and neutrons are called the nucleons. The number of neutrons in an atom is the neutron
number.

41
 A
For an element ‘W’ there is Z 𝐖 where A is the mass number and Z, the atomic number. The mass
number is written at the top left while the atomic number is written at the bottom left of the elements
as shown above.
For example, Sodium which has anatomic number of 11 and a mass number of 23 is represented as:
Mass No. (A) = 23
Atomic No. (Z) = 11 Na
This means that Sodium has 11 protons and since atomic number (or proton number) is the same as
the number electrons, it has 11 electrons.
Because the mass number is protons plus neutron, to find the number of neutrons, subtract the
number of protons (or atomic number) from the mass number, therefore we have: 23 – 11= 12.
Hence the number of neutrons is 12.
Example 2
Potassium atom has atomic number of 19 and mass number of 39. To represent that, we have:
A = 39

Z = 19 K
From the above, it can be deduced that Potassium has 19 protons, 19 electrons and 20 neutrons (A –
Z = 20).

Question:
Find the number of (a) protons, (b) electrons and (c) neutrons of an element Si which has an atomic
number of 16 and a mass number of 32.
Solution:
Mass number (A) = 32;
Atomic number (Z) = 16
a) The number of protons is 16 (number of protons is the same as atomic number).
b) The number of electrons is 16 (number of electrons = number of protons)
c) The number of neutrons is mass number (A) – atomic number (Z).
Substituting, we have 32 – 16 = 16.
Therefore, the number of neutrons is 16.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same atomic number but different mass numbers. The difference in the mass
numbers is due to the difference in the number of neutrons. Many elements have two or more
isotopes.
Examples of isotopes are:

12 13 14
Carbon
6
C 6
C 6
C
16 17 18
Oxygen O
8 8
O O
8

42
 H H H
1 2 3
Hydrogen
1 1 1

Trial Question:
The element oxygen has 3 isotopes with mass numbers 16, 17 and 18, with an atomic number of 8.
Find the number of neutrons in each mass number.

Solution:
To find the number of neutrons in each mass number, subtract the atomic number from the mass
numbers. Therefore, it will be 8, 9 and 10 respectively.

Relative atomic mass (Ar)

Atoms, though very tiny and their masses cannot be measured directly, however their masses can be
compared. Atoms of different elements have different masses. One atom is selected and atoms of
different elements are compared to it. Therefore, the masses of the other atoms are in relation to the
mass of the selected atom, hence the term relative atomic mass.
The carbon-12 isotope is currently used to determine the masses of other atoms and the scale of
atomic masses obtained is called carbon-12 scale.

The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom of an element compared
to 1/12 of the mass of one atom of carbon-12.

Mathematically,

Ar

Relative atomic mass has no unit To illustrate, let‘s take an atom which has two isotopes X and Y
with mass numbers A and B, with relative abundance of Z and 100-Z respectively, then their relative
atomic mass is expressed as:

Ar AxX

A B
Isotope X and Y can, therefore be as expressed C X and CY where C is the atomic number

Sample questions with Answers

A A
Carbon has two main isotopes Carbon-13, C13 and Carbon-12, C12. The relative abundance of
Carbon-13 is 1.11% and that of Carbon-12 is 98.89%. Find the relative atomic mass of carbon.
Solution
Relative atomic mass = mass due to carbon-13 + mass due to carbon-12.

43
 1. Copper (Cu) which has two isotopes 63Cu and 65Cu with relative abundance of 62.9 and 64.9
respectively. Calculate the percentage abundance of each isotope if the relative atomic mass of
the naturally occurring copper is 63.55.

Solution:
Cu = 63.55; 63Cu = 62.9; 65Cu = 64.9
If the fractional abundance of 63Cu = p, then that of 65Cu will be (1- p) because there are only two
isotopes available. Hence, Cu = (64.9 x p) + 62.9 (1-p)
63.55 = 64.9p + 62.9 (1-p)
0.65 = 2p p = 0.325
The percentage abundance of 63Cu = 32.5
65
therefore, the percentage abundance of Cu = 100-32.5 = 67.5%

2. Chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl. The relative proportions of 35
Cl to 37
Cl is 3:1.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Solution
The relative proportion is 3:1
Therefore, the relative atomic mass of chlorine:

In examinations, the relative atomic masses

are provided. For example, (H = 1; O = 16)

Table 1.9: Some elements with their relative atomic masses

aluminum Al 27.0
Element Symbol Relative atomic silicon Si 28.1
mass phosphorus P 31.0
hydrogen H 1.0 sulphur S 32.1
helium He 4.0 chlorine Cl 35.5
lithium Li 6.9 argon Ar 39.9
beryllium Be 9.0 potassium K 39.1
boron B 10.8 calcium Ca 40.1
carbon C 12.0 manganese Mn 54.9
nitrogen N 14.0 Iron Fe 55.9
oxygen O 16.0 Cobalt Co 58.9
fluorine F 19.0 Nickel Ni 58.7
neon Ne 20.2 Copper Cu 63.5
sodium Na 23.0 Zinc Zn 65.4
magnesium Mg 24.3

44
 Molecule
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms are chemically combined.

OR
A molecule is the smallest possible amount of a particular substance that has all the characteristics
of that substance.

Molecules are electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. A molecule
may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of a single chemical element, as with oxygen (O2); or it
may be a chemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water (H2O). Other examples
of molecules include NaCl, KOH, CaCO3, CO2, etc. The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with
a bond length of 0.74Å whiles the largest is Mesoporous silica have been produced with a diameter of 1000
Å (100 nm)

Water molecule

Characteristics of molecules
1. Molecules are composed of two or more atoms
2. The atoms are chemically combined.
3. They are electrically neutral.
4. Diatomic molecules have the characteristics of the constituent atoms.
5. The constituent atoms of a molecule can only be separated by chemical means.

Ion
An ion is an atom which is either positively or negatively charged.
In other words the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the
atom a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created by both chemical and physical
means. An ion consisting of a single atom is an atomic or monatomic ion; if it consists of two or more
atoms, it is a molecular ion.

Types of ion
There are two types of ions. They are cations and anions.

45
 Cation
A cation is created if a neutral atom loses one or more electrons. This gives it more protons than
electrons, hence the atom is positively charged. Examples of cations are calcium (Ca), potassium (K),
sodium (Na), magnesium (mg) etc.

Anion
An anion is created if an atom gains electrons. Such an atom has more negatively charged electrons
than protons, therefore making the atom negatively charged. Examples of anions are chlorine (Cl),
carbon (C), sulphur (S), fluorine (F), etc.

THE MOLE

All substances are made up of tiny particles known as atoms, ions and molecules. These particles are
so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye nor counted. However, a collection of millions
of them can be seen and counted.
As we have a collection of objects like, dozen (collection of 12), cent (collection of 100), gross
(collection of 144) etc. the collective name for millions of elementary particles (atoms, molecules and
ions) is the unit called the Avogadro‘s constant which is made up of 602 000 000 000 000 000 000
000 or 6.02 x 1023 of particles.
The unit of measurement for amount of substance (n) is the mole.

A mole of a substance is made up of 6.02 x 1023 particles of that substance. The SI unit of mole is
mol.
NB: One mole of each of the elementary particles is 6.02 x 1023 particles.
Now, if L = 6.02 x 1023, then
AL = 6.02 x 1023A

½L= = 3.01 x 1023

2L = 2 x 6.02 x1023 = 12.04 x 1023

Examples
1. Given that Avogadro‘s constant is 6.02 x1023, calculate the number of atoms in 0.01 mole of
carbon.

Solution
1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms
Therefore, 0.01 mole of carbon will contain 0.01 x 6.02 x 1023 = 6.02 x 1021
Hence, 0.01 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms

2. Find the number of atoms in 6 moles of oxygen. (n = 6.02 x 1023)

46
Solution:
1 mole of oxygen contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms.
⸫6 moles of oxygen will have 6 6.02 x1023 = 36.02 x 1023 atoms

MOLAR MASS (M)

Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole (or 6.02 x 1023 particles) of a substance. The SI unit of, molar mass is gram
per mol (g/mol). Numerically, the molar mass is equal to the relative atomic mass of an atom. For
example, the relative atomic mass (Ar) of Nitrogen is 14, therefore its molar mass is 14 g/mol.
The relative mass of (Ar) Helium (He) is 4; ⸫ its molar mass = 4 g/mol.

In the same way if you want to find the molar mass of a compound, you add all the relative atomic
masses of the constituent atoms together. For example, to calculate the molar mass of H2O, (relative
atomic masses are H = 1, O = 16) We will have:
(1 x 2) + 16 = 18 g/mol.

Questions
Calculate the molar mass of the following:
1. NaCl, 2. H2SO4, 3. HCl, 4. C12H22O11
(Relative atomic masses are Na = 23, O = 16, C = 12, H = 1, Cl =35.5, S = 32)

Solution
1. Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 =58.5 g/mol
2. Molar mass of H2SO4 = (1 x 2) + 32 + (16 x 4) 0.33 mol = 98 g/mol
3. Molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 g/mol
4. Molar mass of C12H22O11 = (12 x 12) + (1 x 12) + (16 x 11) = 342 g/mol

AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE IN MASS OF SUBSTANCES

The following formula is used to find the number of moles in mass of substances:

Amount of substance (n) =

The SI unit of amount of substance is mol.

Thus, n is the mol

Example
1. Calculate the amount of substance in 9 g of aluminium.
2. Find the number of moles of carbon dioxide molecules in 14 g of carbon dioxide.
3. What is the mass of 0.5 mol of H2O?
(Molar mass of Al = 27; CO2 = 44; H2O = 18 g/mol)

47
 Solution

1. Amount of substance in Al =

n = 0.33 mol

2. Number of moles (n) of CO2=

14
n= = 0.318 mol
44

3. Amount of substance n =

Since we are supposed to find the mass, Amount of substance (n) = we will make mass of substance (m)
the subject of the relation.
Hence, m = n x M
m=9g

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS / FORMULA MASS

The relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule.
For example, the relative molecular mass of potassium hydroxide, KOH is 56. This is calculated as
follows: K = 39, O = 16, H = 1
So by adding them together, we have
39 +16 + 1 = 56
In the same way to calculate the relative molecular mass of sodium chloride, NaCl, we will have:
Na + Cl = 23 + 35 = 58
To find the relative molecular mass of CaCO3, add all the constituent atoms as follows: Ar of calcium
= 40
Ar of carbon = 12
Ar of oxygen = 16 (for the three oxygen Ar = 16 x 3 = 48)
⸫the relative molecular mass of CaCO3 =
40 + 12 + 48 = 100

NB: Relative molecular mass has no unit. It can be deduced from above that relative molecular
mass or formula mass is numerically equal to molar mass. Thus:
Molar Mass = Relative Molecular Mass =
Formula Mass

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Elements
An element is smallest form of a substance that cannot be broken down into smaller particle.

48
There are many known and unknown elements arranged on the periodic table according to their
physical and chemical properties such as metals and non-metals. For easy identification, elements
have unique symbols. For example, oxygen (O), gold (Au), argon (Ar), lead (Pb) etc.

Compounds
A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined together.

Individual elements which make up a compound are in fixed amount. E.g. carbon dioxide (CO2) is a
compound which contains one element of carbon and two elements of oxygen.
The newly formed substance has completely different properties from the constituent elements. E.g.
hydrogen and oxygen are both gases, yet, when they come together, they form water (H2O) which is
a liquid.
There are two types of compounds – ionic and covalent compounds.

Table 2.1: Differences between Elements and Have different Have the same
mixture. properties from the properties as the
constituent elements constituent elements
Element Compound
Cannot be broken Can be broken down Constituents become Constituents do not
down a single substance become a single
substance
Made up of atoms Made up of atoms of
of the same kind different kind Energy is usually No energy involved
involved
Has the same The constituent atoms
properties as the have different
atom properties from the Types of Mixtures
compound 1. Solid – Solid mixtures: These
mixtures are made up of two or more
Mixtures physically combined solid substances.
A mixture is made up of two or more elements Examples are: Sand and iron filing; Sugar
or compounds that can be separated by and rice; Brass (copper and zinc); Bronze
physical means. (copper and tin)
Mixtures can be separated by physical means
because the constituents are not chemically 2. Solid - Liquid Mixtures: Made up of
combined. solid and liquid in which the solid is
soluble (i.e. can dissolve). Example are:
Table 2.1: Differences between Compound and Sugar and water; Salt and water; Blood;
Mixture
Chalk and water
Compounds Mixtures
Constituents cannot Constituents can be
be separated by a separated by a 3. Liquid – Liquid Mixtures:
physical means physical means Made up of two or more liquids
New substances are No new substances which are miscible. (Miscibility is
formed are formed a measure of how easily different
Constituents have Constituents do not liquids will dissolve when mixed
fixed amounts have fixed amounts together.). Examples are: Ethanol
and water; Petrol and kerosene.

49
 3. Liquid – Gas Mixture: Made up of liquid and gas . examples are: Fog; foam
4. Gas – Gas mixtures: Made up of two or more gases. An example is the atmospheric air
5. Solid – Gas Mixtures: Made up of a solid and a gas. An example is harmattan.

IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Ionic or electrovalent compounds are formed by the attraction of positive and negative ions.
The ions are held by a strong electrostatic bond known as ionic or electrovalent bond. Ionic
compound have high melting and boiling points. This is as a result of the strong force of attraction
between the positive and the negative ions; therefore, large amount of energy is required to break
this strong electrostatic force between the ions. Examples of ionic compounds are,
NaCl; MgCl; NaOH, etc

Covalent compounds are form when two or more atoms of non-metals which are unable to form
stable ions share electrons in order to be stable.

Covalent compounds have weak force of attraction between the molecules. Example of covalent
compounds are O2; H2; Cl2;; HCl; NH3; H2O.
Chemical bonds
A chemical bond is a force that holds atoms, ions or molecules together.

One major importance of chemical bonds is that it allows atoms to acquire stable electronic
configuration similar to that of a noble gas.
A noble gas has an outer shell filled with either eight or two electrons. Examples are, helium (2),
neon (2,8) and argon (2,8,8). An atom is only stable when it has two or eight electrons in the outer
shell.

How atoms achieve stable electronic configuration

i. Metal atoms with one, two or three electrons in the outermost shell lose the electrons to form
positively charged ions called cations.
ii. Non-metal atoms with five, six or seven electrons in the outer shell gain three, two or one
electrons respectively to form negative charged ions called anions.
iii. Two non-metallic elements with four to seven outer electrons may gain electrons by sharing them
with each other.

Types of Chemical Bond

There are two main types of chemical bonds – ionic bond and covalent bond.

Ionic / electrovalent bond This is the type of bond that forms an electrostatic force of attraction
between negative and positive ions and holds them together.

Ionic bond results in the formation of ionic compounds

50
In the formation of ionic compounds, metal atoms lose their outermost electron(s), thereby forming
cations (positive ions). Non-metals, on the other hand, gain electrons to fill their outermost electron
shell, thereby becoming anions (negative ions).
For example, in the formation of sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium which is a metal atom with an
electronic configuration of 2,8,1 loses it last electron so that it will become stable. Chlorine, a non-
metal atom with electronic configuration of 2,8,7, accepts that electron to its outer shell in order to
be stable. Hence, sodium will become Na+ and chlorine will become Cl-.

Fig. 2.8: Formation of sodium chloride, NaCl Fig. 2.9: Formation of potassium chloride (KCl)

Covalent Bond
Covalent bond is formed when two or more atoms share a pair of electrons in order to be stable.

In simple covalent bonding, each of the two combining atoms contributes one electron to the bond.
Thus, the bond consists of two electrons shared between the two atoms. The attraction between the
nuclei of the combining atoms and the shared pair(s) of electrons provide the binding force that
holds the atoms together. In a single covalent bond, the bonds are shown as a straight line between
the symbols of the atoms involved. For example, H-H, Cl-Cl. When the atoms involved give two
more electrons each, double or triple covalent bonds are formed. For example, O2 could be shown as
O=O; and N2 shown as N=N.
The following illustrates the formation of covalent bonds.

Fig. 3.0: Single covalent bond formed by two hydrogen atoms

51
Fig. 3.1: Formation of water
 Characteristics or properties of ionic compounds
1. They have high melting point.
2. They have high boiling point.
3. They react quickly with other substances or elements.
4. They are formed by a strong electrostatic force.
5. They are mostly soluble in water.
6. When molten, they conduct electricity.
7. They conduct electricity in aqueous solution (solution with water).
Examples of ionic compounds are sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium
oxide (MgO), potassium chloride (KCl) etc.

Fig. 3.2: A covalent bond formed by three hydrogen atoms and one nitrogen atom (ammonia)

Characteristics of covalent compounds

1. They have low melting point.
2. They have low boiling point
3. They react slowly with other substances or elements.
4. They are formed by a weak force of attraction.
5. They are mostly insoluble in water.
6. They do not conduct electricity.
7. They are usually liquid or gas at room temperature.
Example of covalent compounds are carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen chloride
(HCl), etc.

NAMING OF COMPOUNDS

The system used in naming compounds is called IUPAC nomenclature. This is a system adopted by
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
The oxidation number of an element determines its naming.

The oxidation number of an element is the electrical charge it carries in its pure state or in its
compound.

52
 Rules for Determining the Oxidation means that the charge a neutral
Number of Substances compound is zero.
a. The oxidation number of an e. The total sum of the oxidation
element in its atomic or molecular numbers of all atoms of a radical (i.e.
state (i.e. not combined with any atoms that stay together as a charged
other unit), is equal to the charge of the
element) is zero (0). For example, the radical, e.g. the oxidation numbers of
oxidation numbers of oxygen, NO-3, CO2, SO-24 are -1, 2 and -2,
potassium, sodium etc are zero. The respectively.
oxidation number of an ion of a single f. Some elements such as Fe, Cu, Pb
atom is equal to the charge on the ,Zn, etc have variable (more than one)
atom. For example, the oxidation oxidation numbers
numbers of H+ is +1, Cl- is -1, O2- is -2, g. All metals show a positive
Al3+ is +3, etc. oxidation state, e.g. Mg2+, Mn7+, etc.
b. The oxidation number of an oxygen h. The charge of a substance is
is 2 e.g. CO2, H2O, OH, except in written as a right superscript followed
peroxides e.g. H2O2 and K2O2 where it by its
is -1, and superoxides e.g. KO2 where positive or negative sign, e.g. Cl-, Al3+,
it is -1/2. O2-, etc.
c. The oxidation number of hydrogen i. In substances with oxidation
is +1 e.g. H20, HCl, OH, except in metal number of +1 or -1, only the sign is
hydrides where it is -1, e.g. NaH, KH, written, e.g.
CaH, etc. H+, F-, etc
d. The total of the oxidation numbers
of atoms in a neutral compound is
zero. For example, the sum of the
oxidation numbers of the elements in
the compound NaCl is zero. This also

How to Determine Oxidation Numbers

What are the oxidation numbers of the following ions?
1.C 2. Li 3. Be 4. H

Solution:
1.0 2. 0 3. 0 4. 0
This is according to the first rule ‗the oxidation number of an element in its atomic state is zero‘

What are the oxidation numbers of the following ions?

1. Al3 2. O2- 3. F 4. Mn7+

53
Solution:
1. +3 2. -2 3. -1 4. +7
This is according to rule two, oxidation number of an atom = charge.

Find the oxidation numbers of the underlined elements in the following:

1. BrO-3 2. SO -4 3. OH- 4. NO-3
2

Solution:
Let’s represent the oxidation numbers of the underlined elements by x
1. Oxidation number of BrO3- = x + (3 x-2) = -1 x = -1 + 6
x=5
2-
2. Oxidation number of SO4 = x + (4 x -2) = -2 x = -2 + 8
x=6

3. Oxidation number of NO3- = x + (3 x -2) = -1 x = -1 + 6

x=5
(This is according to rule f)

4. Oxidation number of OH- is = x + 1 = -1

x = -2

(a) Binary compounds

Binary compounds are compounds which consist of only two elements. One of the elements is more
electronegative (attract more electrons to itself) than the other. The more electronegative element has
a negative oxidation number. Examples of binary compounds are, NaCl, CO2, CaCl.

Rules for Naming Binary Compounds inside a bracket after the name of the
a. The suffix ‘-ide’ replaces the last two elements, e.g. copper (II) oxide,
or three letters In the name of the more phosphorus (III) chloride.
electronegative element, e.g. oxygen –
oxide, chlorine – chloride, hydrogen –
hydride, etc.
b. The modified name of the more
Example:
electronegative element is written
Let‘s consider CO.
second, e.g. sodium hydride, calcium The first element is carbon which has variable
chloride, etc. oxidation number, therefore, let‘s represent it
by x.
c. The name of the less electronegative X + (1 x -2) = 0 x=0+2 x=2
element is not modified and is written Hence CO is named carbon (II) oxide
first. If it oxidation number is more than (according to rules a and c)
one, it is shown in capital roman numerals

54
 Table 2.3: Binary compounds, their common and IUPAC names

Compound Common name IUPAC name

carbon (ii)
CO2 carbon dioxide oxide
sulphur (vi)
SO3 sulphur trioxide oxide
hydrogen chloride hydrochloric
HCl acid
PbO lead monoxide lead (ii) oxide

phosphorus phosphorus
PCl3 trioxide (iii)oxide
potassium
K2O potassium oxide oxide
hydrogen peroxide potassium
H2O2 peroxide
potassium superoxide potassium
KO2 superoxide
phosphorus pentachloride phosphorus (v)
PCl5

ammonia ammonia
NH3

(b) Ions
The following rules are used to name simple ions
i. For cations of elements with only one oxidation number, the name of element is written with
the word ion without the oxidation number. For example, hydrogen ion (H+)

For cations of elements with viable oxidation numbers, the oxidation numbers are written in Roman
capital numerals, in brackets after the name of the element, e.g. iron (II) ion (Fe2+), lead (II) ion (Pb2+)
ii. Anions are suffixed ―-ide‖ plus the word ion, e.g. sulphide ion.

(c) Oxoanions
Oxoanions are group of ions that contain oxygen atoms. Oxoanions are negatively charged. E.g. CO32-
, ClO-, etc.
Rules for Naming Oxoanions respectively. If the oxygen atom is one,
a. The suffix ‘-ate’ replaces the last it is not prefixed (mono).
two or three letters in the name of the c. The oxidation number of the middle
first or the middle element , e.g. carbon atom is written in Roman capital
becomes carbonate. numerals in brackets, after its name.
b. The number of oxygen atoms is d. The word ion is added to the name.
placed before the name of the middle
atom as, dioxo, tetraoxo, heptaoxo, etc.
for two, four,or seven oxygen atoms

55
 Examples:
2-
1. Let‘s consider CO3
It contains three oxygen atoms, so according to rule b, the name starts with ‗trioxo‘. Followed
by carbon with the
suffix ‗–ate‘. (rule a)
Now the oxidation number of carbon is calculated as follows:
x+ (3 x-2) = -2 ; x = -2 + 6; x = +4
⸫CO32- is named as trioxocarbonate (IV) ion
2. Let‘s consider SO42-
It contains four oxygen atoms, therefore its name begins with tetra. Followed by sulphate, and
then the oxidation number which is calculated as follow:
x + (4 x -2) = -2 x = -2 + 8 x = +6
⸫SO42- is name as tetraoxosulphate (VI) ion.

Table 2.4: Oxoanions, their common and IUPAC names

Oxoanions Common name IUPAC name

ClO- hypochlorite ion oxochlorate (i) ion

NO3- nitrate ion trioxonitrate (v) ion

-
MnO4 permanganate ion tetraoxomanganate (vii) ion

NO2- nitrite ion dioxonitrate (iii) ion

-
HCO3 hydrogen carbonate ion Hydrogentrioxocarbonate(iv) ion

(d) Oxoacids
Oxoacids are compounds that contain hydrogen atoms. They are named in the same way as oxoanions
but the word acid replaces the word ion in the name of oxoanions. Examples are tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acid (H2SO4), trioxocarbonate (V) acid (H2CO3), etc.

Table 2.5: Examples of oxoacids

Oxoacids Common name IUPAC name
HCl hydrochloric acid hydrochloric acid
HNO2 nitrous acid dioxonitrate(iii) acid

H2SO3 sulphuric acid trioxosulphate(iv) acid

(e) Bases
There are two types of salts- oxides and hydroxide. Oxides follow the naming sequence of common
compounds. For example, carbon (II) oxide CO2, potassium oxide (K2O), etc.
Hydroxide, on the other hand, is made up of a cation and an hydrogen ion, (OH-). They also follow
the same naming sequence of binary compounds. E.g. calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2, sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), etc.

56
 Table 2.6: Examples of bases
Base Common name IUPAC name
Fe(OH)2 ferrous hydroxide iron (ii) hydroxide
KOH potassium hydroxide potassium hydroxide

Zn(OH)2 zinc hydroxide zinc(ii) oxide

(f) Salts
Salt is formed when the hydrogen(s) of an acid is replaced by ammonium or metal cation.
There are two types of salts - binary salts and oxoacid salts.
Binary compounds are named by combining the names of the cations and the anions.

For example, iron (II) sulphide (FeS), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), sodium chloride (NaCl).

Oxoacid salts are named by writing the cation, followed by the name of the oxoanion and then finally
its oxidation number.

For example, MgSO4 is named by fist writing the cation, magnesium, followed by tetraoxosulphate,
and then its oxidation number if its variable, which is calculated as follows:

If oxidation number is x, then, x + (4x -2) = 0 x = 0 + 6 x = +6

Hence, MgSO4 is named as magnesium tetraoxosulphate(VI).

Table 2.7: Examples of salts

Salt Common name IUPAC name
Na2CO3 sodium carbonate sodium trioxocarbonate (v)

CaCO3 calcium carbonate calcium trioxocarbonate (iv)

CuSO4 cupric sulphate copper (ii)tetraoxosulphte (vi)

SOLUTION

A solution is a uniform mixture of solute and solvent, where the solute dissolves in the solvent.
For a solution to be uniform, there has to be more solvent than solute.
Thus, solution = solute + solvent

A solute is a (solid) substance that dissolves in a given solvent.

A solvent is a (liquid) substance that dissolves solutes.

Water is often considered as a universal solvent because it is capable of dissolving many solutes.
The solution in which water is the solvent is known as aqueous solution.
For example, sugar which is a solute when added to water which is a solvent, dissolves forming an
aqueous sugar solution.

57
 Fig. 3.3: Preparing a solution with ammonium dichromate

Concentration of solutions
Concentration is a measure of how much solute there is in a solution.

A solution which has a very high amount of solute is called a concentrated solution; compared to a
dilute solution which contains less solute than solvent.

Calculating Concentration of Solutions

As we found out,

Amount of substance (n) = 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ( )

The quantities of substances in a solution can either be expressed in mol or gram. When expressed in
mol per cubic decimetre (dm3) it is referred to as concentration (C), and is given by the formula:

Concentration

Example:
What s the concentration of 0.60 mol of sodium chloride in 0.700 dm3 of water and sodium chloride
solution.

Solution:
Concentration (c) = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑛)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑣)
c= = 0.857 mol/dm3

If the mass is given, the amount of substance is first calculated in mole before solving for
concentration. If the volume is in cm3, convert it to dm3 (1 dm3 = 1000 cm3)
When 1 mol of solute is dissolved in a solvent to make 1 dm3 of solution, the concentration is 1
mol/dm3 (or 1 M, a shortened for of mol/dm3). A concentration of 1 M of any substance is called a
molar solution.

58
When concentration is expressed in grams per cubic decimetre, g/dm3, the following formula is used:

Concentration (c) =

Example:
What is the concentration of a solution which contains 5 g of sugar in a 20 dm3 of solution?

Solution:
Concentration (c) =

c= = 0.25 g/dm3

Sometimes the mass of the solution would be given instead of the volume. In this case the following
formula will be used:

Concentration (c) =

Example:
20 g of salt was dissolved in a solution of 300g. Calculate the concentration of the salt solution.

Solution:
Concentration (c) = x 100

c x 100 = 6.67 %

PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS

A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known.

The following are the apparatus needed to prepare a standard solution:

❖ Beaker
❖ Funnel
❖ Spatula
❖ Stirring rod
❖ Washing bottle
❖ Balance (electronic, beam, etc.)
Laboratory equipment

Test tube rack 59

 Fig. 3.4: Laboratory apparatus

To prepare a standard solution:

❖ Calculate the mass and the molar mass of the substance you need to prepare the solution with.
❖ Measure out the known mass of the substance into a beaker containing distilled water.
❖ Transfer the solution into the required volumetric flask.
❖ Add more water until it reaches the graduation mark.
❖ Put cork stopper on flask and shake it well to get a uniform solution.

How to prepare 1 dm3 1m of an aqueous sugar solution

Apparatus to use include a beaker, standard volumetric flask (250 cm3), a funnel, a stirring rod and
a balance.

Procedure
❖ Calculate the molar mass of the sugar.
The formula for sugar is C12H22O11. The relative atomic mass of the
constituent elements are C = 12; H = 1; O = 16. Therefore the molar mass of
C12H22O11 is 342 g/mol.
Hence 1 mole of C12H22O11 = 342 g which means 342 g of sugar will be used to prepare 1 dm3
of 1 M solution.

❖ Measure 342 g of sugar into a beaker containing distilled water; and stir to dissolve the sugar.

❖ With the aid of a funnel, transfer the solution from the beaker into a clean 1000 cm3 volumetric
flask.

❖ Rinse the inside of the beaker with distilled water and add to the solution in the volumetric
flask.

60
 ❖ Add more water to the solution until it reaches the 1000 cm3 graduation mark. Put a cork
stopper on the volumetric flask and shake it to get a uniform solution.

Example
3
Prepare 500 cm of 1M solution of NaCl.

Solution
Relative atomic mass of Na = 23; Cl = 35.5
Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g/mol

Hence 58.5 g of NaCl will be used to prepare 500 cm3 of 1 M solution 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3, therefore
500 cm3 of 1M solution = 0.5 mol
1 mol of NaCl = 58.5g
⸫ 0.5 mol NaCl = 0.5 x 58.5 = 29.25 g.
Hence 29.25 g of NaCl will be used to prepare 500 cm3 1 M solution.

Measure 29.25 g into a beaker containing distilled water.

Fig. 3.5: Preparation of 1dm solution

Transfer the solution into a 1000 cm3 volumetric flask
Top up the solution to 1000 cm3 graduation mark
Put on a cork stopper and shake to mix well.

DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS
When a solution is diluted only the volume of the solvent increases but the amount of substance in
the solution remains the same. Thus:

nconcentrated solution = ndilute solution

n = c x V where n = amount of substance; c = concentration;
V =volume of solution

61
Cconc x Vconc = cdil x (Vconc + Vwater)
This relationship can be used to determine the volume of water to be added to a more concentrated
solution to produce solution of lower concentration.

Uses of Dilution
Dilution is very useful in homes, industries, hospitals, schools etc. Some of the uses of dilution
include: ❖ Preparation of food
❖ Preparation of drugs
❖ Production of paint
❖ Production of cosmetics

TEST QUESTIONS
1. Write a short note on the following terms:
a. Atom
b. Molecule
c. Ion
d. Atomic number
e. Mass number
f. Isotope

2. Mention three differences between compounds and mixtures.

3. The nucleon number and the proton number of a neutral atom are 53 and 25 respectively.
Calculate the:
a. Number of neutrons
b. Number of electrons
c. Atomic number
d. Draw the electronic configuration
of the atom.

4. An atom has three isotopes with mass number 14, 15 and 16. If the number of protons in the
atom is 7, find the number of neutrons and electrons present in each isotope.

5. What is meant by the term mole?

6. Calculate the amount of substance in 42.0 g of NaCl.

(Ar of Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5)

7. Prepare 250 cm3 of 1M solution of NaOH. (Ar Na =23.0; O=16.0; H= 1)

8. (a) Explain the term solution.

(b) An aqueous solution of volume 5.0 dm3 contains 36.4 g of sodium chloride. Calculate the
concentration of the solution in mol dm-3.
[NaCl = 58.5]

62
 9. (i) Explain the term oxidation number of an tom.
(ii) Determine the oxidation number of manganese (Mn) in potassium permanganate
(KMnO4).
10. Magnesium ribbon of mass 4.0 g is placed in dilute hydrochloric acid contained in a
beaker. Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid that would be required to react
completely with the ribbon.
[Mg = 24, H = 1, Cl = 35.5]

11. (a) Study the table below and answer the questions that follow.

Atom/ Atomic Mass

Element number number
V 10 18
W 18 39
X 15 33
Y 10 20
Z 11 23

(j) How many neutrons are there in atom X?

(ii) Which of the atoms will readily form an ion?
(iii) Which of the atoms will form an ion with a positive charge of +3?
(iv) (α) Indicate the atoms that are isotopes.
(β) Explain your answer in (a) (iv) above.

12. A stock solution of 1M HCl was prepared by dissolving 7.30 g of HCl in 200 cm3 of
distilled water. 5 cm3 of stock solution was put into each of the four test tubes labelled C, D, E
and F and diluted with distilled water to 8 cm3, 10 cm3 and 15 cm3 respectively.
Equal amounts (W g) of zinc (Zn) granules were gently put added to each of the test tubes as
illustrated in figures 3.
Study the figure carefully and answer the questions that follow.

(a) State what would be observed in this experiment.

(b) (i) Arrange the test tubes C, D, E and F in order of increasing reactivity.
(ii) Give an explanation for your answer in (b)(i).

63
 (iii)State three other factors that could affect the rate of reaction in the test tubes illustrated
above.
(c) Calculate the concentration of the solution in test tube E in g/dm3.
(d) (i) What is a standard solution?
(ii) A solution is made by dissolving 47.5 g of potassium iodide (KI) in 300 cm3 of water.
Calculate the concentration of KI in mole/litre. [K = 39, I = 27]

13. From the following compounds indicate which are covalent or ionic
i) ethanol ii) potassium oxide iii) hydrogen chloride iv) copper (II) trioxonitrate
(V) v) sulphide

14. Fig. 4 is an illustration of a set of glassware used in preparation of exactly 100 cm3 of 1.0
molar solution of sodium chloride in the laboratory.
Study the figure and the information below carefully and answer the questions that follow.

The capacity of A is 100 cm3.

B contains distilled water. C contains weighed amount of sodium chloride (NaCl).
The molar mass of NaCl is 58.5.
a) Identify each of the glassware A, B, C and D
b) Read and record the volume of distilled water in B.
c) Determine the mass of sodium chloride in C for the preparation of the 1.0 M NaCl solution.
d) Describe how 100 cm3 of the 1.0 M solution of the sodium chloride is prepared using the
materials provided.
e) Determine the appropriate volume of distilled water that will remain in B in C for the
preparation of the after the preparation.

15. Fig. 2 below illustrates four steps taken to perform a simple experiment to determine the
density of an irregular solid, A.

64
Study the figure carefully and answer the questions that follow.

a) Name the parts of the apparatus

used in each of the steps I,I and
I
IV.

b) Describe briefly each of the four steps.

c) i) Record the readings in step I and step IV.
ii) Hence determine the density of the solid A.
d) State two precautions to be taken when carrying out the experiment.

65
 6
ROCKS
Specific Objectives Characteristics of Igneous Rocks
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: 1. They are hard, large and heavy
➢ Describe the major types of rocks, their
formation and characteristics. 2. They contain many crystals
➢ Explain the process of weathering of
3. Mostly resistant to weathering
rocks.
4. They do not form layers
INTRODUCTION
5. They do not contain fossils
Rocks are naturally occurring solid material 6. Igneous rocks commonly contain the
consisting of one or more minerals.
minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene,
Minerals are solid chemical elements or amphibole, and olivine.
compounds that are homogenous (have a definite
Examples of igneous rocks are granite,
chemical composition) and a very regular
arrangement of atoms. pegmatite, rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt.

Rocks are everywhere, in the ground, forming

mountains, and at the bottom of oceans. Earth‘s
outer layer, or crust, is made mostly of rock.
Some common rocks include granite and basalt.

TYPES OF ROCKS
Rocks are classified into three main types –
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks,
based mainly on their mode of formation.
Igneous rocks Fig. 4.6: Pegmatite
Igneous rocks are hard, large, crystallize or
glass-like rocks formed from a molten or partly Sedimentary rocks
molten material called magma. Sedimentary rocks are form when loose
sediments or fragments of other rocks harden in
Formation of Igneous Rocks Magma forms deep layers.
underground when rock that was once solid melts.
Overlying rock presses down on the magma, and Sedimentary rocks are also referred to as
the less dense magma rises through cracks in the stratified rocks.
rock. As magma moves upward, it cools and
solidifies. Magma that solidifies underground Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
usually cools slowly, allowing large crystals to Sedimentary rock forms when sediments of other
form. Magma that reaches Earth‘s surface is called weathered rocks pile up into layers. As the
lava. Lava loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean sediments pile up, the weight of the layers of
very quickly and therefore solidifies very rapidly, sediment presses down and compacts the layers
forming very small crystals or glass. When lava underneath. The sediments become cemented
erupts at the surface again and again, it can form together into a hard rock when minerals (most
mountains called volcanoes. commonly quartz or calcite) precipitate, or
harden, from water in the spaces between grains
of sediment, binding the grains together.

66
Characteristics of Sedimentary Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks
When igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks are
1. Sedimentary rocks weather easily.
exposed to great heat and pressure, they change
2. They form in layers. their forms; and metamorphic rock is the result. If
3. They have lines of weakness between strata a mineral is heated or compressed beyond its
(layers). stability range, it breaks down and forms another
4. They usually contain hardened remains of mineral.
prehistoric animals called fossils.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Geologists place sedimentary rocks into three
broad categories:

a. Clastic rocks, which form from clasts, or

broken fragments, of pre-existing rocks and
minerals. Examples are:
sandstone and shale
Fig. 4.8: Serpentine
b. Chemical rocks, which form when minerals
precipitate, or solidify, from a solution, usually
seawater or lake water. The most common Characteristics of Metamorphic
types of chemical rocks are called evaporates, Rocks
because they form by evaporation of seawater 1. They are hard.
or lake water. Examples are: 2. They have rough appearance and texture.
gypsum and halite 3. They are heavy.
4. Mineral distribution tends to be uneven
c. Organic rocks, which form from sometimes in a process known as foliation
accumulations of animal and plant remains. (example gneiss).
Examples are limestone and coal.
Examples of metamorphic rocks formed from
igneous rocks are gneiss, and serpentine (from
granite and gabbro respectively).
Examples of metamorphic rocks formed from
sedimentary rocks are marble, slate, and quartzite
(from limestone, shale and sandstone
respectively).
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Weathering of rocks is the gradual breakdown of
Fig. 4.7: Sandstone
rocks into smaller particles over a period of time.
Types of Weathering
Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks are
formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks There are three types of weathering of rock,
change, (in a process called rock namely, Physical weathering Chemical
metamorphosis). weathering and Biological weathering.
Heat and pressure are the main causes.

67
Physical (mechanical) weathering
This is the type of weathering which results in Oxidation: This is the reaction between oxygen
the breakdown of rocks and the minerals they in the atmosphere or oxygen dissolved in rain
contain but does not change the chemical water with some rock minerals. For example the
composition. oxidation of rocks carrying iron from iron (II)
oxide to iron (III) oxide. (Fe2O + O → Fe2O3).
The mains causes of physical weathering are
temperature, water and wind. This results in the breakdown of the rock along
the surface where the oxidation takes place.
Temperature: Rocks expand at high temperature
and contract at low temperature. The continuous Reduction: This is the removal of oxygen from
expansion and contraction cause rocks to some rock minerals because of oxygen shortage;
breakdown. the rock breakdowns as a result of that.
Water: Fast moving water exerts high pressure on Carbonation: This is the reaction between
rocks and causes them to breakdown. In some inorganic carbonic acid in soil water and some
instances, the moving water may carry some rock rock minerals. This reaction also causes the
particles which strike against others rocks to breakdown of the rock involved.
breakdown particle. These particles strike the
Hydration: This is the process whereby water
surfaces of exposed rocks, causing small bits to
molecules attach themselves to rock minerals,
chip off.
causing them to change into new minerals
Fig. 4.9: weathering by water containing water of crystallization. The
rock expands, softens, becomes porous, and as a
result breaks down.

Hydrolysis: This is the breakdown of rock due

to the reaction of water and rock minerals.

Solution: Some rock minerals are soluble in

water. Therefore in contact with water they
dissolve. This consequently weakens and breaks
down the rock

Biological weathering
Wind: Wind often carry many particles. Since This is the breakdown of rock into smaller
wind usually travel at a high velocity, this causes particle due to the actions and activities of living
the particles it carries to break off parts of larger organisms.
rocks as they moves on. It involves the cracking and breaking down of
rocks under pressure, including stress from the
Chemical weathering growing roots of plants and the action of humans
Chemical weathering is the process in which in activities such as farming, road construction
existing minerals are broken down into new and building. Plants, fungi, algae and mosses
mineral components. cause biological weathering by growing on the
surface into the rock crevices, creating
Chemical weathering is fastest in hot, moist considerable pressure. They also produce organic
climates and slowest in cold, dry climates. Causes acids which dissolves rock minerals and assists in
of chemical weathering are oxidation, reduction, their disintegration.
carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis and solution.

68
 Fig. 4.9: Surface of a weathering rock

TEST QUESTIONS

1. (a) State three characteristics each of

igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.
(b) Describe the formation of
metamorphic rock.

2. (a) What is weathering of rocks?

(b) Describe the following causes of chemical
weathering:

(i) hydration

(ii) carbonation
(iii) oxidation
3. State and explain the three types of
weathering.

4. Explain how the following cause

weathering of rocks

(i) Water;

(ii) Temperature;

(iii)Wind.

69
 7
AIR MOVEMENT
Specific Objectives Formation of sea breeze
After completing this chapter, you will be able During the day, sea breeze forms when the air
to: over the land is warmed up by the sun causing it
➢ Explain the formation of land and sea to become less dense. This warmer, less dense air
breeze. rises, and is replaced by cooler air above the sea.
➢ Identify the various types of air masses
and describe their pattern of movement. AIR MASSES
➢ Describe the effect of moving air
masses. An air mass is a body of air that extends over a
large area and has nearly uniform temperature
INTRODUCTION and humidity in any horizontal direction.

Have you ever wondered why during the day the Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of
temperature on the land is hotter than that of the square miles, and adopt the characteristics of the
ocean; and why at night the temperature on the sea surface below them. Places where air masses
become hotter than that of the land? This happens form are called source regions.
as a result of land and sea breeze.
Classification and notation of air masses
LAND AND SEA BREEZE
Air mass classification involves three set of
The differences in temperature between the land
letters. The first set describes its moisture
and the sea causes land and the sea breeze. As a
properties, with c used for continental air masses
result of the temperature differences, convection
(dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The
currents (air) move from the sea to the land or
second set describes the thermal characteristic of
vice versa.
its source region: T for Tropical, P for Polar, A for
Formation of land breeze Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon,
E for Equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air
Land breeze occurs at night, when the land cools formed by significant downward motion in the
down much quicker than the sea. Therefore, the atmosphere).
temperature of the air over the land is lower than
that of the air over the sea. Cooler air (convection Formation of air masses
currents) from the land blows towards the sea,
The uneven heating of the earth causes air masses
often bringing with it clouds which usually
to circulate. Air masses at the equator are heated
produce rain along the coast.
and made lighter. That causes them to move
towards the poles. A low pressure is created
around the equatorial region. The air that sinks at
latitude 30 degrees north and south causes a zone
of high-pressure call horse latitudes. As the air
moves further away from the equator, it cools and
sinks, creating high pressure at the poles. These
cool air mass at the poles flow back towards the
pressure belt at the equator. Air currents flow
outwards across the surface of the earth from the
horse latitudes. The winds that blow toward the
equator are called the trade winds, and those that
blow towards the poles are called the westerly
Fig. 5.0: Land and sea breeze winds or westerlies. The westerlies converge with

70
cold air currents called easterlies. The easterlies Tornado
are very cold and dense air moving from the poles
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that
to the equator.
is in contact with both the surface of the earth and
a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base
of a cumulus cloud.
Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but
they are typically in the form of a visible
condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches
the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of
debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds
less than 177 km/h, 76 m across, and travel
several kilometres before dissipating. The most
extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more
than 483 km/h, stretch more than 3.2 km across,
and stay on the ground for more than 100 km.

Fig. 5.1: Wind movement on the Earth

Types of air masses
Storm
A storm is an atmospheric disturbance in the form
of strong winds usually accompanied by rain,
snow, or other precipitation and sometimes
accompanied by lightning and thunder.
Cyclone
Cyclone is an unstable weather conditions created
at the transitional zones of the equator. Cyclones
are strong storms that whirl while moving. This is Fig. 5.3: A tornado
due to the intermingling of polar and subtropical
air. The rotation of the earth deflects air to the
right of the natural direction in the northern EFFECTS OF MOVING AIR MASSES
hemisphere and to the south to the southern
hemisphere. 1. Destruction of landscape: Storms are
accompanied by great winds and rains which
erode lands especially in the coastal regions
where storms are always stronger.

2. Flood: Torrential rains (heavy rains)

triggered by storms cause areas, including non
costal area to flood, which is always fatal and
devastating.

3. Pollution: Moving air masses sweep out

everything in their path including pollutants.
They transport pollutants from areas where
they are less harmful to places where they are
Fig. 5.2: A shot of a hurricane taken by a satellite more prone to cause harm to ecosystems.

71
 Industrial waste can easily be transported to taken against storms.
residential areas.

4. Temperature regulation: One good

(a) What is an air mass?
effect of moving air masses is they regulate
temperatures by transporting heat and energy (b) Describe the formation of the
from the tropics to the temperate latitudes. following air masses:
This helps maintain balance in the earth‘s
troposphere, and helps in seasonal changes. (i) tornado

5. Supply of water: Another good effect of (ii) cyclone

moving air masses is they flood areas
3. (a) Explain the term trade winds.
devastated by drought by transporting water
(b) Describe the formation of trade
there.
winds

4. Stay away from the sea and coastal area.

5.After the storm, makes sure everything is

in order and safe. Check gas leakages and
other appliances especially electronic
appliances before using them; make sure
they are well dry.

Fig. 5.4: Devastating effects of tropical storms

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST THE

EFFECTS OF STORMS

1. Always listen out to weather forecasts and

reports on radio or television.

2. Move to a safer areas if a storm is forecast

to strike in your area

3. Since storms could cause closure of stores

and food joints, store enough food with you.

4. Keep emergency phone numbers

handy.

TEST QUESTIONS
1. Describe the formation of land and sea
breezes.

2. State four precautions that should be

72
 8
NITROGEN CYCLE
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

➢➢ Describe the nitrogen cycle.Explain the

importance of nitrogen cycle to plants and
animals.

Earth‘s atmosphere; however gaseous nitrogen must be

INTRODUCTION converted to a chemically usable form before it can be
used by living organisms. This is accomplished
Nitrogen Cycle is a natural cyclic process by which through the nitrogen cycle, in which gaseous nitrogen
atmospheric nitrogen enters the soil and becomes is converted to ammonia or nitrates.
useful to living organisms, before returning to the The high energies provided by lightning and cosmic
atmosphere. radiation serve to combine atmospheric nitrogen and
oxygen into nitrates, which are carried to the Earth‘s
Nitrogen, an essential part of the amino acids, is a surface in precipitation (e.g. rain).
basic element of life. It also makes up 78 percent of the

Fig. 5.5: Nitrogen cycle

NITROGEN FIXATION Biological nitrogen fixation This is the most widely

and useful form of nitrogen fixation. In this method,
Nitrogen Fixation is a process by which molecular microbes are the agents for fixing nitrogen in the soil.
atmospheric nitrogen is converted into a chemical Microorganisms capable of nitrogen fixation are
compound that is essential for plant growth. symbiotic bacteria of the genus Rhizobium, which
colonize and form nodules on the roots of leguminous
There are two major ways of nitrogen fixation – plants such as beans, groundnut and cowpeas. These
biological nitrogen fixation and industrial nitrogen bacteria obtain food from the legume, which in turn is
fixation. supplied with abundant nitrogen compounds.

73
 animals from plants. This occurs when animals
eat the plants that have absorbed nitrogen from
the soil through their roots.

In a nutshell, nitrogen cycle is very important

because:

1. It supplies plants with needed nitrogen

Fig. 5.6: Bacterial nitrogen fixation (nitrate ions).
2. It improves the fertility of the soil.
3. It improves the productivity and structure of
Industrial nitrogen fixation
the soil and sustains the activities and growth
The principal Nitrogen-fixation process today is the of microbes.
production of ammonia by combining atmospheric
4. It prevents the accumulation of wornout plant
nitrogen and hydrogen. Ammonia is then oxidized to
form nitric acid, which is in turn combined with and animals tissues in the soil.
ammonia to yield ammonium nitrate, used primarily in 5. It releases nitrogen which is stack-up in
explosives and fertilizers. In another method, organisms.
cyanamide, which is used as a fertilizer or in the
6. Nitrogen is an important nutrient which helps
production of cyanides, is produced by passing
atmospheric nitrogen over heated calcium carbide in. plants to manufacture their food for the
nourishment of other organisms.
Some processes involved in nitrogen
fixation
Nitrification TEST QUESTIONS
The conversion of ammonia into nitrate is
performed mainly by soil living bacteria.
Nitrification involves two main stage: 1. What is nitrogen cycle?
i. conversion of ammonium ion NH4 to nitrite 2. State and explain the two major ways of
ions NO2 nitrogen fixation.
ii. oxidation of the nitrite ions, NO2 to nitrate
ions, NO3 3. Describe the importance of nitrogen cycle to
plants and animals.
Denitrification
This is the reduction of nitrates back into the 4. With the aid of a suitable diagram, describe
largely non-reactive nitrogen gas (N2), which how the nitrogen cycle occurs.
completes the nitrogen cycle process. Again,
bacteria are responsible for this process.

Importance of nitrogen cycle to plants and

animals
Lost nitrogen in the soil is replaced through the
nitrogen cycle process. This improves the fertility
of the soil. The availability of nitrogen in the soil
means plants can easily get access to it for proper
growth. Nitrogen, which is an important source of
nutrient for animals as well, is passed on to

74
 9
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Specific objectives
The Skull: The skull is the skeleton which is on
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
top of the vertebral column in all vertebrates.
➢ Describe the structure and functions of the The skull encases and protects the brain and
provides attachment for the muscles of the face
mammalian skeleton.
and mouth.

The Sternum: Also known as the breastbone,

INTRODUCTION – THE MAMMALIAN the sternum is a rigid structure which is found at
SKELETON the front of the chest to form the thoracic cage
A skeleton is a large interconnected bones that with the ribs
supports and protects the body of living
organisms.
The Ribs: the ribs are long, slender bones
The skeleton supports the soft tissues and attached to the backbone that curve around the
provides leverage for movement. An adult man chest cavity, or thorax. Ribs occur in pairs and
has about 206 bones in the body as opposed to are found in almost all vertebrates, or animals
275 in a child. with backbones.
Types of skeletons
There are two types of skeletons, namely,
The Vertebral Column: Also called spinal column
endoskeleton and exoskeleton.
or backbone, the vertebral column is the
Endoskeleton: This is the type of skeleton found structure of bone or cartilage surrounding and
within the bodies of vertebrate (animals with protecting the spinal cord in vertebrate
backbones).
The spinal column forms the major part of the
Examples of animals with endoskeleton are skeleton. To it are attached the skull, shoulder
humans, birds, fish, snakes, etc. bones, ribs, and pelvis. The vertebral column
Exoskeleton: This type of skeleton is found consists approximately of thirty-three bones
outside the bodies of invertebrates (animals called vertebrae. Between each pair of vertebrae
without backbones). Examples of animals with is a diskshaped pad of fibrous cartilage with a
exoskeleton are shrimp, insects, prawn, crab, etc. jellylike core, which is called the intervertebral
disk.

Each pair of vertebrae is connected by a joint

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS which stabilizes the vertebral column and allows
OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETON it to move. These disks cushion the vertebrae
during movement. The entire spine encloses and
The human skeleton is divided into two distinct protects the spinal cord, which is a column of
parts – the axial skeleton and the appendicular nerve tracts running from every area of the body
skeleton. to the brain.

The axial skeleton

This consists of bones that form the axis of the
body and support and protect the organs of the
head, neck, and trunk. Examples are:

75
 Fig. 5.7: The vertebral column of man

Types of vertebrae There are five major

vertebrae in mammals:
Fig. 5.8 :Superior view of the vertebrae
❖ Cervical vertebrae: found around the neck
area
TYPES OF BONES
❖ Thoracic vertebrae: found around the chest
area. The bones of the body fall into four general
❖ Sacral vertebrae: found around the lower categories: long bones, short bones, flat bones,
abdomen and irregular bones. Long bones: these bones
❖ Caudal vertebrae: found around the tail area. are longer than they are wide and work as
❖ Lumber vertebrae: found around the thoracic levers. The bones of the upper and lower
cavity. extremities (examples humerus, tibia, femur,
ulna, metacarpals, etc.) are of this type.
The appendicular skeleton Short bones: These bones are short, cubeshaped,
This is composed of bones that anchor the and found in the wrists and ankles.
appendages to the axial skeleton. Examples are:
Flat bones: These bones have broad surfaces for
the shoulder girdle and the pelvic girdle. (The
sacrum and coccyx are considered part of the protection of organs and attachment of muscles
vertebral column) (examples are ribs, cranial bones, bones of
shoulder girdle).

Irregular bones: These are all other bones that

do not fall into the above categories. They have
varied shapes, sizes and surfaces features and
include the bones of the vertebrae and a few
bones in the skull.

Bone composition
Bones are composed of tissue that may take one
or two forms. Compact or dense bone, and
spongy or cancellous bone. Most bones contain
both types.

76
Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the Functions:
protective exterior portion of all bones. ❖ It encases the brain
❖ It protects the brain
Spongy bone is inside the compact bone and is
very porous (full of tiny holes). Spongy bone ❖ It provides attachment
occurs in most bones. The bone tissue is for the muscles of the face and
composed of several types of bone cells mouth.
embedded in a web of inorganic salts (mostly
calcium and phosphorus) to give the bone Scapula (the shoulder blade) A flat, triangular
strength, and collagenous fibres and ground bone that lies over the back of the upper ribs.
substance to give the bone flexibility .
Functions:
❖ It serves as an attachment for some of the
muscles and tendons of the arm, neck,
Structure of human skeleton
chest and back and
❖ It aids in the movements of the arm and
shoulder.
Spine, vertebra and disk
The spine is a column of bone and cartilage that
extends from the base of the skull to the pelvis.

Functions:
❖ It encloses and protects the spinal cord.
❖ It supports the trunk of the body and the
head.
The sacrum
The sacrum, at the base of the vertebral column,
is wedged between the coaxial bones of the
pelvis and is attached to them by fibro-cartilage
at the sacroiliac joints.

Function:
❖ The weight of the body is transmitted to the
legs through the pelvic girdle at the sacrum.

Sternum (breastbone)
A long, narrow, flat plate that forms the centre
of the front of the chest.

Tarsal bone
The foot consists of an ankle, an instep, and five
toes. The ankle is composed of seven tarsal
bones, forming a group called the tarsus.
Fig. 5.9: Structure of the human skeleton
Function:
❖ It helps to support the weight of the body and
Skull provides an attachment for muscles that
The skull is the bony framework of the head. It is move the foot.
comprised of the eight cranial and fourteen
facial bones.

77
Carpal bones finger and smaller toe has three phalanges; the
The skeleton of the wrist consists of eight small thumb and big toe each have two. The phalange
carpal bones that are firmly bound in two rows nearest the body of the hand or foot is call the
of four bones each. . proximal phalange; the one at the end of each
digit is the distal phalange; and when there are
Clavicle three, the middle one is called the middle
The clavicle is the collarbone. There are two of phalange.
these bones, each curved a little like an "f," that
joins the top of the breastbone (sternum) to the Femur
shoulder blade (scapula). The clavicles support The femur is the thigh bone, the longest bone in
the arms and transmit force from the arms into the body. It lowers into a ball (or head of the
the central skeleton. femur) that fits into a socket in the pelvis to
form the hip joint.
The coccyx
The coccyx (or tail) is the lowest part of the Fibula
vertebral column and is attached by ligaments to The fibula is the outer and thinner of the two
the margins of the sacral hiatus. long bones of the lower leg. It is much narrower
than the other bone (the shin), to which it runs
When a person is sitting, pressure is exerted on parallel and to which it is attached at both ends
the coccyx, and it moves forward, acting like a by ligaments. The upper end of the fibula does
shock absorber. (Sitting down with too great a not reach the knee, but the lower end descends
force may cause the coccyx to be fractured or below the shin and forms part of the ankle. Its
dislocated). main function is to provide attachment for
The ribs muscles. It doesn't give much support or
Ribs are flat, curved bones that form the strength to the leg, which explains why the bone
framework of the chest and make up a cage to can safely be used for grafting onto other bones
protect the heart, lungs and other upper organs. in the body.
There are twelve pairs of ribs, each joined at the Humerus
back of the cage to a vertebra in the spine. There The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. The smooth,
are seven true ribs attached to the sternum dome-shaped head of the bone lies at an angle to the
(breastbone) directly by their costal cartilages. shaft and fits into a shallow socket of the scapula
The remaining five pairs are called false ribs, (shoulder blade) to form the shoulder joint. Below the
because their cartilages do not reach the sternum head, the bone narrows to form a cylindrical shaft. It
flattens and widens at the lower end and, at its base, it
directly. Instead, the cartilages of the upper three
joins with the bones of the lower arm (the ulna and
false ribs join the cartilages attached to the ribs radius) to make up the elbow.
above, while the last rib pairs have no
cartilaginous attachments to the sternum at all. Pelvis (or Os Coxa)
These last two pairs are sometimes called The pelvis is a ring of bones in the lower trunk of the
floating ribs. body, which is bounded by the coccyx (tail bone) and
the hip bones. The pelvis protects abdominal organs
Functions: such as the bladder, rectum and, in women, the uterus.
❖ Protect some vital organs such as the heart
and lungs Tibia
❖ Aids in breathing The tibia is the inner and thicker of the two long bones
in the lower leg. It is also called the shin bone.
The tibia is the supporting bone of the lower leg and runs
Phalanges parallel to the other, smaller bone (the fibula) to which
The phalanges are the small bones that make up it is attached by ligaments.
the skeleton of the fingers, thumb and toes. Each

78
Functions of the skeleton Movable joints
1. It gives shape to the body Movable joints allow movement of parts of the body.
2. It protects the internal organs of the body They consist of an external layer of fibrous cartilage
giving rise to strong ligaments that support the separate
3. It aids in movement.
bones. The bones of movable joints are covered with
4. The ribs aid in breathing. smooth cartilage and are lubricated by a thick fluid,
5. The skeleton provides points of attachment for called synovial fluid, produced between the bones in
the muscles. membranous sacs, known as bursae.
6. Red blood cells are produced in the bone Bursitis, or inflammation of the bursae, is a common
marrow. painful condition of movable joints.
7. The skeleton gives support to the body.

Ligaments
A ligament is a band of tissues that connect bones or
cartilages. Ligaments are tough, fibrous, slightly elastic
tissue and white which in colour,.

Ligaments, especially those in the ankle joint and knee,

are sometimes damaged by injury. A torn ligament
usually results from twisting stress when the knee is
turned while weight is on that particular leg. Minor
sprains are treated with ice, bandages and sometimes
physical therapy, but if the ligament is torn, the joint
may be placed in a plaster cast to allow time to heal or Fig. 6.0: Shoulder joint
it may require surgical repairs. If a ligament is made up
Hinge joint
of several thick bands of fibrous branches, it is called a
This joint allows movement in only one area.
collateral ligament.
Examples are the elbow joint and the knee joint.
Examples of ligaments in a body are:
❖ Intertransverse Ligaments,
❖ Interclavicular Ligaments,
❖ Fibular Collateral Ligament,
❖ Ligaments of The Foot, etc.

Functions of the ligament

1. It binds the bone ends together to prevent
dislocation and excessive movement that might
cause breakage.
2. Ligaments also support many internal organs; Fig. 6.1: Knee joint
including the uterus, the bladder, the liver, and the
diaphragm Gliding joint
3. It helps in shaping and supporting the breasts. This joint allows slide movement of bones over each
other

JOINTS

Joints are areas where bones or cartilages in the

skeleton meet.
There are two main types of joints in the skeleton:
i. movable joints and
ii. immovable joints. Fig. 6.2: Gliding joint

79
Immovable/ fixed joints
Immovable joints are held together by actual
intergrowth of bone or by strong fibrous
cartilage; this prevent movement at all areas.
Examples are the pelvic girdle and the suture
(joint in the skull).

TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is a skeleton?

2. Enumerate five functions of the mammalian

skeleton.

3. What is a joint?

4. Mention three types of movable joints and

give one example each.

5. The following are some parts of the

mammalian skeleton. Place them in the table
below as axial or appendicular skeleton.
➢ Skull
➢ Ribs
➢ Pelvic girdle
➢ Sternum
➢ Arm
➢ Leg
➢ Shoulder girdle

Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

80
 10
REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH IN
PLANTS
Specific Objectives FLOWER
After completing this chapter, you will be
able to: A flower is the sexual reproductive part of a plant
❖ Identify parts of a flower and variations in which may produce fruits and seeds.
flower structure.
❖ Describe the process of pollination and
fertilization. Flowers bear the sex organs that produce male and
❖ Describe different type of fruits. female gametes, and therefore carry out the multiple
❖ Describe the structure of seeds and state the roles of sexual reproduction, seed development, and
functions of their parts. fruit production.
❖ Describe the mechanisms of seed and fruit
dispersal. STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
❖ Describe the process and conditions necessary
for germination. Flowers typically are composed of four parts, or whorls,
❖ Describe vegetative (asexual) reproduction in arranged in concentric rings attached to the tip of the
plants. stem. From innermost to outermost, these whorls are
the:
❖ gynaecium (found at the centre of the flower)
INTRODUCTION ❖ androecium (surrounded by the corolla)
❖ corolla (collection of petals)
Reproduction is the process whereby all living ❖ calyx (collection of sepals)
organisms produce new individuals of their own kind.
Gynaecium
Reproduction is one of the essential functions of plants, This is the innermost whore. It is made up one or more
animals, and single celled organisms as far as the carpels or pistils. The carpel is the female organ of the
preservation of the species is concerned. flower and produces the female gametes. Each carpel
has three parts:

Types of reproduction ❖ Ovary: contains ovules

There are two types of reproduction – sexual and ❖ Style: the stalk that connects the stigma to the
asexual reproduction. ovary
❖ Stigma: receives pollen grains during
Sexual reproduction pollination.
Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction where
the male and the female egg cells (gametes) fuse Androecium
together to give rise to a new individual. The androecium consists of the male sex organs called
Examples of organisms which reproduce sexually are: stamens. Each stamen is made up of an anther and a
humans, cats, birds, reptile, plants, etc. filament. The anther produces pollen grains. The
filament is a stalk that supports the anther.
Asexual reproduction
This type of reproduction involves the use of a part or Corolla
whole of an organism to reproduce a new one. Asexual The corolla consists of petals. Petals are large, brightly
reproduction is very prominent in plants. coloured and usually scented to attract animal
There are two types of asexual reproduction in plants – pollinators. Petals may also possess nectaries which
artificial reproduction and vegetative reproduction or produce nectar, a sugary liquid.
vegetative propagation.

81
 PROJECT WORK:
•
Make a collection of about ten different
flower specimens.
•
Open fully to locate the main parts.
•
Mount each flower on a separate sheet of
paper and the parts separated out and labeled.
•
Enclose each flower with a plastic sheet
and transparent tape.

•
Display work by groups on a bulletin board or
science table for award of marks.
Fig. 6.2: Structure of a flower

POLLINATION

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the

anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower.

The stigma could be on the same flower or another

flower on the same plant (autogamy) or another plant of
Fig. 6.3: Male and female reproductive parts the same species (geitogamy).

Types of pollination
Calyx Pollination comes in two types –self-pollination and
The calyx is the outermost whorl and is made up of cross pollination
sepals. Sepals are mostly green in colour. The calyx
supports the inner whorls.
Self-pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains
form the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same
Types of flowers flower or another flower on the same plant.
The variations in flowers gives rise to two main types of
flowers – bisexual and unisexual flowers. Cross-pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another
Bisexual /hermaphroditic flowers: These are the type flower or another plant of the same species.
of flower which has both male and female gamete –
androecium (stamens) and gynaecium (carpels). In other
words, they are complete flowers. Examples of bisexual
flowers are hibiscus, flamboyant, pride of Barbados,
crotalaria.

Unisexual flowers: These flowers have only one of the

reproductive parts. - they have either androecium or
gynaecium. They are therefore termed as incomplete.
Examples of unisexual flowers are pawpaw, water
melon, etc.

82
Fig. 6.4: The pollination process
Adaptations of Plants for Self -Pollination
1. Each flower is bisexual (has both male and
female gametes)
2. Flowers have the anther and stigma maturing at
the same time (homogamy)
3. Flowers remain closed until self-pollination
has occurred. (cleistogamy) Fig. 6.5: Birds and flying insects as agents of
pollination
Adaptations of Plants for Cross
Pollination Table 3.3: Characteristics of insect and wind
1. Flowers are unisexual. pollinated flowers
2. Male and female flowers grow on different
plants Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
3. Anther and stigma mature at different times flowers flowers
4. The style of the gynaecium and the filaments of Large and Small and
androecium differ in length. conspicuous inconspicuous
5. Pollen grains of the flower cannot fertilize their Brightly coloured Petals are dull in
own flower petals colour
Petals produce Petals do not
Advantages of Self Pollination 1. Does not need any nectar produce nectar
agent of pollination. Small and compact Large , feathery
stigma found inside stigma hanging
2. Pollen grains are transported over a short the flower outside the flower
distance.
3. Less pollen grains are wasted or fall off. Produce small Produce large
quantities of pollen quantities of pollen
grains grains
Advantages of Cross Pollination
Produce large, Produce small,
1. The pollen grains are brought from different
flowers, which ensures variety. Varied seeds are rough, heavy pollen smooth, light pollen
often resistant to diseases. grains grains

2. Seeds produced after cross pollination are Stamens have Stamens have long,
healthier than those from one parent (self short, thick filaments thin filaments
pollination). Usually scented Not scented
3. Pollination is still possible even when stamen
and anthers mature at different times. The characteristics above are also the comparisons
between insect and wind pollinated flowers.
Agents of Pollination Agents of pollination are the
factors which are responsible for the transfer of pollen Variations in flower structure
grains from the anther to the stigma of flowers. Flowers display many variations in their structure. Most
flowers have all four whorls—gynaecium, androecium,
The agents of pollination include insects, wind, man, corolla, and calyx. These are called complete flowers.
water, birds, and bats. Insects and wind are the However, some flowers are incomplete, meaning they
prominent agents of pollination. lack one or more whorls. Incomplete flowers are most
common in plants whose pollen is dispersed by the wind
or water. Since these flowers do not need to attract
pollinators, most have no petals, and some even lack
sepals.
Flowers that lack either stamens or a pistil are said to be
imperfect. Imperfect flowers can still function in sexual
reproduction. Flowers that have only stamens are
termed staminate, and flowers that have only a pistil are
called pistillate.

83
Although a single flower can be either staminate or Fertilization occurs in the ovule, which contains the
pistillate, a plant species must have both to reproduce female gametes known as ovum.
sexually. In some species with imperfect flowers, the
staminate and pistillate flowers occur on the same plant. Mechanism of Fertilization in Plants
Such plants, known as monoecious species, include ❖ When a mature pollen grain is deposited on a
maize. mature stigma, it absorbs water and nutrients from
the stigma and swells.
❖ The nucleus of the pollen grain divides into two
unequal sizes. The larger one is called the
generative nucleus and the smaller one the
vegetative nucleus or pollen tube.
❖ The walls of the pollen grain slits and a pollen
tube protrudes from it. The pollen tube then
penetrates the stigma and grows through its tissue
into the style.
❖ The nucleus of the pollen tube moves to the tip
of the pollen tube, followed by the generative
nucleus.

Fig. 6.6: A monoecious flower

❖ The pollen tube grows through the style toward
the ovary. It gets nutrients from the style. As the
pollen tube gets closer to the ovary, the generative
nucleus divides into two male nuclei.
❖ The ovary contains one or more ovules each
consist of an embryo sac and two protective coats
called inner and outer integuments.
❖ A small pore called micropyle is found at one
end of the ovule. The pollen tube enters the ovary
grows to an ovule. It then grows through the
micropyle, and enters the embryo sac. The pollen
tube nucleus disintegrates and disappears.
❖ The two male nuclei are released into the
embryo sac. One male nucleus fuses with the egg
Fig. 6.7 Some types of inflorescence nucleus to form zygote.
❖ The other male nucleus moves to the centre of
In dioecious species such as date, willow, and hemp, the embryo sac and fuses with the polar nuclei to
staminate and pistillate flowers are found on different form the primary endosperm nucleus. This is
plants. A date tree, for example, will develop male or known as double penetration, and occurs only in
female flowers but not both. In dioecious species, at flowering plants.
least two plants, one bearing staminate flowers and one Fig. 6.8: The fertilization process
bearing pistillate flowers, are needed for pollination and
fertilization. A group of flowers with a common stalk is
called an inflorescence. The stalk of an inflorescence
flower is called the peduncle. Each flower has its own
stalk called pedicel. Some flowers lack a stalk and are
describe as sessile flowers.

FERTILIZATION

Fertilization is the process whereby the male and the

female gametes fuse together to form a zygote.

84
 many seeds attached to the placenta at the centre of the
FRUITS
fruit. Example are guava, tomato, pepper.
A fruit is a fertilized ovary which protects and disperses
seeds

Type of Fruits
There are two types of fruits: true fruits
and false fruits

True fruits: These are the types of fruits which form

only from the ovary of the flower. Most fruits fall into
the category of true fruits. Examples are orange, tomato, Fig. 6.9: Berry of tomato
cowpea, pawpaw, sunflower, etc. Drupe
A drupe has a thin epicarp, a thick, fleshy or fibrous
False fruits: These are those which form from the ovary mesocarp, and a hard endocarp.
and some other part of the flower. Examples are cowpea, Examples are mango, coconut.
pineapple, apple.
True fruits are further considered as simple, aggregate, Dry fruits are described as dehiscent and indehiscent
and multiple fruits. fruits.

Simple fruits are formed from a flower with either a Dry dehiscent fruits are fruits whose pericaps split to
single carpel or many carpels fused together. Examples release seeds. They are classified as:
are orange, pawpaw, tomato, cowpea. ❖ Legume (pod), examples, cowpea, flamboyant,
pride of Barbados.
Aggregate fruits are formed from one flower which has ❖ Capsule, examples, okro,
many free carpels. Each carpel forms a simple fruit cotton, poppy.
called a fruitlet. ❖ Follicle, example, cola, cnestis
Examples are raspberry and strawberry.
❖ Schizocarp, example, Cassia,
Desmodium
Multiple/compound fruits are formed from many
flowers, or a whole inflorescence.
An example is pineapple.

Further classification places simple fruits into fleshy

fruits and dry fruits.

Fleshy/succulent fruits are fruits with soft, juicy

pericaps. Examples are tomato, apple.

Dry fruits are fruits with dry, hard and woody pericaps. Fig. 7.0: Longitudinal section of a drupe
Examples are beans, flamboyant, pride of Barbados,
cotton, okro (okra). Dry indehiscent fruits are classified as:
❖ Achene, an example is sunflower.
Succulent/fleshy fruits are classed as berry or drupe. The ❖ Cypsela an example is tridax ❖ Caryopsis an
pericap of succulent fruits consists of three layers: an example is maize grain.
outer epicarp, a middle mesocarp and an inner ❖ Samara examples are combretum, pteocarpus
endocarp. Part or all of the pericarp is fleshy and can be ❖ Nut an example is cashew fruit.
eaten.

SEED
Berry
A berry has a thin epicarp, fleshy mesocarp and a thin A seed is a fertilized ovary found in a fruit.
fleshy endocarp. It also has many carpels and contains

85
The structure of a seed Functions:
Seed is made up of a seed coat, an embryo, and an ❖ The plumule develops into the shoot system.
endosperm. ❖ The radicle develops into the shoot system of the
plant.
Seed coat ❖ The cotyledon stores food for the use and growth
Two layers make up the seed coat – testa and tegmen. of the embryo. It also encloses and protects other
The testa is formed from the outer integument, while the parts of the embryo.
tegmen is formed from the inner integument of the
ovule. Endosperm
Functions: The endosperm is a large tissue found only in some
❖ Protects the inner part of the seed seeds.
❖ Allows water and oxygen to enter the seed Function:
❖ Stores food. (In most seeds the cotyledon takes the
Embryo place and function of the endosperm).
The embryo consists of three parts – the plumule
(embryonic shoot), radicle (embryonic Cotyledon
root) and cotyledons (seed leave). A stalk holds each Also called seed leaf, is the part of the seed which
cotyledon to the embryo. stores food for growth of the embryo. A seed with one
cotyledon, such as maize, is known as
monocotyledonous, while a seed with two cotyledons,
such as beans, is known as dicotyledonous.

(maize)

Fig. 7.1: Structure of seeds

Differences between Fruits and Seeds

Fruits Seeds
They are fertilised They are fertilized DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS
ovary ovule
Dispersal is the scattering of fruits and seeds from the
They contain seeds They contained in parent plants to new places by agents such as wind,
fruits
water and animals.
They have two scars They have one scar

86
Agents of Dispersal 1. Edible (eatable).
Agents of dispersal are the factors which bring about 2. Brightly coloured to attract animals.
dispersal of fruits and seeds. e.g. mango, guava, pawpaw and tomato.
3. Fruits and seed with hooks to attach themselves
They are wind, water, and animals. Some fruits
to the fur of mammals and clothes of humans. e.g.
disperse the seeds themselves by a method known as
Desmodium, Pupalia seed and bidens.
explosive mechanism or self-dispersal.
4. Fruits with sticky hairs to attach themselves to
Wind Dispersal animals and people. e.g. boerhaavia and plumbago.
For a fruit or seed to be dispersed by wind, it must
have the following features: 1. Dry and light in weight

2. Small in size e.g. orchids

3. Have floss (a mass of silk thread). e.g. cotton
4. Have wings (flattened and extended pericarp).
e.g. tecoma, dutchman‘s pipe, combretum

5. Have pappus (parachute-like hair).e.g. tridax

Fig. 7.4: Example of animal dispersed fruit

Self-Dispersal (Explosive Mechanism) Feature of

fruits and seeds which undergo self-dispersal are:
1. Uneven drying of the seed coat. Some parts of
the fruits dry faster than other parts creating tension
which causes the fruits to split open suddenly with
Fig. 7.2: Examples of wind dispersed fruits an explosion. e.g. cowpea, flamboyant, pride of
Barbados.
2. Turgidity of the seed coat. e.g. Balsam plants.
Water Dispersal

Features of fruits and seeds dispersed by water are:

1. Thick and fibrous mesocarp with air spaces

between the fibres. e.g. coconut.

2. Spongy seed coat containing several air spaces.

e.g. whit mangrove.

Fig. 7.5: Examples of self-dispersed fruits

Advantages of Fruits and Seeds

Dispersal
1. Reduces overcrowding of plants.
2. Reduces competition for light.
3. Reduces competition for nutrients.
Fig. 7.3: Water dispersed fruit 4. Helps plants to move to new locations.
5. Reduces epidemic diseases among plants.
Animal Dispersal 6. The rate of destruction of a species by fire,
Features of fruits dispersed by animal are: flood, etc. is reduced.

87
Disadvantages of Fruits and Seeds collection, differences in size, shape,
Dispersal colour and uses. .
1. Some of the fruits or seeds may land on an arid
land (unproductive land) and die.
2. Some of them may be in a colony of herbivores GERMINATION OF SEEDS
and therefore be eaten.
3. Some could land in an overcrowded area and Germination is the process whereby the embryo
die from nutrients and sunlight starvation. emerges from the seed coat as a result of growth of the
seed into a seedling.

GROUP ACTIVITY: Seeds may germinate immediately or undergo a period

of dormancy, after their dispersal.

• Make a collection of different seeds

from the community. Dormancy is the stage during which growing stops
temporarily and metabolism is reduced to the lowest
• Study the features, draw and label the rate.
longitudinal section of two of the Dormant seeds may survive adverse conditions like
seeds e.g. maize and Jatropha sp.
drought, flood, and irregular temperatures.
• List the functions of the parts.

• Keep information on each seed

including name of collector, date of

Fig. 7.6: The germination process

The Germination Process ❖ The young plant is called a seedling.
❖ The testa which is permeable to water and air
absorbs water. Conditions Necessary for
❖ Digestive enzymes in the seed become active Seed Germination
and break down the food substances in the seed to For a seed to germinate it must first be viable; that is it
soluble forms. should be ideal and well suited for germination. The
❖ The soluble food substances are transported to environment were the seed is plays an important role in
the plumle and radicle. its germination. Before a seed germinates, it must be
❖ The radicle grows downwards into the soil to form exposed to some environmental conditions such as: 1.
the root system. The plumle grows upwards through Moisture (water)
the soil to become the shoot system. 2. Oxygen (air)

88
 3. Warmth (suitable temperature) Types of germination
There are two types of germination:
To sum it up, the condition necessary for seed epigeal and hypogeal germination.
germination include moisture, oxygen, warmth and the
viability of the seed. Though the environmental Epigeal germination
conditions for seed germination are moisture, oxygen, This is the type of germination which occurs when
and warmth, some seeds, such as tobacco This shows the cotyledon appears above the ground.
that a viable seed needs all the seeds require exposure
to light before they conditions – water, air and warmth
This is caused by the elongation of the radicle.
in order to germinate.
Examples of plants which undergo epigeal germination
are mango, groundnut,
cowpea, red beans, etc.
Demonstrating the conditions necessary
for germination
Hypogeal germination
❖ Label four test tubes A, B, C and D. This is the type of germination which occurs when the
❖ Put a piece of cotton wool and four viable cotyledon remains below the ground.
bean seeds into each test tube.
This is caused by the elongation of the plumule.
❖ Pour a few drops of water into test tubes A
and D.
Table 3.4: Differences between epigeal and
❖ Leave test tube A at room temperature and hypogeal germination
place test tube D in ice cubes or refrigerator to
get rid of warmth. Epigeal Hypogeal
❖ Leave the contents of test tube B as it is germination germination
making sure that they are dry. Cotyledons rise Cotyledons remain
from the ground in the soil
❖ Heat water to eliminate oxygen, allow the
water to cool and pour a few drops into test Normally has small Normally has larger
cotyledons cotyledons
tube C. Pour oil onto the water to form a layer
on the surface to prevent oxygen from Cotyledons store Cotyledons store
less food more food
entering.
❖ Leave the test tubes for seven days and
observe what happens.
VEGETATIVE(ASEXUAL)
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Observation
It would be observed that only the seeds in test tube
Vegetative propagation or reproduction is the use of
A germinate. The others will not germinate.
parts or the whole of an organism to give rise to new
organisms.
Conclusion
The seeds in test tube A, which have all the
Vegetative reproduction occurs only in plants. Most of
conditions for germination, germinate while the
other seeds which lack one condition appease do the plants which reproduce asexually do not have
not germinate. flowers which contain the sexual parts (androecium and
This shows that a viable seed needs all the gynaecium) of a plant. Therefore, they reproduce from
conditions – water, air and warmth – in order to vegetative parts such as leaves, stems or roots.
germinate.
Fig. 7.7 Methods of vegetative propagation
Plants which undergo vegetative propagation have
modified stems underground, such as bulbs, rhizomes,
suckers corms, runners and stem tubers.

89
Propagation by bulb
A bulb has a short vertical stem. It has a terminal bud,
which develops into an aerial shoot. It also has axilary
buds, which develop into daughter bulbs. The leaves are
arranged in a concentric around the short stem. The
fleshy inner scale leaves store food and they are covered
and protected by the dry, brown outer leaves. It has a lot
of fibrous roots which rise from the base of the short
stem.

Procedure
Propagation of bulbs is done by planting the entire bulb
in the soil. The axilary buds develop into daughter buds
underground and later sprouts into young bulbs.
Examples of bulbs are onions, garlic, spider lily, etc. Fig. 7.9: Propagation by rhizome

Propagation by suckers
Suckers are lateral underground stems which bear a
terminal bud, scale leaves and adventitious leaves. The
tips of the stems which give rise to the aerial shoots
emerge above the soil level. A sucker depends on the
parent plant for nourishment, since it cannot store food.

Procedure
A sucker is propagated by cutting the young sucker close
to the parent plant and replanting it in the soil.
Fig. 7.8: An onion bulb Examples of suckers are plantain and banana.

Propagation by rhizome
A rhizome is a thick stem which grows horizontally in
the soil.

It has a terminal and a lateral (axillary) bud that develops

into aerial shoot and stem branch respectively. Food is
stored in the stem. Rhizomes have adventitious roots
which develop from the nodes.

Procedure
Propagation of rhizome is done by cutting the stem into
pieces, with each piece having two to three buds and
planting them in the soil. The buds sprout and grow into
an aerial shoot.
Examples of rhizomes are ginger, canna lily. Fig. 8.0: Propagation by sucker

Propagation by corms
A corm is a short bulging stem, which grows vertically
underground. It has a terminal bud which gives rise to
an aerial shoot and an axillary bud which develops into
the axils of the scale leaves. Internodes with
adventitious roots rising from the nodes are also
found on the stem. The stem stores food.

90
Procedure Stem tubers can be propagated by cutting the stem into
Propagation of corms is done by cutting the whole corm pieces, with each stem having Fig. 8.1: Propagation by
into pieces such that each piece has a number of buds. corm a bud which will germinate to the shoot system.
Each piece is planted in the soil. The axillary buds Examples of stem tubers are yam, cassava, potato, etc.
develop into daughter corms. Examples of corm are
cocoyam, Caladium sp.

Fig 8.2 propagation by corm

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION
Fig. 8.1: Propagation by corm
The methods mentioned above are also known as the
Runners natural methods of propagation. Apart from these
methods of propagation, there are other methods which
A runner is a thin creeping stem which grows
are used to propagate plants. These are stem cutting,
horizontally along the surface of the ground. The stem
has long internodes and produces adventitious roots at budding, grafting, and layering.
its nodes. These roots go into the soil and fix the weak
stem firmly to the surface of the soil. Stem cutting
This can be used for plants that produce flowers but do
not form seeds. The stems are cut from an angle just
below a node. Each cutting must have three to five
nodes. The lower end of the stem is planted in the soil
with at least one node below the surface of the soil.
Adventitious roots develop from the node in the soil.
Examples of plants propagated by stem cutting are sugar
cane, cassava, hibiscus and runners (e.g. sweet potato).

Budding
In budding, a dormant bud on a sliver of stem called the
scion is carefully removed from one plant using a sharp
pen knife. It is inserted into a T-shaped cut in the back
of another plant called the stock. The stock must have a
well established rooting system. The cambium of the
Fig. 8.4: Propagation by runners
scion must be exposed by carefully scraping off the
The nodes opposite the adventitious roots develop into
woody part of the stem attached to it. The scion is
aerial shoots. Examples of runners are sweet potato,
carefully placed in the T-shaped cut of the stock so that
strawberry etc.
the cambia of the stock and scion make contact. The
Stem tuber: scion and stock are firmly bound together, and the area
A stem tuber is a bulging underground stem which is covered with a waterproof material such as polythene
has adventitious buds and stores food. Stem tubers do sheets. The bud on the scion develops and bears the
not have adventitious roots. fruits of the plant from which it is removed. Examples

91
of plants which can be propagated by budding are citrus of the branch is pushed into the soil and held in place
trees (e.g. orange) and roses. with two pegs. It is covered with a heap of fertile soil
and a heavy object is placed on top.

Fig. 8.5: Propagation by budding

Grafting
Vegetative propagation by grafting involves joining
parts on one plant into another plant of different variety
of the same species. The scion is a short length of stem
with at least one bud. It is joined to the cut-end of the
stem of another plant, the stock. The cambia of the stock
Fig. 8.7: types of layering
and scion must make contact. To achieve this, the scion
may be wedge-shaped to fit into a Vshaped stock, or
The soil is irrigated regularly and dug out when
slanted to fit a slanted stock. The scion and stock are
adventitious roots develop. The rooted twig is cut off
then bound together. The cut heals soon and the stock
and planted in a fertile soil.
and scion continue to grow as one plant and bear the
fruit of the plant from which the scion was removed. Other methods of layering include:
Examples of plants propagated by grafting are citrus ❖ Air layer
(e.g. orange, grape fruit, tangerine), mango, cocoa. ❖ Tip layer
❖ Serpentine layer
❖ Trench layer
❖ Mound layer

Advantages of Asexual Propagation

1. Only one parent is needed to produce offspring.
2. Faster growth of plants.
3. Good qualities of parents are maintained by
offspring.
4. Used to propagate plants which cannot produce
seeds.
5. Parent material provides nutrients for the
Fig. 8.6: Propagation by grafting young plants.
Layering 6. The young plants can withstand
This method of propagation is used to propagate plants adverse conditions.
that do not produce seeds and will not always grow from 7. Early maturity of plant is attained.
stem cutting either. A branch of the stem close to the
ground is carefully bent over so that a part of it having
a number of nodes touches the ground. The end of the
branch is tied to a firm support. A slit is made with a
penknife at a node that touched the ground. This part

92
 Disadvantages of Vegetative (b) Differentiate between epigeal and
Propagation hypogeal germination.
1. Offspring and parent plant may compete for
nutrients and sunlight due to overcrowding 5. Describe three methods each of asexual and
2. There is lack of variety vegetative propagations.
3. Many plants may be destroyed by disaster in an
area. 6. (a) What are fruit and seed dispersal?
4. Offspring are produced close to parent plant, (b) Explain three methods of fruit and
therefore colonization of new localities is unlikely seed dispersal and give two examples of the
5. Any disease of parent plant is passed on to the agents involved.
offspring.
7. (a) Describe the germination process.
Table 3.5: Differences between Sexual and Asexual (b) State the conditions necessary for
propagation germination.

Sexual propagation Asexual 8. Write a short note on the following methods of

propagation
vegetative propagation:
Requires only one (a) budding
Requires two parents parent
(b) layering
New varieties are No new variety (c) grafting
produce produced
Involves the fusion of 9. (a) Explain the term vegetative propagation.
male and female (b) Distinguish between sexual
Does not involve
gametes to form a
fusion of gametes reproduction and asexual
zygote
reproduction.
Growth is slow Growth is fast
10. Fig. 3 is an illustration of structures associated
Parent and offspring Parent and offspring
with plants.
may not compete for always compete for
nutrients nutrients Study the figure carefully and answer the questions
that follow.

TEST QUESTIONS

1. (a) Draw and label a fully developed flower.

(b) State the functions of the parts
labelled

2. (a) What is pollination?

(b) State four differences between insect
pollinated flower and wind pollinated flower.
3. (a) Define reproduction.
(b) Distinguish between sexual
reproduction and asexual
reproduction

4. (a) Explain the term germination of plants. Fig. 3

(i) Identify the structures A and B.

93
 (ii) (α) Name each of the parts labelled I, II, III,
IV, V, VI, VII and VIII. (a) Name the parts labelled I, II, III and
(β) State one function each of the parts labelled II IV.
and IV. (b) Identify each of the methods of
(iii) State the relationship between propagation in A, B and C.
structure A and structure B. (c) Given a citrus seedling, a mature
(iv) State the mode of dispersal of the part citrus plant, a knife and a wrapping tape,
labelled VIII. describe how the propagation method would be
(v) Name one plant which produces structures performed as illustrated in set-up B above.
similar to B. (d) State three factors that influence
the success of the method of propagation
11. (a) Mention the method of propagation for the illustrated in C above.
following plants. (e) Name one ornamental plant
(i) ginger propagated by the method illustrated in A.
(ii) garlic (f) State four advantages of the method
(iii) sweet potato of propagation illustrated above.
(iv) potato
14. Describe the following methods of fruit and seed
(v) cassava
dispersal and give two examples each: (a)
(vi) plantain explosive mechanism
(vii) orange (b) Water dispersal
(vii) hibiscus flower (c) Animals dispersal
(ix) carrot (d) Wind dispersal
(x) taro

(b) Describe two natural methods of

vegetative propagation.

12. (a) What is a fruit?

(b) State two differences between fruits
and seeds.
(c)` Describe the following types of fruits:
(i) true fruits
(ii) false fruits

13. Figure three illustrates three different methods

of crop propagation. Study the figure carefully and
answer the questions that follow.

94
 11
FOOD AND NUTRITION
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are known as simple sugars. This is
➢ Outline the different lasses of food and
describe a balanced diet. because they have a reduction action on Benedict‘s and
➢ State the effects of malnutrition. Fehling‘s solution. They are therefore called reducing
➢ Explain the need to fortify and enrich food. sugars, and their general formula is C6H12O6.
Monsaccharides are sweet and soluble in water.
➢ Outline the health benefits of water.
Examples of monosaccharides are glucose in fruits,
galactose in milk, fructose, flower nectar, fruits and
INTRODUCTION honey.

All living organisms need energy to carry out basic life

processes. The number one source of energy is food.
Some living organisms (e.g. green plants) can prepare
their own food with sunlight in a process known as
photosynthesis. These organisms are described as
autotrophic (self feeders) because they make their own
food. Some other living organisms do not produce their
own food. They are described as heterotrophic (other
feeders). Therefore, they feed on the food prepared by
green plants for energy.

Food is any substance that living organisms consume

to gain energy.
Fig. 8.8: Molecular structure of monosaccharide
Nutrition is the process whereby living organisms get
Disaccharides
food.
Disaccharides are referred to as complex sugar. A
disaccharide is made up of two monosaccharides joined
CLASSES OF FOOD together in a chemical process known as condensation.
The general formula for disaccharides is
The different classes of food are: C12H22O11. Disaccharides can be broken down into
❖ Carbohydrates monosaccharides in a chemical process known as
❖ Proteins hydrolysis. Disaccharides are sweet and soluble in
water.
❖ Fats and oils (lipid)
Examples of disaccharides are sucrose in sugar cane,
❖ Minerals lactose (milk sugar), maltose from germinating grains
❖ Vitamins (e.g. maize). All disaccharides except sucrose (non-
reducing sugar) are reducing sugar.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compound of hydrogen, carbon, Polysaccharides
and oxygen. Polysaccharides are made up of several
monosaccharides chemically combined. The general
The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1. Carbohydrates formula for polysaccharides is (C6H10O5)n where n is a
are the major source of energy for living organisms. large number, about 300 for starch and 300 to 3000 for
There are three types of carbohydrates: cellulose. Polysaccharides are not sweet and usually
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharide. insoluble in water. Examples are starch, cellulose,
glycogen, and chitin.

95
 Test for reducing sugar
Test for starch
❖ Put a food sample, e.g. glucose into a test tube.
❖ Put a sample of the food into a test tube. ❖ Add a few drops of Fehling’s solution (A and B
❖ Add some drops of iodine solution. mixed) or Benedict’s solution
It would be observed that the colour of the food ❖ Heat the test tube gently for a few minutes.
sample changes to blue-black, showing the presence It would be observed that the colour of the food
of starch in the food. sample changes to orange or brick-red indicating
the presence of reducing sugar.

brick - red
precipitate

Fig. 8.9: Test for reducing sugar

Test for non-reducing sugar

❖ Put a piece of the food sample into a test tube Importance of Carbohydrates
❖ Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) 1. It serves as a major source of energy.
❖ Heat gently for a few minutes in a water bath. 2. It serves as the source for other organic
❖ Cool the mixture and solid sodium hydrogen molecules such as amino acids.
carbonate (NaHCO3) slowly until the fizzing 3. It maintains the structure of the cell wall.
stops. 4. It serves as food storage compound.
❖ Add a few drops of Benedict’s solution and heat 5. Cellulose is important for the cell walls.
for a five minutes
It would be observed that the colour of the food
sample changes to orange or brick-red showing the Fig. 9.0: Test for non-reducing sugar
presence of nonreducing sugar.

96
Brick-red precipitate
 Proteins Importance of Proteins
Proteins are compounds which contain the elements 1. Repair damaged tissues in the body.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. 2. Help animals to grow.

Some proteins contain sulphur and phosphorus as well. 3. Provide energy to the body.
The smallest unit of protein is called an amino acid. One 4. Control the rate of metabolism.
protein molecule contains thousands of amino acids, 5. Responsible for the formation of hormones and
chemically combined together by peptide bond and enzymes.
peptide linkage. Proteins are destroyed by temperatures
higher than 60oC. A destroyed protein loses it chemical
structure and physical texture, e.g. boiled egg. Lipids (fats and oils) Lipids are compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Classes of protein
The amount of oxygen atom in the structure of lipids is
Proteins are classed into two – first class proteins and
far lower than in carbohydrates. Lipids, which are fat
second class proteins.
and oil, are formed from the chemical combination of
First class proteins: These type of proteins contain all
glycerol and fatty acids. Fat is stored by animals while
the essential amino acids needed by the body.
oil is stored by plants.
Second class proteins: These are plant proteins and lack
some of the amino acids needed by the body.
Fats are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid.
Fats and oils are soluble in organic solvents, e.g.
Sources of proteins are fish, meat, egg, beans etc.
ethanol, but insoluble in inorganic solvents e.g. water.

Test for proteins

Test for lipids
❖ Put a piece of the food e.g. mashed meat, a) Grease spot test
into a test tube
❖ Dip a finger in oil and place it on a sheet of
❖ Add a few drops of dilute sodium
paper.
hydroxide (NaOH) solution
❖ Dip another finger in water and place it on
❖ Add a few drops of copper sulphate
the same paper.
(CuSO4) drop by drop; shake the test tube after
each drop. ❖ Leave the paper for 10 minutes.
❖ It would be observed that the colour of the Afterward, hold it up against light.
food sample changes to violet indication the ❖ It would be observed that the water has
presence of proteins. dried out whiles the oil stain remains visible on
the paper.

Alternative method a) Emulsion test

❖ Add a few drops of Millon’s reagent to the ❖ Put 2 cm3 of ethanol in a test tube
food sample in a test tube ❖ Add 2 cm3 of oil and shake vigorously
❖ Heat for one minute ❖ Pour the mixture into another test tube
❖ The colour changes to violet indicating the containing 2 cm3 of water.
presence of proteins. ❖ A cloudy, white emulsion develops showing the
presence of lipids.
Fig. 9.1: Test for protein
Importance of Lipids
1. Speed nerve transmission
2. Take part in the formation of membranes.
3. Some hormones are produced from lipids
4. Dissolve fat-soluble vitamins.

97
 5. Provide energy to the body in the absence of
carbohydrates. Vitamins keep the body healthy and prevent some
deficiency diseases.
Examples of vitamins are vitamins A, B, C, D, E and K.
Vitamins These names are assigned to them in order of their
Vitamins are organic food substances needed by the discovery. Some vitamins have submultiples because of
human body in very small quantities for growth and their chemical structures, e.g. vitamin B1, B2 and B12.
development.

Vitamin Source from food Functions Symptom of deficiency

• Builds good eye
sight
• Protects the • Night blindness
Egg yolk, liver green surface of the eye • Unhealthy skin
A
vegetable, carrot,
(retinol) • Maintains • Reduced night
cocoa, red palm oil
membrane vision
• Necessary for cell
respiration
Beans, egg yolk, cereal, • Retarded growth
bread, lean meat, Necessary for cell • Beriberi
B1 unpolished cereal, palm respiration • Nerve
(thiamine) wine inflammation
• Weak paralysis
• Skin disorders,
Yeast, fish, green • Produces energy
B2 dermatitis disease
vegetables, meat from food
(riboflavin) • Sores on mouth
cereals, • Healthy skin
and eye
B12 Helps in the formation of Anaemia
(cynobalamin) liver
red blood cells
• Forms strong
skins • Gum bleeding,
Raw vegetable, • Helps wounds to • scurvy disease,
C
fresh fruits, citrus
(ascorbic acid) heal • immune
fruits
• Good for some disorders
body tissues
D Fat, fish, liver, egg yolk, Forms strong bones and Rickets (deformed
(calciferol) sunlight teeth bones)
E Green vegetables, liver Prevents haemolysis of Anaemia
(tocopherol) red blood cells in rats
K Green vegetables, liver, Synthesizes proteins Prolonged bleeding
(phylloquinone) egg yolk, unpolished which help the blood to
cereal clot
Table 3.6: Vitamins, their source, functions and symptoms of deficiency

Minerals They also help in such cellular activity as enzyme

Minerals are minute amounts of metallic action, muscle contraction, nerve reaction, and blood
elements that are vital for the healthy growth of clotting. Minerals are classified as major elements
teeth and bones. (calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, and sulphur) and minor or trace
elements (chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron,
selenium, and zinc).

98
 Table 3.7: Minerals, their sources, functions and symptoms of deficiency
Symptoms of
Mineral Source in food Function
deficiency
• Formation of bones and
teeth Enhances blood
Milk, cheese, green Rickets (poor bones
Calcium (Ca) clotting
vegetable and teeth formation)
• Needed for muscle
contraction
Chlorine (Cl) Maintenance of tissue
Sodium (Na) Table salt Muscle cramps
fluid, blood and lymph
Iodised table salt, sea • Formation of thyroxin Goitre
Iodine (I) food, cheese • Prevents goitre Reduced body growth
Green
vegetables, liver, Forms haemoglobin in Anaemia
Iron (Fe)
yeast, eggs, red blood cells
kidney
Fruits, liver, nuts green Essential for the
Copper (Cu) vegetables, utilization of irons in the Anaemia
grains body
Phosphorus (P)
Fish, egg, lean meat, • For protein synthesis
Nitrogen (N) Rickets
milk • Formation of ATP
Sulphur (S)
Fluorine (F) Water, toothpastes Promotes healthy teeth Tooth decay, toothache

BALANCED DIET 3. It prevents deficiency diseases.

Diet is the variety of food and drink which a person MALNUTRITION

takes into the body.
Malnutrition occurs when an organism has
A balanced diet is the diet which contains all the food inadequate amounts of certain nutrients required by
nutrients needed by the body in their right proportions the body. Inadequate amounts of essential nutrients
or amount. leads to diseases known as deficiency diseases.

The nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,

vitamins, minerals, roughage and water. A diet that has
too little or too much of one or more food substance is
described as an unbalanced diet.

Percentage of Foods in a Balanced

Diet
Carbohydrates 55%
Proteins 20%
Fats/oils 15% Fig: 9.2: Kids suffering from kwashiorkor
Water, vitamins and Minerals 10%
Effects of Malnutrition
Importance of Balanced Diet
1. It results in slow growth.
1. A balanced diet helps in maintaining proper
growth of the body. 2. Calcium deficiency causes rickets.
2. It makes the body healthy. 3. Protein deficiency causes kwashiorkor.

99
 4. The deficiency of vitamin A causes night FOOD FORTIFICATION AND ENRICHMENT
blindness.
5. Malnutrition may eventual result in death.
Food fortification or enrichment is the process of
adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and
vitamins) to food.

It can be purely a commercial choice to provide extra

nutrients in a food, or sometimes it is a public health
policy which aims to reduce numbers of people with
dietary deficiencies in a population.
Diets that lack variety can be deficient in certain
nutrients. Sometimes the staple foods of a region can
lack particular nutrients, due to the soil of a region, or
because of the inherent inadequacy of the normal diet.
Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments
Fig: 9.3: X ray film showing legs with rickets (seasonings) can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases
Over-Nutrition in these cases.
While having too little of essential nutrients is bad, While it is true that both fortification and enrichment
having too much of some nutrients is equally bad. It refer to the addition of nutrients to food, the true
results in a condition known as over-nutrition. definitions do slightly vary.
Overnutrition may also lead to some serious diseases
such as: Difference between food fortification and food
1. High blood pressure (hypertension), which is enhancement
caused by excess fat in the body. Food fortification refers to the practice of deliberately
2. Heart diseases, which normally results from increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e.
hypertension vitamins and minerals in a food irrespective of whether
3. Stroke, caused by the bursting of arteries as a the nutrients were originally in the food before
result of heart diseases. processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional
4. Diabetes, caused by eating too much refined quality of the food supply and to provide a public health
sugar benefit with minimal risk to health.
5. Obesity (overweight), caused by
Food enrichment refers to the addition of
overeating.
micronutrients to a food which are lost during
processing.
Apart from eating a well balanced diet, regular exercise
will also keep the body fit and free from diseases.
Examples of fortified food
The most common fortified foods include:
1. Cereals and cereal based products
2. Milk and milk products
3. Fats and oils
4. Accessory food items
5. Tea and other beverages
6. Infant formulas

Body mass index

The body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat
based on height and weight.
Fig: 9.4: An obese woman
BMI does not actually measure the percentage of body
fat.

100
Body mass index is expressed as the individual's body
mass divided by the square of his or her height. The
formula universally used in medicine produces a unit of TEST QUESTIONS
measure of kg/m2.
1. Write a short note on any three classes of food.
BMI =
2. Describe how you will test for the following
food classes:
BMI can also be determined using a BMI chart, which a. Starch
displays BMI as a function of weight (horizontal axis)
b. Protein
and height (vertical axis) using contour lines for
different values of BMI or colours for different BMI c. Lipids
categories. ❖ BMI of less than 18.5 = underweight
❖ BMI of 18.5 – 24.9 = normal weight ❖ BMI of 3. (a) What are vitamins? (b) Mention three
25 – 29.9 = overweight ❖ BMI of more than 30 = known vitamins and state the symptoms of the
obesity. deficiency.

Roughage (dietary fibre) 4. The following table shows some minerals.

Roughage is fibrous material that is indigestible and State their functions and the effects of their
consists mostly of cellulose. deficiencies.

It is actually not a food substance, nonetheless, Mineral functions Effect of deficiency

very essential in diets. Calcium
Roughage can be obtained from solid fibre parts of Fluorine
fruits such as oranges, pineapple, apples, vegetables and
Iodine
cereals.
Iron
Importance of Roughage
1. Facilitates free bowel movement and prevents 5. (a) What is a balanced diet?
constipation, thereby reducing the risk of bowel (b) What are the importance of a
cancer. balanced diet?
2. Helps in easy movement of food through the (c) State three effects each of
gut. malnutrition and over-nutrition.
3. The cellulose in roughage is digested by some
gut bacteria in humans to release important
vitamins.

Health benefits of water

6. Food substances labelled J, K and L, were
Water plays a major role in all organisms. Some of the
tested with various chemicals school laboratory.
roles water plays in humans are:
The results obtained are tabulated below.
1. Regulates the temperature of the body
2. Dissolves soluble substances in the body Food Test Observation/
3. Transports various substances in the body substance Result
4. Major component of digestive juice J 2 cm 3 each of Brick-red
5. Medium for the elimination of some excretory fehling‘s solution A precipitate
products from the body and B added to J. formed
Mixture is boiled for
2 mnutes in water
bath.

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K Iodine solution Blue-black
added drop by drop colur obtained
to K

L a) two drops of Yellow

dilute hydrochloric precipitate
acid is added to L. obtained
Mixture is boiled for
2 minutes.

b) 2 cm3 of No change in
Benedicts solution colour
added to mixture in
(a) above. Mixure is
boiled for 2
minutes.

a) What inference would you make about the food

substances from the results above?
b) i) What changes would take place when
the food substance K is chewed for about 3 minutes?
ii) What observation would be made
when Benedict‘s solution is added to the
chewed substances K in a test tube.
iii) What conclusion can be drawn from
the nature of substance
Benedict‘s solution reacted with?

7. (a) What are vitamins?

(b) Name one source of each of the following
vitamins:
(α) vitamin A;
(β) vitamin B;
(γ) vitamin K.

102
 DENTITION, FEEDING AND
DIGESTION IN MAMMALS
2. Long, conical, pointed and slightly inward-
Specific Objectives curved canines, used to hold and kill the prey and
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: tear the fresh.
3. Small premolars and molars, except for the first
➢ Identify the different types of teeth in mammals and lower molar and third upper molar which are very
relate them to their function.
➢ Enumerate various ways of preventing dental
large. They are called carnassial teeth.
problems. 4. Smooth sides and sharp cups and edges that run
➢ Draw and label the digestive system of along the jaw line, used for scraping fresh off bones.
mammals.
➢ Describe the process of digestion, absorption
5. Molars have blunt cusps for crushing bones.
and assimilation in mammals.
➢ Mention some diseases and disorders
associated with the digestive system of
humans.

INTRODUCTION - DENTITION IN
MAMMALS

Dentition is the number, type and arrangement of teeth

in an organism. Fig. 9.5: Skull of a carnivore

The diet of an animal, generally determines its dentition.

For example, the dentition of a carnivore is different Dentition of herbivore
from that of a herbivore or omnivore. Herbivores are animals that eat only plants, e.g. goat,
cattle, rabbit.
The teeth play a major role in the digestion of food. They
help to divide food into smaller pieces. Characteristics of carnivore dentition
1. Long, chisel shaped incisors for cutting and
gnawing vegetation.
TYPES OF TEETH AND THEIR 2. File-like premolars and molars with flat-ridged
RELATION TO FOOD surfaces for grinding plant materials.
3. Absence of canine but instead, a large gap
The characteristics of teeth make up dentition. In called a diastema between the incisors and
mammals, for example, the teeth vary in size, shape and premolars.
function – this is known as heterodont dentition.
4. No canines in the upper jaw with poorly
Vertebrates such as fish, amphibians and reptiles have
developed canines in the lower jaw.
teeth of the same size, shape and function – this is
described as homodont dentition.
Fig. 9.6: Skull of a herbivore
Dentition of carnivores
Carnivores are fresh eating animals, e.g. lion, dog, cat.
They have highly specialized teeth.
The characteristics of dentition in carnivore are:
1. Small, chisel-shaped incisors for seizing prey.

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Dentition of omnivores Root: The part which is buried in a socket in the
Omnivores are animals that feed on both animals and jawbone. Some teeth have a single root while others
plants. Their teeth are not highly specialised. have two or three roots.

Enamel:, This is a layer of thin, hard, shiny material

composed mainly of calcium phosphate. It covers the
THE DENTAL FORMULA
crown.
Dental formula is the summary of the number, type
Dentine: The dentine is located beneath the enamel
and arrangement of teeth in the half of the lower and
and extended into the root. It makes up the greatest
upper jaw of an animal.
bulk of the tooth. Dentine is a very hard bone, but
The 32 teeth in an adult humans, for example, can be
is not as hard as the enamel. Fine channels,
summarized as i 2/2, c 1/1, pm 2/2, m 3/3, where the
containing livingmaterials, pass through the
initials are incisors (i), canines (c), premolars (pm), and
dentine. The dentine encloses a central pulp cavity.
molars (m) respectively. The figures on the lines
represent the teeth in the upper jaw and those below the
The pulp cavity: The pulp is made up of blood vessels,
line are the teeth in the lower jaw. The total number of
tooth-forming cells and nerve fibres with sensory nerve
teeth in an adult human can therefore be obtained by
endings, which penetrates the dentine, making it
multiplying the sum of the figures indicated in the dental
sensitive to pain and temperature changes.
formula by 2, i.e. 2 (4+2+4+6) = 32.

Cement: Teeth are fixed in the lower bone by the

cement, which is a hard bony substance that covers the
outside of the root.

Fig. 9.7: Dental formula of man

Fig. 9.8: Structure of a tooth (molar)

STRUCTURE OF THE TOOTH
Periodontal fibres: Attached to the cement are tough
periodontal fibres which run into the jaw bone. These
Teeth develop from a group of cells in the skin overlying
fibres hold the tooth in its socket and permit slight tooth
the jawbones. Humans and other animals have different
movements that cushion the tooth from excessive
kinds of teeth. Although teeth differ is size and shape
jarring when it hits a hard object.
and perform different function, their internal structure
is similar.
Types of teeth and their functions in
Parts of the tooth mammals
Crown: This is the part that projects above the gum . Teeth in mammals come in four different types –
incisors, canines, premolars and molars.

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Incisors Set of teeth in humans
These are the two pairs of teeth found in the front part Mammals have two sets of teeth in their lifetime. The
of each jaw. first set of 20 teeth is called milk teeth and is found in
young humans. They are made up of incisors, canines
Features of incisors and premolars. These teeth fall out one by one in early
1. They are chisel shaped. life and are replaced by the permanent teeth. The last
2. They have broad, flat cutting edge for biting molar teeth in each jaw is called wisdom teeth because
and cutting food. they are the last to appear when the person is between
17 and 25 years old.
3. They have a single root.
Care of the teeth in humans
Canines
In order to prevent and control dental problems, it is
There are two canines next to the incisors.
important for us to take good care of the teeth. Lack of
proper care of the teeth results in dental caries (tooth
Features of canines decay) and periodontal disease.
1. They are bluntly pointed.
2. They are used for cutting and biting solid foods.
Dental caries (tooth decay) This is a dental condition
Premolars caused when bacteria feed on sugar and starch in the
These are found in either half of the jaws. mouth. Their enzymes react with the sugar and starch
and produce acid.
Features of premolars The acid reacts with calcium in the enamel and dentine
1. They have flat tops. and breaks down the enamel and dentine creating a hole
2. They have cusps (pointed ridges). in the tooth. Bacteria move on to feed on the pulp and
the sensitive nerve ending which causes toothache. At
3. They have one or two roots. the early stages, the tooth can be repaired.

Molars Causes of dental caries

They make the three final teeth on each half of each jaw. 1. Lack of hard food
2. Lack of vitamin D
Features of molars
3. Eating too much sugar
1. They have flat tops.
4. Lack of calcium
2. They have four or five cusps.
5. Improper cleaning of teeth
3. They have three roots (upper molars) and two
roots (lower molars).
Periodontal disease:
This is caused by the accumulation of food debris, saliva
The premolars and molars are collectively known as
and bacteria to form a hard thin coating on the surface
cheek teeth.
of the teeth called plaque. The plaque spreads down to
the gum causing the gum to swell, breed, recede and
give off bad breath. The recession of the gum causes the
teeth to fall out.

Causes of periodontal disease

1. Lack of vitamin A and C
2. Improper cleaning of teeth
3. Lack of massage of the gum

Ways of preventing dental problems

Fig. 9.9: Types of teeth in humans The following are necessary measures to prevent the
above diseases: 1. Cleaning the teeth regularly
2. Regular visit to the dentist
3. Eating food rich in minerals and vitamins

105
 4. Using the teeth properly; for example, not ❖ mucus which forms a protective inner lining to
using the teeth to open bottles or screws. the animal wall and
❖ rennin which solidifies liquid proteins so that
they will remain in the stomach for pepsin to work
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
on.
The contractions of the stomach wall muscles churn the
Digestive system is a network of organs and enzymes
food into chyme (a creamy-white mixture of food
which converts the complex food (i.e. carbohydrates,
substance). At this stage glucose and alcohol are
proteins, lipids etc) eaten into small and absorbable
absorbed from the food into the blood stream.
forms for the use of the body.

Or

Digestion is the breakdown of complex food

substances into simple, soluble and absorbable forms.

Structure and functions of the

digestive system of mammals
The digestive system of mammals is made up of the
gut or alimentary canal and other organs and glands.
The alimentary canal is a muscular tube made up of the
following parts:

Mouth
Digestion starts from the mouth, where food is chewed
with the teeth. Chewing (or mastication) breaks down
solid food into smaller particles. Salivary glands Fig. 10.0: Digestive system of man
produce saliva which:
❖ contains the an enzyme called saliva amylase Duodenum
that converts starch into maltose. The chyme from the stomach passes the pyrolic
❖ is slightly alkaline and keeps the pH of the sphincter into the duodenum where the hormone
mouth approximately neutral which help in the secretin is released into the bloodstream. Secretin then
action of saliva amylase. stimulates the gall bladder to release bile and the
❖ mixes with the food during chewing, making it pancreas to release pancreatic juice into the duodenum.
soft and easier to swallow.

Oesophagus Liver
A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. The liver is one important organ which is responsible for
Food passes down the oesophagus through contraction most chemical activities in the body.
and relaxation of the circular muscles of the gut. This
action is called peristalsis. Functions of the lever
1. Production of bile which emulsifies or breaks
The stomach down fats, converts glucose to glycogen, produces
The stomach is a sac-like organ that produces gastric urea (the main substance of urine), makes certain
juice which contains: amino acids (the building blocks of proteins).
❖ hydrochloric acid (sterilizes food, ends action 2. Filtration of harmful substances from the blood
of saliva amylase, provide acidic pH for action of (such as alcohol).
the enzyme 3. Storage of vitamins and minerals (vitamins A,
❖ pepsin which converts proteins to D, K and B12)
polypeptides,

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 4. Maintaining the proper level or glucose in the Ileum (small intestines)
blood. The digestion process ends in the ileum. The walls of
5. Production of cholesterol; it produces about ileum secrets:
80% of the cholesterol in the body ❖ lipase which converts all remaining fats into
6. Production of heat to the body through fatty acids and glycerol;
chemical activities. ❖ maltase which converts maltose to glucose;
7. Production of some proteins such as fibrinogen ❖ lactase which converts lactose to glucose and
in the blood plasma. galactose,
8. Destruction and stopping of hormones from ❖ sucrase which converts sucrose to glucose and
unlimited action. fructose,
9. Conversion of excess fats into glycerol and ❖ erepsin which converts peptides to amino acids
fatty acids. and
10. Excretion of excess cholesterol and old red ❖ enterokinase which converts trypsinogen to
blood cells from the body. trypsin.

Bile The small molecules of glucose, amino acids, fatty

acids, and glycerol are the end products of digestion in
Bile is alkaline and raises the pH of the chyme. It
mammals and are absorbed into the bloodstream by a
emulsifies fat by changing large fat globules into small
process known as diffusion.
fat droplets. Emulsification increases the surface area
of the fat making the digestion of fat by enzymes more
efficient.
The ileum contains thousands of microscopic
projections called villi (singular, villus), which increases
Pancreas
the surface area of the ileum and facilitates the
The pancreas secrets pancreatic juice which is alkaline
absorption process. Undigested food passes into the
and therefore raises the pH of the chyme. The pancreatic
colon.
juice contains
❖ amylase which converts starch to maltose, Colon (large intestines)
❖ trypsin which converts protein to peptides and The colon is responsible for the absorption of water
polypeptides and from the undigested food. It contains some bacteria
❖ lipase which converts fat to fatty acids and which digest the cellulose and produce vitamin B and K
glycerol. which are absorbed into the body. The remains of the
All these enzymes digest food as is passes though the undigested food pass on to become faeces.
duodenum into the ileum.

Table 3.8: Organs and enzymes of digestion

Secreted enzyme Enzyme action

Organ/ gland
Mouth (salivary glands) Salivary amylase Starch to maltose

Passage of food to
Oesophagus
stomach
• Pepsin • Polypeptides
• Rennin • Solidifies protein
Stomach
• Hydrochloric • sterilizes food; provide
acid acidic pH for action of the enzyme
Stimulates gall bladder to release
Duodenum Secretin bile and pancreas to release
pancreatic juice

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 Liver Bile Emulsifies starch
• Starch to maltose
• Amylase
• Protein to peptides and
Pancreas (pancreatic juice) • Trypsin
polypeptides
• Lipase
• Fatty acids to glycerol
• Lipase • Fats into fatty acids and
• Maltase glycerol
• Lactase • Maltose to glucose
Ileum • Sucrose • Lactose to glucose
• Erepsin • Sucrose to glucose
• Enterokinase • Peptides to amino acids
• Trypsinogen to trypsin
• Absorption of water from
Colon undigested food

Rectum Temporary storage for faeces

Rectum ❖ Pancreatic amylase secreted by the pancreas

The faeces move into the rectum, where they are stored converts starch into maltose sugar.
and released periodically through the anus. The removal ❖ In the ileum, the enzyme maltase converts
of food from the rectum is known as egestion. Not to be
maltose into glucose, which is the end-product of
confused with ingestion, which is the act of putting food
starch digestion.
into the mouth?

Digestion of proteins
DIGESTION IN MAMMALS ❖ Protein digestion starts in the stomach.
❖ Pepsin converts proteins to peptones.
The term digestion refers to the breakdown of complex ❖ HCl sterilizes it; it is churned to chime and
food into smaller form which can be absorbed by the sent to duodenum where the bile neutralizes
body. Digestion occurs as a result of chemical or it.
mechanical processes in the body. Digestion is very ❖ In the duodenum, the typsin which is
important because it allows the body to gain energy secreted by the pancreas converts peptones
through ingested food.
into amino acids.
Different food substances have different modes of
digestion.
Digestion of fats
❖ The digestion of fat starts in the duodenum.
Digestion of carbohydrates ❖ Gall bladder releases bile into the duodenum.
❖ Carbohydrate digestion starts in the ❖ Bile neutralizes and emulsifies the fat.
mouth. ❖ The enzyme lipase secreted by the pancreas
❖ Saliva contains ptyalin (salivary amylase) and the wall of the small intestines converts
which converts starch to maltose. emulsified fat into fatty acids and glycerol,
❖ In the stomach, HCl in gastric juice which is the end-product of fat digestion.
sterilizes the food.

Table 3.9: End-products of digestion

Food End-product
❖ The food is churned into liquid paste called Carbohydrates Glucose
chyme. Proteins Amino acids
❖ In the duodenum, the bile secreted by the liver Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
neutralizes the chime.

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Uses of Digested Food This occurs when faeces move through the colon too
The end-product of digestion is assimilated (taken up) quickly before water can be absorbed from them. This
by the cells in various parts of the body. Glucose and causes the faeces to come out in a more liquid form. It
others move into the blood by diffusion and enter the is caused by bacteria in the gut.
liver through the hepatic portal vein. In the liver excess Prevention of diarrhoea
glucose is converted to glycogen and stored. Some of Staying away from food for a short period will cause the
the monosaccharides enter body cells where they are bacteria to be driven away with the faeces. A lot of water
respired. should be drunk to prevent dehydration.

Amino acids are also assimilated into the liver though Stomach ulcer
the hepatic portal vein. Some enter the body cells where This is caused by an attack on the stomach wall by
they are used to form protein for growth, repair of excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach; this makes is
damaged and worn-out tissues and formation of sore.
enzymes and hormones. Excess amino acids are
excreted out of the body as urea. Prevention of stomach ulcer Eating at normal intervals
can prevent stomach ulcer.
Fatty acids and glycerol come together again to form
fats, which enters the lymph system before entering the Jaundice
bloodstream. They are stored as fat or respired to release Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a yellowish
energy. discoloration of the skin, the conjunctival membranes
over the sclerae (whites of the eyes), and other mucous
Assimilation is the process whereby digested food membranes caused by increased levels of bilirubin in the
substances are absorbed into the bloodstream. blood.

Treatment
Infected persons must seek medical attention
DISEASES AND DISORDERS immediately.
ASSOCIATED WITH THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF Cirrhosis
HUMANS Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver slowly
deteriorates and malfunctions due to chronic injury. Scar
Constipation tissue replaces healthy liver tissue, partially blocking
This is caused by not going to the toilet regularly. the flow of blood through the liver. Scarring also impairs
Faeces overstay in the rectum and more water is the liver‘s ability to: ❖ control infections
absorbed from them. This hardens and dries it making ❖ remove bacteria and toxins from the blood
it difficult to pass out. Constipation is also caused by ❖ process nutrients, hormones, and drugs
adequate chewing of food. ❖ make proteins that regulate blood clotting
❖ produce bile to help absorb fats— including
Prevention of constipation Constipation can be cholesterol—and fat-soluble vitamins
prevented by including roughage in the diet, chewing
food properly and visiting the toilet regularly. A healthy liver is able to regenerate most of its own cells
when they become damaged. With end-stage cirrhosis,
Indigestion the liver can no longer effectively replace damaged
Indigestion is caused by eating too quickly. This causes cells. A healthy liver is necessary for survival.
the gastric juice to produce excess acid. The acid climbs Cirrhosis is caused by heavy alcohol consumption,
up the oesophagus, when a person belches. This gives a obesity, hepatitis B, C and D, drug and toxins
burning sensation in the heart (heartburns). Many people with cirrhosis have no symptoms at the
Prevention of indigestion Slowing down the rate and early stages of the disease. However, as the disease
speed of eating can prevent indigestion. progresses, a person may experience the following
symptoms: 1. weakness
Diarrhoea 2. fatigue
3. loss of appetite
4. nausea

109
 5. vomiting alcohol, certain medications and plants), other
6. weight loss infections and autoimmune diseases.
7. abdominal pain and bloating when fluid
accumulates in the abdomen Treatment and prevention
8. itching Reducing the intake of alcohol, eating nutritious food
9. spiderlike blood vessels on the skin Treatment and not doing drug may help prevent hepatitis. If
and prevention Medical attention is necessary if infected by hepatitis, it is advisable to seek medical
infected with cirrhosis. It is also advisable not to attention.
drink or engage in drugs. Nutritious food must be
eaten always. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF
RUMINANTS
Hepatitis
Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies inflammation of
Ruminants are mammals which have a stomach
the liver characterized by the presence of inflammatory
system consisting of four chambers.
cells in the tissue of the organ. A group of viruses known
as the hepatitis viruses cause most cases of hepatitis
The stomach system are rumen, reticulum, omasum and
worldwide, but it can also be due to toxins (notably
abomasums.

Rumen Abomasum
This is the first and largest chamber. Swallowed food This is also known as the true stomach of a ruminant.
enters this chamber where it is fermented by anaerobic Gastric secretion in the abomasum digests the proteins
bacteria which breakdown the cellulose. in the food. Chyme is formed which moves on to the
duodenum
Reticulum
When the food reaches the reticulum, it is regurgitated Digestion in birds
(brought back to the mouth) and chewed again. Food in The stomach of birds is divided into two – crop and
the reticulum is known as cud. gizzard. Food is stored in the crop and ground up in the
gizzard with the aid of small stones, before it is passed
Omasum into the intestines.
Much of the water in the cud is reabsorbed in the
omasum.

110
 III, IV, V and VI (ii) State one
function each of the parts labelled I,
V and VI.
(b) (i) Name two farm animals
that possess the digestive system
illustrated .
(ii) What is the general name given to the
farm animal in (i)?
(c) (i) Name one parasite that
affect the part labelled IV. (ii) State
two ways of controlling the parasite
named in (i).
Fig. 10.2: Digestive system of a bird

7. (a) State
TEST QUESTIONS (i) two causes of tooth decay. (ii)
two ways of preventin tooth decay.
1. (a) What is dentition?
(b) List three characteristics of the following 8. Fig. 3 below is an illustration of the human
types of dentition: body.
i. dentition of a carnivore. ii. dentition Study the figure carefully and answer the
of a herbivore. questions that follow.
iii. dentition of an omnivore.

2. State three causes of dental problems and three

ways of preventing them.
3. Describe the digestive system of a mammal.
4. The diagram below is a longitudinal section of
through a molar tooth.

E
AF
G H

B
CI
J
D

K
i. Name the parts labeled A-K. ii What is
the function the tooth?
iii. What is the function of the parts labeled E, G
and H.

5. Explain three diseases associated with the

digestive system of humans.

(a) (i) Name the parts labelled I,

II,

111
6. Fig. 5 is an illustration of the digestive
system of a farm animal.

Study the figure carefully and answer

the questions that follow.

a) Identify the part of the human body i) liver ii pancreas.

illustrated. (b) Describe the process of fat digestion in
b) Name the parts labelled I, II, III, IV, V, VI, humans.
VII, VIII, IX and X.
c) Describe the digestive process that occurs 11. Fig. 2 below is an illustration of two types of
in VI. upper jaws, A and B of two group of mammals.
Study the figure carefully and answer the questions
d) i) List two enzymes secreted by the part
that follow.
labelled II.
ii) State one function of each of the two
enzymes you have listed in (d)(i) above.

9. Figure 3 is an illustration of different types of teeth.

Study the figure carefully and answer the questions
that follow.

Fig. 2

a) Name the group of mammals which possess

upper jaw type A and upper jaw type B
a) Identify each of the types of teeth respectively.
illustrated.
b)Describe the structure of tooth C.
c) Give three structural differences between
tooth A and tooth B.
d)State one function of each type of teeth.
e) i) Name the group of animals which possess
all the types of teeth illustrated in figure 3.
ii) Support your answer with reasons.

10. a) State two functions of each of the following

organs associated with digestion:

112
113